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Agusta 1. A kwanan nan a 1914, Harry Hodgkin, wani Birtaniya Quaker, da Friedrich Siegmund-Schulte, Fastocin Lutheran Jamus, sun tashi daga taron zaman lafiya a Konstanz, Jamus. Sun taru tare da 150 sauran Krista na Turai don shirya ayyukan da zasu iya taimakawa yakin basasa a Turai. Abin baƙin cikin shine, wannan fatan ya cika kwanaki huɗu da suka gabata ta hanyar fadan farko a abin da zai zama Yaƙin Duniya na ɗaya. Bayan barin taron, Hodgkin da Siegmund-Schulte sun yi wa juna alkawarin cewa za su ci gaba da shuka “ƙwayoyin zaman lafiya da soyayya, komai makomar hakan zai iya kawowa. ” Ga mutanen biyu, wannan jingina yana nufin fiye da sauƙin kauracewar shiga cikin yaƙi. Hakan na nufin sake samar da zaman lafiya tsakanin ƙasashensu biyu, ba tare da la'akari da manufofin gwamnatocinsu ba. Kafin shekarar ta fita, mutanen sun taimaka wajen kafa kungiyar wanzar da zaman lafiya a Cambridge, Ingila mai suna Fellowship of Reconciliation. A shekara ta 1919, kungiyar Cambridge ta zama wani ɓangare na Fellowungiyar ofasashen Duniya na Sulhu (wanda aka sani da IFOR), ”wanda a cikin shekaru ɗari masu zuwa ya haifar da rassa da ƙungiyoyi masu alaƙa a cikin kasashe sama da 50 na duniya. Ayyukan zaman lafiya da IFOR ke aiwatarwa sun samo asali ne a cikin hangen nesa cewa ƙauna ga ɗayan na da ikon canza tsarin siyasa, zamantakewar jama'a, da tattalin arziki mara adalci; saboda haka ayyukan sun himmatu ga sasanta rikice-rikicen cikin lumana, da neman adalci a matsayin tushen farko na zaman lafiya, da wargaza tsarin da ke haifar da kiyayya. IFOR kamfen din duniya yana hadewa ne da sakatariyar kasa da kasa a Netherlands. Har ila yau kungiyar tana aiki kafada da kafada da kungiyoyi masu zaman kansu masu ra’ayi iri daya kuma tana da wakilai na dindindin a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya.
Agusta 2. A wannan kwanan wata a cikin 1931, wasikar da Albert Einstein ya rubuta a wani taro da aka gudanar a Lyon, Faransa ta Yarjejeniya Ta Duniya ta Duniya, cibiyar sadarwa na antimilitarist da ƙungiyoyi masu sulhu da ke aiki tare domin duniya ba tare da yakin ba. A matsayinsa na babban masanin ilmin lissafi a lokacinsa, Einstein ya ci gaba da aikinsa na kimiyya tare da kwazo. Duk da haka, shi ma mai son zaman lafiya ne, wanda ke bin hanyar zaman lafiya a duk duniya. A cikin wasikar da ya aike wa taron na Lyon, Einstein ya yi kira ga “masana kimiyyar duniya da su ki ba da hadin kai a binciken kirkirar sabbin kayan yaki.” Ga masu gwagwarmaya, ya rubuta kai tsaye: “Mutanen ƙasashe 56 da kuke wakilta suna da ƙarfin da ya fi takobi…. Su da kansu ne kawai za su iya kawo kwance damara a wannan duniyar. ” Ya kuma gargadi wadanda suka shirya halartar taron kwance damarar yaki a Geneva a watan Fabrairu mai zuwa da “su ki ba da karin taimako ga yaki ko shirye-shiryen yaki.” Ga Einstein, waɗannan kalmomin ba da daɗewa ba zasu tabbatar da annabci. Taron kwance ɗamarar kwance ɗamarar ya zama ba komai-daidai saboda, a ganin Einstein, mahalarta taron sun ƙi bin gargaɗinsa don kada su magance batutuwan da suka shafi shirin yaƙi. "Ba wanda zai sa yaƙe-yaƙe ya kasance da yiwuwar faruwa ta hanyar ƙirƙirar ƙa'idojin yaƙi," in ji shi a wani taron manema labarai yayin wata gajeriyar ziyara a taron Geneva. “Ina ganin taron na kan hanya zuwa mummunan sasantawa. Duk wata yarjejeniya da aka yi game da nau'ikan makaman da aka halatta a cikin yaki zai karye da zaran an fara yaki. Ba za a iya yin yaƙi ba. Za a iya soke shi kawai. ”
