Izimfihlo, Isayensi, kanye Nombuso Kazwelonke Okuthiwa Wezokuphepha

Ibhalwe nguCliff Conner, Isayensi Yabantu, Ngo-Ephreli 12, i-2023

Inkulumo ethi "izwe lokuphepha kazwelonke" isijwayele ukujwayeleka njengendlela yokubonisa iqiniso lezombusazwe lase-United States namuhla. Kusho ukuthi isidingo sokugcina esiyingozi imfihlo yolwazi isiwumsebenzi obalulekile wamandla abusayo. Amagama ngokwawo angase abonakale eyisithunzi nje, kodwa izinhlaka zesikhungo, imibono, kanye nezomthetho zisho ukuthi ziphazamisa kakhulu izimpilo zawo wonke umuntu emhlabeni. Khonamanjalo, umzamo wokugcina izimfihlo zombuso emphakathini uhambisane nokuhlasela okuhleliwe kobumfihlo bomuntu ngamunye ukuvimbela isakhamuzi ekugcineni izimfihlo ezivela kuhulumeni.

Asikwazi ukuqonda izimo zethu zezombusazwe zamanje ngaphandle kokwazi umsuka nokuthuthukiswa kwezinsiza zobumfihlo zombuso wase-US. Kube—ngokwengxenye enkulu—isahluko esiphinde sahlelwa kabusha ezincwadini zomlando waseMelika, ukushoda isazi-mlando u-Alex Wellerstein aye wazimisela ukukulungisa ngesibindi nangekhono. Idatha Ekhawulelwe: Umlando Wemfihlo Yenuzi e-United States.

Okukhethekile kukaWellerstein kwezemfundo umlando wesayensi. Lokho kuyafaneleka ngoba ulwazi oluyingozi olwakhiqizwa ongoti befiziksi yenuzi eManhattan Project phakathi neMpi Yezwe Yesibili bekufanele luphathwe ngokuyimfihlo kunanoma yiluphi ulwazi lwangaphambilini.¹

Umphakathi waseMelika ukuvumele kanjani ukukhula kwezimfihlo ezikhungweni zibe ngezilinganiso ezimbi kangaka? Isinyathelo esisodwa ngesikhathi, futhi isinyathelo sokuqala salungiswa njengoba kudingekile ukuze kuvinjwe iJalimane lobuNazi ekukhiqizeni isikhali senuzi. “Kwakuyizimfihlo eziphelele, zesayensi ibhomu leathomu elibonakala liyifuna” okwenza umlando wakuqala wesimo sesimanje sokuphepha kazwelonke ube umlando wezimfihlo ze-nuclear physics (ikhasi 3).

Inkulumo ethi "Idatha Ekhawulelwe" kwakuyitemu lokuqala lokubamba lezimfihlo zenuzi. Kwakufanele zigcinwe zifihlwe ngokuphelele kangangokuthi ngisho nokuba khona kwazo kwakungafanele kuvunywe, okusho ukuthi kwakudingeka inkulumo-mpikiswano efana nokuthi “Idatha Ekhawulelwe” ukuze kufihlwe okuqukethwe kwazo.

Ubudlelwano phakathi kwesayensi nomphakathi obuvezwa yilo mlando buyahambisana futhi buqinisana. Ngokungeziwe ekuboniseni ukuthi isayensi eyimfihlo ibe nomthelela kanjani ekuhlelekeni komphakathi, iphinde ibonise ukuthi izwe lokuphepha likazwelonke likulolonge kanjani ukuthuthukiswa kwesayensi e-United States eminyakeni engamashumi ayisishiyagalombili edlule. Lokho akubanga intuthuko enempilo; kuye kwaphumela ekubekeni phansi kwesayensi yaseMelika emkhankasweni onganeliseki wokubusa kwezempi kwembulunga yonke.

Kungenzeka Kanjani Ukubhala Umlando Oyimfihlo Wokuyimfihlo?