Agusta 3. A wannan kwanan wata a 1882, majalisar dokokin Amurka ta wuce ƙasar doka ta farko ta ficewa. Dokar Shige da Fice na 1882 ta tsara kyakkyawan tsarin gaba na manufar Amurka ta hanyar kafa wasu nau'o'in 'yan kasashen waje waɗanda ake zaton "wanda ba a son shigawa." Da farko ne Sakataren Baitulmalin ya yi amfani da su tare da jihohi, Dokar ta haramta shigarwa da "kowane dan majalisa, ko da wani mutum da zai iya kulawa da kansa ba tare da ya zama sanadiyar jama'a ba. "Wadanda ba su iya nuna ikon kuɗin da suka dace don tallafa wa kansu sun koma ƙasarsu ba. Dokar ta yi, duk da haka, ta ba da izini ga masu ba da tallafin kudi na ƙetare da laifin cin zarafin siyasa, suna nuna ra'ayin Amurka na gargajiya na Amurka cewa ya kamata Amurka ta samar da wani masauki ga waɗanda aka tsananta. Duk da haka, daga baya lokuta da Dokar Shige da Fice ta zama da sauri sosai. A 1891, majalisa ta kafa kariya ta tarayya a kan shige da fice. A 1903, ya yi aiki don kawo karshen manufofin karɓar marasa gudun hijira waɗanda suka fuskanci azaba a gida don laifukan siyasa; a maimakon haka, ya haramta iznin shiga shige da 'yan adam "tsayayya da tsarin mulki." Tun daga wannan lokacin, dokar ta shige da fice ta kara yawan abubuwan da aka ƙi a bisa asali na asali, kuma ci gaba da nuna bambanci ga' yan gudun hijirar da ake tsammani zasu zama sanadiyar jama'a. Har ila yau, dokar ta ba da ainihin mafarkin "mace mai girma da fitilar" a New York Harbour wadda ta ce, "Ka ba ni gajiyarka, talakawa / jama'arka masu sha'awar numfasawa kyauta." Duk da haka, a kan "Gina Ginin "fushi da ƙararrakin da Siffar ta dauka fiye da karni bayan bayanan bayanan mutum, sakon sa na zama manufa na Amurka wanda ke nuna hanyar haɗin kai ga bil'adama da zaman lafiya a duniya.
Agusta 4. A wannan kwanan wata a 1912, wata majiya ta 2,700 ta Amurka ta mamaye Nicaragua, saukowa a tashar jiragen ruwa a bangarorin biyu na Pacific da Caribbean. Fuskantar tashin hankali a cikin ƙasar da take biye da manufofi na dabaru da na kasuwanci, Amurka ta yi niyyar sake kafawa da kula da gwamnati a Nicaragua wacce za ta dogara da shi. Shekarar da ta gabata, Amurka ta amince da gwamnatin haɗin gwiwa a Nicaragua ƙarƙashin jagorancin shugaban masu ra'ayin mazan jiya Jose Estrada. Wannan gwamnatin ta ba Amurka damar aiwatar da manufofi tare da Nicaragua da ake kira “dala don harsasai.” Ofaya daga cikin burinta shi ne lalata darajar kuɗin Turai a yankin, wanda za a iya amfani da shi don yin gasa tare da sha'awar kasuwancin Amurka. Wata kuma ita ce bude kofa ga bankunan Amurka su ba da rance ga gwamnatin Nicaraguan, don tabbatar da ikon Amurka kan harkokin kudin kasar. Bambancin siyasa a cikin kawancen Estrada ba da daɗewa ba, amma. Janar Luis Mena, wanda a matsayinsa na Ministan Yaƙi ya haɓaka ƙishin ƙasa, ya tilasta Estrada yin murabus, inda ya ɗaga mataimakinsa, mai ra'ayin mazan jiya Adolfo Diaz, zuwa shugaban. Lokacin da daga baya Mena ta yi tawaye ga gwamnatin Diaz, tana zargin shugaban da "sayar da kasar ga bankunan New York," Diaz ya nemi taimako daga Amurka wanda ya haifar da mamayar ta 4 ga watan Agusta kuma ya sa Mena ta tsere daga kasar. Bayan da aka sake zaban Diaz a zaben da Amurka ta sanyawa ido a cikin 1913 wanda masu sassaucin ra'ayi suka ki shiga, Amurka ta ci gaba da rike kananan rundunonin ruwa a Nicaragua har zuwa shekara ta 1933. Ga Nicaraguans masu burin samun 'yanci, Sojojin Ruwa sun kasance abin tunatarwa akai cewa Amurka ya kasance a shirye ya yi amfani da ƙarfi don ci gaba da bin gwamnatocin da ke bin Amurka.