Uma kunezimfihlo okufanele zigcinwe, ubani ovunyelwe ukuba “phakathi kwazo”? U-Alex Wellerstein wayengenjalo. Lokhu kungase kubonakale kuyindida engenza uphenyo lwakhe zisuka nje. Ngabe isazi somlando esivinjwe ukubona izimfihlo okusuke kuphenywa ngaso singasho lutho?

UWellerstein uyavuma “imingcele ekhona ekuzameni ukubhala umlando onombhalo ogciniwe ovame ukulungiswa kakhulu.” Noma kunjalo, “akakaze afune noma afise imvume engokomthetho yezokuphepha.” Uyanezela, ukuba nemvume, kunenani elilinganiselwe, futhi kunikeza uhulumeni ilungelo lokuhlola lokho okushicilelwe. “Uma ngingakwazi ukutshela muntu engikwaziyo, kusiza ngani ukwazi?” (ikhasi 9). Eqinisweni, njengoba kunenqwaba yokwaziswa okungahleliwe okutholakalayo, njengoba umthombo obanzi kakhulu uphawula encwadini yakhe ufakaza, uWellerstein uyaphumelela ekunikezeni ukulandisa okunemininingwane okutusekayo nokubanzi komsuka wezimfihlo zenuzi.

Izikhathi Ezintathu Zomlando Wokuyimfihlo Kwenuzi

Ukuchaza ukuthi sisuka kanjani e-United States lapho bezingekho nhlobo izinto ezisetshenziswayo eziyimfihlo—zingekho izigaba zolwazi “Zokuyimfihlo,” “Imfihlo,” noma “Imfihlo Ephezulu” ezivikelwe ngokomthetho—kuya esimweni sokuphepha sezwe esigcwele yonke indawo namuhla, U-Wellerstein uchaza izikhathi ezintathu. Esokuqala sasisuka eManhattan Project phakathi neMpi Yezwe Yesibili kuya ekuqubukeni kweMpi Yomshoshaphansi; esesibili sanwetshwa ngeMpi Yomshoshaphansi enkulu kwaze kwaba phakathi nawo-1960; kanti eyesithathu yayisuka eMpini yaseVietnam kuze kube manje.

Inkathi yokuqala yayibonakala ngokungaqiniseki, impikiswano, nokuhlola. Nakuba izinkulumo-mpikiswano ngaleso sikhathi zazivame ukucashile futhi ziyinkimbinkimbi, umzabalazo wokuba yimfihlo kusukela ngaleso sikhathi kuye phambili ungase uthathwe ngokuthi yi-bipolar, nemibono emibili ephikisanayo ichazwe ngokuthi

umbono “wengqondo” (“othandekayo kososayensi”) wokuthi umsebenzi wesayensi wawudinga ukucwaninga okuhlosiwe kwemvelo nokusabalalisa ulwazi ngaphandle kokuvinjelwa, kanye nombono “wezempi noma wobuzwe,” owawubambe ukuthi izimpi zesikhathi esizayo zazingenakugwenywa nokuthi kwakunjalo. umsebenzi we-United States ukugcina isikhundla sezempi esiqine kakhulu (ikhasi 85).

Isexwayiso se-Spoiler: Izinqubomgomo "zezempi noma ezobuzwe" zagcina ziphumelele, futhi lowo umlando wezwe lokuphepha likazwelonke ngamafuphi.

Ngaphambi kweMpi Yezwe Yesibili, umbono wokugcinwa kwezimfihlo zesayensi obekwe umbuso wawungaba nzima kakhulu ukuthengisa, kososayensi kanye nasemphakathini. Ososayensi besaba ukuthi ngaphezu kokuphazamisa inqubekelaphambili yocwaningo lwabo, ukubeka izimpumputhe zikahulumeni kwezesayensi kwakuyoveza abavoti abangenalwazi ngokwesayensi nenkulumo yeningi egcwele ukuqagela, ukukhathazeka nokwesaba. Nokho, izinkambiso ezingokwesiko zokuvuleleka nokubambisana okungokwesayensi zanqotshwa ukwesaba okukhulu kwebhomu lenuzi lamaNazi.