Agusta 5. A wannan rana a 1963, Amurka, USSR, da Birtaniya sun sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyar dakatar da gwajin nukiliya a cikin yanayi. Shugaban kasar John F. Kennedy ya gudu zuwa mukamin ya yi alkawarin kawar da makaman nukiliya. Rahotanni na radiyo da aka samo a cikin albarkatun gona da madara a Arewacin Amurka da masana kimiyya a 1950 suka jagoranci su sun yanke hukunci akan sakon makaman nukiliya na WWII na matsayin mummunan guba na yanayi. Hukumar Kaddamar da Ƙunƙwasawa ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta bukaci a kawo ƙarshen dukan gwajin nukiliya, ta fara yin amfani da na'ura ta wucin gadi tsakanin US da Soviets daga 1958-61. Kennedy yayi kokarin dakatar da gwajin da ke gudana ta hanyar ganawa da Khrushchev na Soviet a 1961. Rashin barazanar bincikar binciken don tabbatar da wannan ban ya haifar da jin tsoro na leƙo asirin ƙasa, kuma gwajin Soviet ya ci gaba har sai Cuban missile Crisis ya kawo duniya zuwa ga makaman nukiliya. Dukansu bangarorin biyu sun yarda da yadda za su iya sadar da kai tsaye, kuma an kafa tashar hotuna ta Washington-Washington. Tattaunawa sun kawar da rikice-rikicen da ya haifar da kalubalen da Kennedy ya yi ga Khrushchev "ba ga makamai ba, amma ga zaman lafiya." Maganar su na gaba ta haifar da kayar da makamai daga wasu ƙasashe, da kuma yarjejeniyar yarjejeniyar tsabtace makaman nukiliya da ke ba da izinin ƙasa "tsawon lokaci saboda babu wani tarzomar radiyo da ke cikin iyakar kasar da ke gudanar da gwajin. "Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kulla yarjejeniya kan yarjejeniyar gwagwarmaya ta nukiliya ta 1996 ta haramta dukkanin, har ma da ƙasa, gwajin nukiliya. Kasashe saba'in da ɗaya, mafi yawancin ba tare da makaman ba, sun yarda cewa yaki da makaman nukiliya ba zai amfane kowa ba. Shugaba Bill Clinton ya rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar. Majalisar Dattijai ta Amurka, amma, a zaben 48-51, ya zaɓi ya ci gaba da tseren makaman nukiliya.
Agusta 6. A wannan rana a shekarar 1945 dan harin bam din nan na Amurka Enola Gay ya jefa bam din nukiliya mai tan biyar - daidai da tan 15,000 na TNT - a garin Hiroshima na kasar Japan. Bom ya hallaka kilomita hudu daga cikin birnin kuma ya kashe mutane 80,000. A cikin makonni masu zuwa, dubban mutane suka mutu daga raunuka da kuma guba. Shugaban kasar Harry Truman, wanda ya zama ofishin kasa da watanni hudu da suka gabata, ya ce ya yanke shawarar dakatar da bam din bayan da mashawarinsa suka fada cewa jefa bom din zai kawo karshen yakin nan da sauri kuma zai kauce wa bukatun da za su mamaye Japan, wanda zai ya haifar da mutuwar sojoji miliyan Amirka. Wannan tarihin tarihin baya riƙe har zuwa bincika ba. Shekaru da dama da suka gabata, Janar Douglas MacArthur, Babban Kwamandan Sojoji na Kasuwancin Yammacin Kudu, ya aika da wasikar 40 ga shugaban kasar Roosevelt wanda ya taƙaita samo hanyoyi biyar na mika wuya daga manyan jami'an kasar Japan. Amma, Amurka ta san cewa Rasha ta ci gaba da cigaba a gabas kuma a kowane lokaci zai kasance a Japan ta watan Satumba, da kyau kafin Amurka ta iya kai hari kan mamaye. Idan wannan ya faru, Japan za ta mika wuya zuwa Rasha, ba Amurka ba. Wannan ba shi da yarda ga Amurka, wadda ta riga ta fara tasowa game da tsarin tattalin arziki da zamantakewa na siyasa. Saboda haka, duk da tsananin adawa daga sojojin da shugabannin siyasar da Japan ta yarda da mika wuya, an jefa bam din. Mutane da yawa sun kira wannan aikin farko na Cakin Yakin. Dwight D. Eisenhower ya ce shekaru bayan haka, "an riga an ci Japan. . . yin watsi da bam din bai zama dole ba. "
Agusta 7. Wannan kwanan wata ya haifar haihuwar a cikin 1904 na Ralph Bunche, masanin kimiyyar siyasar Afrika, farfesa da diflomasiyya wanda ya zama babban jami'in Amurka a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya. Aikin Bunche ya fara da digiri na digiri na jami'ar Harvard, inda 1934 ya karbi Ph.D. a cikin harkokin gwamnati da na kasa da kasa. Bayanan digirinsa a kan mulkin mallaka a Afirka ya ƙare shekaru biyu daga baya a cikin littafinsa na musamman akan batun, A Duniya View of Race. A cikin 1946, an zabi Bunche ga sashen gudanarwa - ko sakatariya - na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, inda yake da alhakin kula da mulkin tsohon tsohuwar da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta amince da su da kuma lura da ci gaban su ga gwamnati da 'yancin kai. Babban abin da Bunche ya yi, duk da haka, ya bi matsayinsa a matsayin babban kwamandan Majalisar Dinkin Duniya a tattaunawar da nufin kawo karshen yakin basasa na Larabawa. Bayan watanni biyar na rikice-rikice da rikice-rikice, ya sami nasarar cimma wani armistice a watan Yunin 1949 dangane da yarjejeniyar tsakanin Israila da jihohin Larabawa hudu. Don wannan tarihin tarihi na diplomasiyya na kasa da kasa, Bunche ya ba da kyautar lambar yabo na Nobel ta Duniya ta 1950, ya zama dan Afrika na farko da aka girmama. A cikin shekarun da suka gabata, Bunche ya cigaba da taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin zaman lafiya da kuma matsakaici a cikin rikice-rikicen da suka shafi kasashe masu tasowa. Ya zuwa ƙarshen rayuwarsa a 1971, ya kafa kaya a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya wadda ta fi dacewa ta bayyana ta hanyar girmamawa da abokan aikinsa suka ba shi. Saboda Bunche ya yi ciki, da kuma aiwatar da wasu hanyoyin da hanyoyin da aka yi amfani da shi a ayyukan kiyaye zaman lafiya na kasa da kasa, ya kasance an kira shi "Uba na Aminci."