Ukunqotshwa kwamandla e-Axis ngo-1945 kwaletha ukuguqulwa kwenqubomgomo maqondana nesitha esiyinhloko okwakuzogcinwa kuso izimfihlo zenuzi. Esikhundleni seJalimane, isitha kusukela ngaleso sikhathi sasizoba umlingani wangaphambili, iSoviet Union. Lokho kwadala isiphithiphithi esikhulu sokulwa nobukhomanisi beMpi Yomshoshaphansi, futhi umphumela kwaba ukuphoqelelwa kwesistimu enkulu yezimfihlo ezimisiwe ekusebenzeni kwesayensi e-United States.

Namuhla, uWellerstein uyaphawula, “eminyakeni engaphezu kwamashumi ayisikhombisa ngemva kokuphela kweMpi Yezwe II, namashumi amathathu eminyaka selokhu kwawa iSoviet Union,” sithola ukuthi “izikhali zenuzi, izimfihlo zenuzi, nokwesaba kwenuzi kubonisa konke ukubukeka njengezinto ezihlala njalo. ingxenye yomhlaba wethu wamanje, kangangokuthi kwabaningi cishe akunakwenzeka ukukucabanga ngenye indlela” (ikhasi 3). Kodwa Kanjani ngabe lokhu kwenzeka? Izinkathi ezintathu ezishiwo ngenhla zinikeza uhlaka lwendaba.

Inhloso eyinhloko yezinsiza zobumfihlo zanamuhla ukufihla ubukhulu kanye nobubanzi "bezimpi zaphakade" zase-US kanye nobugebengu obubhekiswe esintwini obuhlanganisayo.

Esikhathini sokuqala, isidingo sokugcinwa kwezimfihlo zenuzi “ekuqaleni sasakazwa ososayensi ababebheka inhlamba eyimfihlo ezithakazelweni zabo.” Imizamo yokuqala yokuzihlola “yashintsha, ngokumangazayo, yaba ohlelweni lukahulumeni lokulawula ukushicilelwa kwesayensi, futhi kusukela lapho yangena ekulawuleni kukahulumeni cishe. konke ulwazi oluphathelene nocwaningo lwe-athomu.” Kwakuyindaba yakudala ye-naïveté yezepolitiki kanye nemiphumela ebingalindelekile. “Lapho izazi ze-nuclear physics ziqala ukubiza kwazo imfihlo, zazicabanga ukuthi kwakuzoba okwesikhashana, futhi zilawulwe yibona. Babenephutha” (ikhasi 15).

Umqondo wezempi we-troglodyte wawucabanga ukuthi ukuphepha kungafinyelelwa ngokubeka yonke imininingwane yenuzi ebhaliwe ngaphansi kokukhiywa kanye nezijeziso ezisabisayo ezisabisayo kunoma ubani onesibindi sokukudalula, kodwa ukuntuleka kwaleyo ndlela kwabonakala ngokushesha. Okubaluleke kakhulu, “imfihlo” ebalulekile yokuthi lenziwa kanjani ibhomu le-athomu kwakuyindaba yezimiso eziyisisekelo ze-theoretical physics ezazivele yaziwa emhlabeni wonke noma zitholakala kalula.

Lapho kwaba ucezu olulodwa olubalulekile lolwazi olungaziwa—“imfihlo” yangempela—ngaphambi kuka-1945: ukuthi ukukhululwa okucatshangelwayo kokuqhuma kwamandla nge-nuclear fission kungenziwa ngempela yini ukusebenza ngokuqhubekayo. Ukuhlolwa kwe-athomu kaZiqu-zintathu kwango-July 16, 1945 eLos Alamos, eNew Mexico, kwanikeza umhlaba lemfihlo, futhi noma yikuphi ukungabaza okwakuqhubeka kwasulwa emasontweni amathathu kamuva ngokuqothulwa kweHiroshima neNagasaki. Lapho lowo mbuzo usuxazululiwe, isimo esibi sase senzeke: Noma yisiphi isizwe eMhlabeni singakha ibhomu le-athomu elikwazi ukucekela phansi noma yiliphi idolobha eMhlabeni ngokushaya okukodwa.

Kodwa empeleni kwakungeyona into efanayo. Ukuba nemfihlo yendlela yokwenza amabhomu e-athomu kwakunganele. Ukwakha ibhomu elingokoqobo kwakudinga i-uranium eluhlaza kanye nezindlela zezimboni zokuhlanza amathani ayo amaningi abe yizinto ezihlukanisekayo. Ngakho-ke, omunye umcabango wawuthi isihluthulelo sokuphepha kwenuzi sasingekona ukugcina ulwazi luyimfihlo, kodwa ukuthola nokugcina ukulawula ngokomzimba phezu kwemithombo ye-uranium yomhlaba wonke. Lelo su lezinto ezibonakalayo noma imizamo eyinhlekelele yokucindezela ukusakazeka kolwazi lwesayensi ayizange isebenze ekulondolozeni umbuso wezikhali zenuzi wase-US isikhathi eside.

Ukubusa kwathatha iminyaka emine kuphela, kwaze kwaba ngo-August 1949, lapho iSoviet Union iqhumisa ibhomu layo lokuqala le-athomu. Amasosha kanye namadlelandawonye awo eCongress asola izinhloli—okudabukisa kakhulu futhi okudabukisayo, uJulius no-Ethel Rosenberg—ngokweba imfihlo futhi bayinikeza i-USSR. Nakuba lokho kwakuwukulandisa okungamanga, ngeshwa kwazuza ukubusa engxoxweni kazwelonke futhi kwavula indlela yokukhula okungenakuvinjelwa kombuso wezokuvikela wezwe.²

Esiwombeni sesibili, ukulandisa kushintshe ngokuphelele ohlangothini lweCold Warriors, njengoba umphakathi waseMelika unqotshwe yiReds-Under-the-Bed obsessions yeMcCarthyism. Izibalo zaphakanyiswa ngokuphindwe kaningi njengoba inkulumo-mpikiswano isuka ekubeni i-fission yaya ekuhlanganiseni. Njengoba iSoviet Union ikwazile ukukhiqiza amabhomu enuzi, indaba yaba ukuthi i-United States kufanele siphishekele isifiso sesayensi “sobhomu olukhulu”—okusho ibhomu le-thermonuclear, noma i-hydrogen. Iningi lezazi ze-nuclear physics, okuholwa ngu-J. Robert Oppenheimer, zawuphikisa kakhulu lo mbono, zithi ibhomu le-thermonuclear ngeke lisebenziseke njengesikhali sokulwa futhi lingafeza kuphela izinjongo zokuqothula uhlanga.

Kodwa-ke, futhi, izimpikiswano zabeluleki besayensi abashisa kakhulu, okuhlanganisa u-Edward Teller no-Ernest O. Lawrence, zanqoba, futhi uMongameli Truman wayala ukuthi ucwaningo lwebhomu elikhulu luqhubeke. Ngokudabukisayo, kwaphumelela ngokwesayensi. Ngo-November 1952, i-United States yakhiqiza ukuqhuma okuxubile okuphindwe izikhathi ezingamakhulu ayisikhombisa kunalokho okwabhubhisa iHiroshima, futhi ngo-November 1955 iSoviet Union yabonisa ukuthi nayo, ingasabela ngendlela efanayo. Umjaho wezikhali ze-thermonuclear ubuqhubeka.

Inkathi yesithathu yalo mlando yaqala ngeminyaka yawo-1960, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yokuvuka komphakathi okubanzi ekuhlukunyezweni nasekusetshenzisweni kabi kolwazi oluhlukanisiwe phakathi nempi yase-US eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia. Lesi kwakuyinkathi yokuhlehla komphakathi ngokumelene nokusungulwa kwezimfihlo. Ikhiqize ukunqoba okungatheni, okuhlanganisa nokushicilelwa kwe The Ama-Pentagon Amaphepha kanye nokuphasiswa koMthetho Wenkululeko Yolwazi.