Agusta 8. A wannan rana a cikin 1883, Chester A. Arthur ya gana da Chief Washakie na kabilar Eastern Shoshone da Cif Black Coal na kabilar Northern Arapaho a Wurin Wind River na Wyoming, don haka ya zama shugaban Amurka na farko da ya ziyarci wani asalin ƙasar Amirka . Tsayar da Arthur a Wind River ya kasance ainihin abin da ya sa ya yi tafiya a yammacin yamma, wanda zai ziyarci Yellowstone National Park kuma ya ba da sha'awarsa ga kama kifi a cikin raguna. Shirin ajiyar wuri ya yarda da shi, don ya gwada yiwuwar shirin da ya gabatar a cikin saƙo na 1881 na Wakilin Kasuwanci na Majalisar Dattijai na Majalisar Dattijai don warware abin da ya kira "matsalolin India". Dokar 1887, da ake kira "yanki mai yawa," ga Indiyawan da suke son shi, na "yawan gonaki masu yawa (don aikin noma, wanda za'a sace su) ta hanyar patent, kuma ... ya sanya ashirin da ashirin shekaru-shekaru masu yawa ". Ba abin mamaki ba ne cewa shugabannin shugabannin kabilan sun ƙi amincewa da wannan shirin, tun da yake zai keta al'adun gargajiya da al'adun gargajiya na al'amuran rayuwar mutanen su. Duk da haka, cin nasara shugaban kasa a Wind River yana da alama ya ba da darasi na darajar shekaru masu zuwa. Don samun zaman lafiya mai dorewa, kasashe masu iko suna girmama hakkin 'yan tasowa da kasashe masu tasowa don samar da tattalin arziki da zamantakewar al'umma, kuma suna son yin aiki tare da su don taimakawa wajen magance bukatun mutanensu. Tarihi ya rigaya ya nuna cewa yin amfani da karfi ne kawai ya haifar da fushi, busawa, da kuma yakin basasa.
Agusta 9. A wannan rana a cikin 1945, wani bama-bamai na Amurka B-29 ya jefa bom bam din nukiliya a Nagasaki, Japan, inda ya kashe wasu maza, mata da yara 39,000 a ranar bom din kuma an kiyasta 80,000 a ƙarshen shekara. Tashin bam din Nagasaki ya zo ne kwanaki uku kacal bayan fara amfani da makamin nukiliya a yakin, tashin bam din Hiroshima wanda zuwa karshen shekara ya ci rayukan kimanin mutane 150,000. Makonni da suka gabata, Japan ta aika da sakon waya zuwa Tarayyar Soviet tana mai bayyana sha'awarta na mika wuya da kawo karshen yakin. Amurka ta karya lambobin Japan kuma ta karanta sakon waya. Shugaba Harry Truman ya ambata a littafinsa na “sakon waya daga Jap Emperor yana neman zaman lafiya.” Japan ba ta yarda ba kawai don mika wuya ba tare da wani sharadi ba tare da ba da sarki ba, amma Amurka ta nace kan wadannan sharuddan har sai bayan bama-bamai sun fadi. Hakanan a watan Agusta 9th Soviets sun shiga yaƙin Japan da Manchuria. Binciken Bincike na dabarun Amurka ya kammala da cewa, “… hakika kafin 31 ga Disamba, 1945, kuma a cikin dukkan yiwuwar kafin 1 ga Nuwamba, 1945, Japan za su sallama ko da kuwa ba a jefa bam din atom ba, koda kuwa Rasha ba ta shiga ba yakin, kuma ko da kuwa ba a shirya wani mamaye ba ko tunani. ” Daya daga cikin masu adawa da shi wanda ya bayyana irin wannan ra'ayin ga Sakataren Yaki kafin tashin bama-bamai shi ne Janar Dwight Eisenhower. Shugaban hafsan hafsoshin hafsoshin sojojin Admiral William D. Leahy ya amince, yana mai cewa, "Amfani da wannan makami mara kyau a Hiroshima da Nagasaki ba shi da wani taimako na kayan aiki a yakinmu da Japan."
Agusta 10. A wannan rana a 1964, Shugaban Amurka Lyndon Johnson ya sanya hannu kan dokar Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, wanda ya bude hanya zuwa shiga Amurka mai cikakken ƙarfi a cikin War Vietnam. Jim kadan da tsakar dare a watan Agusta na 4, shugaban ya karya shirye-shiryen talabijin na yau da kullum don sanar da cewa jiragen ruwa biyu na Amurka sun shiga wuta a cikin ruwan teku na duniya na Gulf of Tonkin a gefen arewacin Vietnam. A sakamakon haka, ya umarci aikin iska a kan "wurare a Arewacin Vietnam wanda aka yi amfani dashi a cikin wadannan ayyukan da suka sabawa" - daga cikinsu akwai tashar mai, da kwalba, da kuma wani ɓangare na yankin Arewacin Vietnam. Kwana uku daga baya, Majalisar ta yanke hukunci na haɗin gwiwa wanda ya ba da izini ga shugaban kasa "da ya dauki duk matakan da za a yi don kare duk wani harin da aka kai a kan dakarun Amurka da kuma hana tsaurin zubar da jini." Wannan ƙuduri, wanda shugaban ya sanya hannu a ranar 10, 1964, zai haifar da ƙarshen yaki a 1975 zuwa mutuwar 3.8 miliyan Vietnamese tare da daruruwan dubban Laotian da Cambodia da kuma mambobin kungiyar 58,000 na Amurka. Har ila yau, za a sake tabbatar da cewa "War ne Lie" - wanda ke cikin wannan shari'ar a kan abubuwa kusan 200 da bayanan da suka shafi batun Gulf of Tonkin da aka saki fiye da 40 shekaru daga baya. Wani nazari mai zurfi da Tarihin Harkokin Tsaro na kasa da kasa, Robert Hanyok, ya tabbatar da cewa, tasirin jiragen sama na Amurka da kuma neman iznin iznin majalissar sun kasance a gaskiya ne akan rashin fahimtar sigina na sakonni wanda shugaban kasa da Sakataren tsaron Amurka Robert McNamara ya kasance "shaida mai muhimmanci "Wani harin da ba a taɓa faruwa ba.
Agusta 11. A wannan rana a cikin 1965, tarzomar ta tashi a yankin Watts dake Birnin Los Angles bayan wani abin da ya faru lokacin da wani babban jami'in tsaro na California ya jagoranci wani mota kuma yayi ƙoƙari ya kama dan jaririn da ya firgita a lokacin da ya kasa gwada gwaji. A cikin 'yan mintoci, masu zanga-zanga da' yan sanda na baya-bayan nan sun shiga shaidun farko da aka yi wa motoci. Rahotanni sun yi watsi da watts, watau kwanaki shida, wanda ya shafi mutane 34,000, wanda ya haifar da kama 4,000 da kuma mutuwar 34. Lokacin da yake amsa musu, 'yan sanda na Birnin Los Angeles sun yi amfani da maganganu na "Cigaban" da Babban Jami'in, William Parker, ya tsara, wanda ya kwatanta tarzomar da aka yi a Vietnam. Parker kuma ya yi kira game da 2,300 National Guardsmen, kuma ya kafa wata manufar yin kama-karya da damuwa. A cikin fansa, 'yan bindigar suka jefa bricks a ma'aikatan tsaro da' yan sanda, kuma sun yi amfani da wasu don satar da motocin su. Kodayake wannan tashin hankali da aka yiwa shi ne, a farkon watan Agustan 15, ya yi nasarar tunawa da duniya game da muhimmancin gaskiya. Yayin da duk wani dan kabilu a cikin al'umma mafi yawanci ya yanke hukunci ga yanayin rayuwa, makarantu marasa kyau, kusan babu damar samun ci gaban kai, da kuma haɗin kai da 'yan sanda, har ya yi tawaye ba tare da bata lokaci ba, saboda bala'in da ya dace. Bayard Rustin dan kare hakkin bil'adama ya bayyana yadda za a hana wannan karuwar a watts Watts: "... Matasan Negro, rashin fata-ba sa ganin wani bangare na al'ummar Amurka .... Muna da ... gano su aiki, gidaje mai kyau, ilimi, horarwa, don haka zasu iya jin wani ɓangare na tsarin. Mutanen da suka ji wani ɓangare na tsari ba su kai farmaki ba. "
Agusta 12. A wannan kwanan wata a cikin 1995, tsakanin masu zanga-zangar 3,500 da 6,000 a Philadelphia sun shiga cikin daya daga cikin mafi girma a kan kisan kai a tarihin Amurka.. Masu zanga-zangar sun bukaci sabon fitina ga Mumia Abu-Jamal, dan jarida na Afrika da kuma jarida wanda aka yanke masa hukunci a 1982 na kisan kiyashin 1981 na 'yan sanda a Philadelphia kuma aka yanke masa hukuncin kisa a Pennsylvania na Greene State Correctional Institution. Abu-Jamal ya bayyana a fili a wani harin da ya faru, wanda ya faru lokacin da aka kai shi da dan uwansa a tashar motoci na yau da kullum, kuma 'yan sanda sun kashe ɗan'uwansa tare da hasken wuta a lokacin da ake ci gaba. Duk da haka, mutane da yawa a cikin al'ummar Amurka sun yi shakku cewa Abu-Jamal ya yi kisan kai ko kuma za a yi adalci ta hanyar aiwatar da shi. An gabatar da shaidar shari'ar a lokacin shari'arsa, kuma an yi tsammanin cewa duk abin da aka yanke masa da kuma yanke hukunci an shafe shi da nuna bambancin launin fatar. By 1982, Abu-Jamal sananne ne a Philadelphia a matsayin tsohon mai magana da yawun Black Panther Party kuma wani mai magana da yawun 'yan sanda na' yan wariyar launin fata Philadelphia. A cikin kurkuku, ya zama mai sharhin rediyo don Tarihin Rediyo na Jama'a, yana yin la'akari da yanayin rashin jinƙai a gidajen yarin Amurka da kuma tsare-tsare da kuma kisa ga baƙar fata na Amurka. Abu-Jamal ya kara girma a duniya ya haɗu da motsi na "Free Mumia" na kasa da kasa wanda ya haifar da 'ya'ya. An yanke hukuncinsa na mutuwa a 2011 kuma an tura shi zuwa kurkuku a fursunoni a Pennsylvania na Fraterville State Correctional Institution. Kuma a lokacin da alkalin ya sake shigar da haƙƙin roƙonsa a watan Disamba na 2018, an ba shi abin da lauya da ake kira "mafi kyawun zarafi da muka samu ga 'yancin Mumia a shekarun da suka gabata."