Lezi zivumelwano, nokho, zehlulekile ukwanelisa abagxeki bemfihlo yombuso futhi kwaholela “enguqulweni entsha yomkhuba wokulwa nezimfihlo,” lapho abagxeki bashicilela khona ngamabomu ukwaziswa okuhlotshiswe kakhulu ngokuthi “uhlobo lwesenzo sezombangazwe,” futhi bacela iziqinisekiso zeSichibiyelo Sokuqala. enkululekweni yokunyathelisa “njengesikhali esinamandla esimelene nezikhungo zokugcinwa kwezimfihlo zomthetho” (ikhasi 336–337).

Izishoshovu ezinesibindi ezimelene nezimfihlo zanqoba ezinye izinqola ezithile, kodwa ngokuhamba kwesikhathi isimo sezokuphepha kazwelonke sagcwala yonke indawo futhi sasingaphenduli kunangaphambili. Njengoba uWellerstein ekhononda, “kunemibuzo ejulile mayelana nokuba semthethweni kwezicelo zikahulumeni zokulawula ukwaziswa egameni lokuvikeleka kwezwe. . . . nokho, imfihlo iphikelele khona” (ikhasi 399).

Ngaphandle kweWellerstein

Nakuba umlando ka-Wellerstein wokuzalwa kombuso wezokuphepha wezwe uphelele, ubanzi, futhi unonembeza, ngokudabukisayo ufika kafushane ekulandiseni kwawo kokuthi sifike kanjani enkingeni yethu yamanje. Ngemva kokubona ukuthi abaphathi baka-Obama, “okwadumaza abaningi babasekeli babo,” “babengomunye wabamangalelwa kakhulu uma kushushiswa abaputshuzi nabashaya amakhwela,” kubhala u-Wellerstein, “ngimanqika ukuzama ukwelula lokhu kulandisa. leli phuzu” (ikhasi 394).

Ukudlulela ngale kwalelo qophelo bekuzomenza adlulele kulokho okwamukelekayo manje enkulumweni yeningi evamile. Ukubuyekezwa kwamanje sekuvele kungenile kule ndawo ngokugxeka i-United States's insenetiseki yokubusa kwezempi emhlabeni jikelele. Ukuqhubekisela phambili lolu phenyo kuzodinga ukucutshungulwa okujulile kwezici eziyimfihlo uWellerstein azisho edlula kuphela, okuyizambulo zika-Edward Snowden mayelana ne-National Security Agency (NSA), futhi ngaphezu kwakho konke, i-WikiLeaks kanye necala likaJulian Assange.

Amazwi Aphikisana Nezenzo

Isinyathelo esikhulu kunazo zonke esingale kuka-Wellerstein emlandweni wezimfihlo ezisemthethweni sidinga ukuqaphela umehluko omkhulu phakathi “kwemfihlo yegama” kanye “nemfihlo yesenzo.” Ngokugxila emibhalweni ehlukanisiwe, u-Wellerstein unikeza amalungelo alotshiwe futhi ashaye indiva iqiniso elinyantisayo lombuso wezokuphepha kazwelonke owazi konke osekugcwele izimfihlo zikahulumeni.

Ukuhlehla komphakathi ngokumelene nezimfihlo ezisemthethweni uWellerstein akuchazayo kube yimpi yamazwi ehlangothini olulodwa ngokumelene nezenzo. Ngaso sonke isikhathi lapho kwembulwa ukwephulwa okukhulu kokuthenjwa komphakathi-kusuka ohlelweni lwe-FBI lwe-COINTELPRO kuya ekudaluleni kuka-Snowden kwe-NSA-izinhlangano ezinecala zilethe umphakathi. mea Culpa futhi ngokushesha babuyela ebhizinisini labo eliyimfihlo eliyimfihlo njengenjwayelo.

Khonamanjalo, “imfihlo yesenzo” sombuso wezokuphepha kuzwelonke kuqhubekile nokungajeziswa okubonakalayo. Impi yasemoyeni yase-US eLaos kusukela ngo-1964 kuya ku-1973—lapho amathani ayizigidi ezimbili nengxenye eziqhumane ajikijelwa khona ezweni elincane, elimpofu—yabizwa ngokuthi “impi eyimfihlo” kanye “nesenzo esicashile esikhulu kunazo zonke emlandweni waseMelika,” ngoba akwenziwanga yi-US Air Force, kodwa yiCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA).³ Leso kwakuyisinyathelo sokuqala esikhulu ubuhlakani bezempi, manje eseyenza ngokujwayelekile imisebenzi yamasosha ayimfihlo kanye neziteleka zama-drone ezingxenyeni eziningi zomhlaba.