Agusta 13. A wannan rana a cikin 1964, an yanke hukuncin kisa na karshe a Birtaniya, lokacin da aka rataye mutane biyu, Gwynne Evans, 24, da kuma Peter Allen, 21, a gidajen kurkuku, don kashe wani 53-shekara- tsofaffiyar direba ta wanki a gidansa a Cumbria. Masu zanga-zanga sun yi niyya don satar da wanda aka kama, wanda daya daga cikinsu ya san, amma ya kashe shi. Ga masu cin zarafi, lokaci na aiki ya nuna rashin lafiya. Bayan watanni biyu bayan da aka kashe su, Birtaniya Labour Labor Party ta zo ne a cikin House of Commons da kuma goyon baya ga abin da ya zama Dokar Mutuwa na 1965. Sabuwar dokar ta dakatar da hukuncin kisa a Birtaniya a tsawon shekaru biyar, ta maye gurbin hukuncin ɗaurin rai na rai. Lokacin da Dokar ta zo da kuri'a, an samu goyon baya mai girma a duka Commons da House of Lords. An nuna wannan nauyin goyon bayan a cikin 1969, lokacin da aka dauki kuri'un don tabbatar da Dokar ta har abada. A 1973, Ireland ta Arewa ta soke hukuncin kisa don kisan kai, ta haka ta ƙare aikinsa a ko'ina cikin Ƙasar Ingila. A cikin yarda da 50th Anniversary of Dokar Ta'addanci a 2015, Mataimakin Shugaban Kasuwancin Amnesty International, Audrey Gaughran, yayi sharhi cewa mutanen Burtaniya za su yi alfaharin zama a cikin kasar da ta kasance abolloist na dogon lokaci. Yayin da yake magana da gaskiya game da sakamakon gaske na hukunci mai tsanani, musamman ma ta rashin daidaituwa, maimakon kira don sake dawo da shi a matsayin "mai saurin gyara, musamman ma lokacin lokacin zabe," in ji ta, Birtaniya ta taimaka wajen cigaba da cigaba da saurin yawancin hukuncin kisa. a duk duniya.
Agusta 14. A wannan kwanan wata a 1947, a kusa da 11: 00 da yamma, dubban Indiyawa sun taru kusa da gine-ginen gwamnati a Delhi don su ji adireshin Jawaharlal Nehru wanda zai zama firaministan kasar su. Nehru ya ce "Shekaru da suka gabata mun yi gwaji tare da kaddara," "A lokacin tsakar dare, lokacin da duniya ke bacci, Indiya za ta farka zuwa rayuwa da 'yanci." Lokacin da lokaci ya yi, wanda ke nuna fitowar Indiya daga mulkin Burtaniya a hukumance, dubun-dubatar da suka taru sun shiga murna ta ranar 'yancin kasar ta farko, wanda yanzu ake yi a kowace shekara a ranar 15 ga watan Agusta. Musamman ma ba ya nan daga taron, shi ne mutumin da wani mai magana, Burtaniya ya ce Lord Mountbatten, ya daukaka a matsayin "mai tsara 'yancin Indiya ta hanyar tashin hankali." Tabbas wannan shi ne, Mohandas Gandhi, wanda, tun daga shekarar 1919, ya jagoranci gwagwarmayar neman 'yanci na Indiya da ba ta da wata ma'ana wacce ta bayyana sassaucin mulkin Burtaniya. Mountbatten an nada shi mataimaki na Indiya kuma an caje shi da kulla yarjejeniya don 'yancinta. Bayan ya kasa tattaunawa kan yarjejeniyar raba madafun iko tsakanin shugabannin Hindu da na Musulmai, amma, ya yanke shawarar cewa kawai mafita ita ce a raba yankin na Indiya don karbar Indiyawan Indiya da Pakistan Pakistan - wanda ya samu kasarsu kwana daya a baya. Wannan rarrabuwa ce ta sa Gandhi ya rasa abin da ya faru a Delhi. A ganinsa, yayin da rabuwa da yankin na iya zama farashin samun 'yancin kan Indiya, hakan kuma ya kasance juriya ne ga rashin hakuri da addini da kuma kawo cikas ga zaman lafiya. Yayin da sauran Indiyawa ke bikin cimma wata manufa da aka dade ana nema, Gandhi ya yi azumi da fatan samun goyon bayan jama'a don kawo karshen tashin hankali tsakanin mabiya addinin Hindu da Musulmai.
Agusta 15. A kwanan nan a cikin 1973, kamar yadda doka ta majalisa ta bukaci, Amurka ta dakatar da jefa bom a kasar Cambodia, ta kawo karshen aikin soja a Vietnam da kudu maso gabashin Asiya wanda ya kashe mutane da yawa, kuma mafi yawan mutanen da ba su da lafiya. By 1973, yakin ya tayar da babbar adawa a majalisar wakilan Amurka. Yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya na Paris da aka sanya hannu a watan Janairu ya yi kira ga tsagaita bude wuta a Kudancin Vietnam da kuma janye dukkan sojojin Amurka da masu ba da shawara a cikin kwanaki sittin. Har ila yau, majalisar ta damu da cewa, wannan ba zai hana Shugaba Nixon daga sake dawo da sojojin Amurka ba, idan aka sake sabunta tashin hankali tsakanin Arewa da Kudancin Vietnam. Sanata Clifford Case da Frank Church sun gabatar da wata takarda a cikin marigayi Janairu 1973 wanda ya hana dukkanin sojojin Amurka a Vietnam, Laos, da Cambodia. Majalisar Dattijai ta yarda da dokar ta a ranar Yuni 14, amma sai ya yi watsi da lokacin da shugaban kasar Nixon ya kaddamar da dokoki da za su ci gaba da fashewar Amurka a Khmer Rouge a Cambodia. An sanya dokar da aka gyara ta Ikklisiya a matsayin doka, wanda shugaban ya sanya hannu a ranar Yuli 1. Ya bar bama-bamai a Cambodia don ci gaba har zuwa watan Agusta na 15, amma ya haramta duk amfani da sojojin Amurka a kudu maso gabashin Asia bayan wannan kwanan nan ba tare da amincewa da Majalisar Congress ba. Bayan haka, an bayyana cewa Nixon ya shaidawa shugaban kasar Nguyen Van Thieu a asirce cewa, Amurka za ta ci gaba da kai hare-haren bam a Arewa da Kudancin Vietnam idan an tabbatar da hakan don tabbatar da zaman lafiya. Saboda haka, mataki na kundin tsarin mulki na iya hana ƙananan wahala da mutuwa a kan mutanen Vietnamese fiye da yakin basasar da Amurka ta ba su.
Agusta 16. A wannan kwanan wata a 1980, ma'aikatan ma'aikata a Gdansk masu kaya a Pologne sun hade tare da sauran ma'aikatan ma'aikata na Poland don neman hanyar da za ta taka muhimmiyar rawa a faduwar mulkin Soviet a tsakiya da gabashin Turai. Decisionaukacin aikin ya kasance dalilin yanke hukunci ne na rashin kulawar da masu kula da filayen ke yi na korar wata ma'aikaciyar don aikin ƙungiyar watanni biyar kacal kafin ta yi ritaya. Ga kungiyoyin kwadago na kasar Poland, wannan shawarar ta haifar da wata sabuwar ma'ana ta manufa, inda ta daga shi daga sasantawar da gwamnati ke da shi na batun matsakaiciyar burodi-da-man shanu zuwa ga neman hadin kan 'yan Adam. Washegari a Gdansk, kwamitocin yajin aikin gama gari sun gabatar da buƙatu 21, gami da kafa ƙungiyoyin ƙwadago masu zaman kansu da haƙƙin yajin aiki, wanda gwamnatin kwaminisanci a cikin babban ɓangare ta karɓa. A ranar 31 ga watan Agusta, kungiyar Gdansk ta amince da kanta, bayan haka kungiyoyin kwadago ashirin suka hade karkashin jagorancin Lech Walesa zuwa kungiya daya ta kasa da ake kira Solidarity. A lokacin 1980s, Solidarity yayi amfani da hanyoyin adawa na jama'a don ciyar da haƙƙin ma'aikata da canjin zamantakewar su. A cikin martani, gwamnati ta yi ƙoƙari ta ruguza ƙungiyar, da farko ta sanya dokar yaƙi sannan kuma ta hanyar matsin siyasa. Daga ƙarshe, duk da haka, sabon tattaunawa tsakanin gwamnati da ƙungiyoyin adawarta na ƙungiya ya haifar da zaɓen rabin zaɓe a 1989. An kafa gwamnatin haɗin gwiwa da ke jagorantar Solidarity, kuma, a cikin Disamba 1990, an zaɓi Lech Walesa a matsayin shugaban Poland a cikin zaɓe na ƙoshin lafiya. Hakan ya haifar da juyin-juya halin lumana na adawa da gurguzu a cikin Turai ta Tsakiya da Gabashin Turai, kuma, zuwa Kirsimeti, 1991, Tarayyar Soviet kanta ba ta nan kuma duk yankuna da take da su sun sake zama ƙasashe masu iko.