I-United States iqhume ngamabhomu izinhloso zabantu; enze ukuhlasela lapho izingane ziboshwe izandla nezandla zadutshulwa ekhanda, zabe sezibiza isiteleka somoya ukuze kufihlwe lesi senzo; wadubula izakhamuzi nezintatheli; kutshalwe amayunithi “abamnyama” amabutho akhethekile ukuze abambe futhi abulale ngokungemthetho.

Ngokuvamile, inhloso eyinhloko yezinsiza zobumfihlo zanamuhla ukufihla ubukhulu nobubanzi bezimpi zaphakade zase-US kanye nobugebengu obubhekiswe esintwini obuhlanganisayo. Ngokusho kwe New York Times ngo-Okthoba 2017, amasosha angaphezu kuka-240,000 ase-US amiswe okungenani emazweni nasezifundeni ze-172 emhlabeni jikelele. Umsebenzi wabo omningi, kuhlanganise nokulwa, wawuyimfihlo ngokusemthethweni. Amasosha aseMelika “ayezibambele mathupha” hhayi e-Afghanistan, e-Iraq, eYemen naseSyria kuphela, kodwa naseNiger, eSomalia, eJordani, eThailand nakwezinye izindawo. “Amasosha engeziwe angu-37,813 XNUMX asebenza ezabelweni okungenzeka ziyimfihlo ezindaweni ezisohlwini ‘njengezaziwa.’ IPentagon ayizange inikeze enye incazelo. ”⁴

Uma izikhungo zezimfihlo zikahulumeni bezizivikela ekuqaleni kwekhulunyaka lamashumi amabili nanye, ukuhlasela kuka-9/11 kwabanika zonke izikhali ababezidinga ukuze babuyise abagxeki babo futhi benze izwe lezokuphepha likazwelonke libe yimfihlo futhi lingaphenduli. Uhlelo lwezinkantolo zokugada ezicashile ezaziwa ngokuthi yi-FISA (Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act) bezikhona futhi zisebenza ngesisekelo sohlaka lomthetho oluyimfihlo kusukela ngo-1978. Nokho, ngemva kuka-9/11, amandla nokufinyelela kwezinkantolo ze-FISA kwakhula. ngokucacile. Intatheli engumseshi yabachaza ngokuthi “bacishe baba iNkantolo Ephakeme ngokuthula.”⁵

Nakuba i-NSA, i-CIA, kanye nawo wonke umphakathi wezobunhloli bethola izindlela zokuqhubeka nezenzo zabo zalasha naphezu kokuvezwa kaningi kwamagama abazama ukuwafihla, lokho akusho ukuthi izambulo—kungaba ngokuvuza, ngokushaya ikhwelo, noma ngokukhishwa kwezigaba—ziyizembulo. akunamphumela. Banomthelela okhulayo wezepolitiki abenzi benqubomgomo abafisa kakhulu ukuwucindezela. Umzabalazo oqhubekayo ubalulekile.

WikiLeaks noJulian Assange

UWellerstein ubhala “ngohlobo olusha lwesishoshovu . . . owabona izimfihlo zikahulumeni njengobubi okufanele buphonselwe inselelo futhi busishulwe,” kodwa akasho lutho ngokubonakaliswa okunamandla nokuphumelelayo kwalowo mkhuba: WikiLeaks. I-WikiLeaks yasungulwa ngo-2006 futhi ku-2010 yashicilela ngaphezu kwezinkulungwane ze-75 zezempi eziyimfihlo nezokuxhumana mayelana nempi yase-US e-Afghanistan, futhi cishe izinkulungwane ezingamakhulu amane ngempi yase-US e-Iraq.

Ukudalulwa kwe-WikiLeaks ngenqwaba yobugebengu obubhekiswe esintwini kulezo zimpi kwakumangalisa futhi kulimaza kakhulu. Izintambo zokusebenzelana eziputshuziwe zazinamagama ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezimbili okwakunganyatheliswa ngawo abe imiqulu elinganiselwa ezinkulungwaneni ezingu-30.⁶ Kuwo safunda “ukuthi i-United States iye yaqhumisa amabhomu ezindaweni ezihloselwe umphakathi; enze ukuhlasela lapho izingane ziboshwe izandla nezandla zadutshulwa ekhanda, zabe sezibiza isiteleka somoya ukuze kufihlwe lesi senzo; wadubula izakhamuzi nezintatheli; kutshalwe amayunithi 'abamnyama' amabutho akhethekile ukuze abambe futhi abulale ngokungemthetho,” futhi, ngokudabukisayo, nokunye okuningi.⁷

I-Pentagon, i-CIA, i-NSA, kanye noMnyango Wezwe LaseMelika bashaqekile futhi bashaqeka ngokuphumelela kwe-WikiLeaks ekuvezeni ubugebengu babo bempi ukuze bubonwe umhlaba. Akumangazi ukuthi bafuna ngentshiseko ukubethela umsunguli we-WikiLeaks, u-Julian Assange, njengesibonelo esesabekayo sokwesabisa noma ubani ongafuna ukumlingisa. Abaphathi baka-Obama abazange bavulele u-Assange amacala obugebengu ngenxa yokwesaba ukubeka isibonelo esiyingozi, kodwa i-Trump Administration yammangalela ngaphansi kwe-Espionage Act ngamacala aphethe isigwebo seminyaka engu-175 ejele.

Ngenkathi uBiden ethatha izintambo ngoJanuwari 2021, abavikeli abaningi beSichibiyelo Sokuqala bacabanga ukuthi uzolandela isibonelo sika-Obama futhi awachithe amacala u-Assange, kodwa akazange. Ngo-Okthoba 2021, umfelandawonye wenkululeko yabezindaba ezingamashumi amabili nanhlanu, inkululeko yomphakathi, kanye nezinhlangano zamalungelo abantu zathumela incwadi ku-Attorney General uMerrick Garland inxusa uMnyango Wezobulungiswa ukuthi uyeke imizamo yawo yokushushisa u-Assange. Bathi icala lobugebengu abekwe lona “liwusongo olukhulu lwenkululeko yokucindezela e-United States nakwamanye amazwe.”⁸

Isimiso esibalulekile esisengozini ukuthi ukwenza kube yicala ukushicilelwa kwezimfihlo zikahulumeni akuhambisani nokuba khona komshini wokunyathelisa wamahhala. Lokho u-Assange asolwa ngakho ngokomthetho akuhlukaniseki ezenzweni New York Times, lo Washington Post, kanye nabanye abashicileli bezindaba abaningi abasebenze ngokujwayelekile.⁹ Iphuzu akukhona ukugcizelela inkululeko yabezindaba njengesici esimisiwe seMelika ekhululekile ngokukhethekile, kodwa ukuyibona njengento ebalulekile yomphakathi okufanele ihlale ilwelwa.

Bonke abavikeli bamalungelo abantu kanye nenkululeko yabezindaba kufanele bafune ukuthi amacala abekwe u-Assange ahoxiswe ngokushesha, futhi akhishwe ejele ngaphandle kokulibala. Uma u-Assange engashushiswa futhi aboshwe ngenxa yokushicilela ulwazi oluyiqiniso—“imfihlo” noma cha—amalahle okugcina acwebezelayo omshini wokunyathelisa wamahhala azocishwa futhi umbuso wezokuphepha wezwe uzobusa ngaphandle kokuphikiswa.

Ukukhulula u-Assange, nokho, kuyimpi ecindezela kakhulu emzabalazweni waseSisyphean wokuvikela ubukhosi babantu ngokumelene nengcindezelo ebabazekayo yombuso wezokuphepha wezwe. Futhi kubaluleke njengokudalula ubugebengu bempi base-US, kufanele sihlose phezulu: uku ukuvimbela ngokwakha kabusha inhlangano enamandla yokulwa nempi njengaleyo eyaphoqa ukuthi kuqedwe ukuhlasela kobugebengu eVietnam.

Umlando kaWellerstein wemvelaphi yokusungulwa kwezimfihlo zase-US uligalelo elibalulekile empini yemibono emelene nayo, kodwa ukunqoba kokugcina kudinga—ukubeka ngamafuphi uWellerstein ngokwakhe, njengoba ecashunwe ngenhla—“ukwelula ukulandisa okudlulele ngale kwalelo phuzu,” ukuze kubandakanye umzabalazo uhlobo olusha lomphakathi oluhloselwe ukwanelisa izidingo zabantu.

Idatha Ekhawulelwe: Umlando Wemfihlo Yenuzi e-United States
U-Alex Wellerstein
Inyuvesi yaseChicago Press
2021
528 amakhasi

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UCliff Conner isazi-mlando sesayensi. Ungumbhali we Usizi Lwesayensi YaseMelika (Haymarket Books, 2020) kanye Umlando Wabantu Wesayensi (Izincwadi Zohlobo Olugqamile, 2005).

amanothi

1. Kuke kwaba nemizamo yangaphambilini yokuvikela izimfihlo zamasosha (bona i-Defence Secrets Act ka-1911 kanye ne-Espionage Act ka-1917), kodwa njengoba u-Wellerstein echaza, "zazingakaze zisetshenziswe kunoma yini enkulu njengoba umzamo webhomu leathomu laseMelika ubungaba" (ikhasi 33).
2. Kwakukhona izinhloli zaseSoviet eManhattan Project nangemva kwalokho, kodwa ubunhloli babo abuzange buqhubekisele phambili uhlelo lwezikhathi zohlelo lwezikhali zenuzi zaseSoviet.
3. Joshua Kurlanzick, Indawo Enhle Yokuba Nempi: IMelika eLaos kanye Nokuzalwa Kwe-CIA Yezempi (USimon & Schuster, 2017).
4. I-New York Times Editorial Board, "Izimpi Zaphakade ZaseMelika," New York Times, Okthoba 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/opinion/americas-forever-wars.html.
5. U-Eric Lichtblau, “Emfihlakalweni, Inkantolo Yandisa Kakhulu Amandla e-NSA,” New York Times, Julayi 6, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/07/us/in-secret-court-vastly-broadens-powers-of-nsa.html.
6. Noma yimaphi noma wonke lawo magama ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezimbili ayatholakala kuwebhusayithi yasesheka ye-WikiLeaks. Nasi isixhumanisi se-WikiLeaks' PlusD, okuyisifinyezo se-“Public Library of US Diplomacy”: https://wikileaks.org/plusd.
7. UJulian Assange et al., Amafayela e-WikiLeaks: Umhlaba Ngokuvumelana Ne-US Empire (London naseNew York: Verso, 2015), 74–75.
8. "Incwadi ye-ACLU eya eMnyangweni Wezobulungiswa wase-US," i-American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Okthoba 15, 2021. https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/assange_letter_on_letterhead.pdf; Bheka futhi incwadi evuliwe ehlangene evela The New York Times, The Guardian, Okwezwe, Isibuko, Futhi El País (Novemba 8, 2022) icela uhulumeni wase-US ukuthi asule amacala akhe u-Assange: https://www.nytco.com/press/an-open-letter-from-editors-and-publishers-publishing-is-not-a-crime/.
9. Njengoba isazi sezomthetho uMarjorie Cohn sichaza, “Ayikho imithombo yezindaba noma intatheli eyake yashushiswa ngaphansi koMthetho Wobunhloli ngokushicilela ukwaziswa okuyiqiniso, okuvikelwe umsebenzi Wokuchibiyela Wokuqala.” Uyanezela, Lelo lungelo “liyithuluzi elibalulekile lobuntatheli.” Bona UMarjorie Cohn, "U-Assange Ubhekene Nokwengezwa Ngokudalula Ubugebengu Bempi YaseMelika," Ngaphandle, Okthoba 11, 2020, https://truthout.org/articles/assange-faces-extradition-for-exposing-us-war-crimes/.