Agusta 17. A kwanan nan a cikin 1862, Dakota Indiya masu tasowa sun kai farmaki a wani wuri mai tsabta tare da Kogin Minnesota, farawa Dakota War. Indiyawan Indiyawan Minnesota sun ƙunshi ƙungiyoyi hudu da ke zaune a yankin kudu maso yammacin yankin Minnesota, inda aka sake su ta hanyar yarjejeniyar a cikin 1851. Bisa ga irin yadda ake cike da fararen fararen fararen hula a yankin, Gwamnatin Amirka ta sami nasara a kan Dakotas don sayen 24-miliyoyin kadada na ƙasashensu masu kyau a kudu maso yammacin Minnesota don dala miliyan uku a tsabar kudi da kuma shekara-shekara. Amma bayan marigayi 1850s, biyan kuɗin da aka samu ya karu sosai, wanda ya sa 'yan kasuwa su ki amincewa da Dakotas don sayen kayayyaki. A lokacin rani na 1862, lokacin da cututtuka suka hallaka yawancin masarar Dakotas, yawancin iyalan sun fuskanci yunwa. Jagoran Ministan na Minnesota cewa "al'ummar da ke shuka fashi za ta girbi jinin" zai nuna annabci. A watan Agusta 17th, ƙoƙarin 'yan Dakota guda hudu sun yi sata wasu qwai daga wani dangi mai noma a cikin gida suka juya tashin hankali kuma suka kai ga mutuwar' yan uwa biyar. Da yake tunanin cewa wannan lamarin zai yi yaƙi da Amurka ba tare da wata matsala ba, shugabannin jam'iyyar Dakota sun kwarewa kuma sun kai hari ga hukumomin gwamnati da kuma sabon shiri na New Ulm. Harin da aka kashe a kan mutanen 500 masu fararen hula ne kuma suka jawo hankalin sojojin Amurka. A cikin watanni hudu masu zuwa, wasu 2,000 Dakotas sun kewaye su kuma an kashe masu daular 300 a kisa. Yaƙin ya ƙare da sauri a ranar Disamba na 26, 1862, lokacin da aka rataye mazaunan 38 Dakota a cikin mafi yawan kisan gilla a tarihin Amurka.
Agusta 18. A wannan kwanan wata a 1941, kusan watanni 4 kafin harin Japan Pearl Harbor, Winston Churchill ya sadu da gidansa a 10 Downing Street. Rahotanni na Firayim Ministan sun nuna a fili cewa shugaban Roosevelt ya yarda ya dauki mataki na ganganci game da Japan wanda zai jawo Amurka zuwa yakin duniya na biyu mafi yawan jama'ar Amirka na so su guje wa. A cikin maganganun Churchill, shugaban ya fada masa "duk abin da za a yi domin ya haifar da wani lamari." Churchill ya yi tsammanin cewa Japan za ta kai hari ga Amurka. Harkokin soja na Amurka a Turai yana da mahimmanci ga cin nasarar Nazis, amma yardawar majalissar ba shi yiwuwa ba saboda Nazis ba da barazanar soja ba ga Amurka. Ya bambanta, harin Japan a wani sansanin soja na Amurka zai taimakawa Roosevelt ya bayyana yaki a Japan kuma, ta hanyar tsawo, da Axis ally, Jamus. Dangane da wannan ƙarshen, Roosevelt ya ba da wata doka mai kyau a cikin watan Yuni na dukiyar Japan, kuma duka biyu Amurka da Birtaniya sun yanke man fetur da kuma karye kayan aiki a kasar Japan. Wadannan su ne abubuwan da suke nuna cewa jami'an Amurka sun san cewa za su tilasta wa sojojin sojan Japan su mayar da martani. Ga Sakataren Harkokin War Henry Stimson, tambayar ita ce "yadda ya kamata mu sa su cikin matsayi na harbe-harben harbe-harben ba tare da ba da damar haɗari ga kanmu ba." Amsar ita ce abin da ya faru, amma mai sauƙi. Tun da magunguna sun bayyana yiwuwar tashar jiragen sama ta Japan a kan Pearl Harbor a farkon watan Disamba, Rundunar Sojojin za ta rike jiragen ruwa a wurin da masu aikin jirgin ruwa a cikin duhu game da batun da ake sa ran. Ya zo a ranar Disamba na 7, kuma ranar gobe majalisa ta zabi zabe.
Agusta 19. A wannan rana a cikin 1953, hukumar Amurka ta Intelligence Agency (CIA) ta kaddamar da wani juyin mulki wanda ya kaddamar da gwamnatin da aka zaba a mulkin demokradiyar Iran. An shuka tsaba don juyin mulki a 1951, lokacin da Firayim Ministan Mohammad Mossadegh ya mamaye masana'antar man fetur na Iran, sa'an nan kuma kamfanin Anglo-Iranian Oil sarrafa shi. Mossadegh ya yi imanin cewa, al'ummar Iran sun cancanci amfani da albarkatun man fetur na kasar su. Birtaniya, duk da haka, ya ƙuduri ya sake dawo da kudaden shiga na kasashen waje. Da farko a cikin 1953, CIA ta yi aiki tare da Intanet na Birtaniya don ragowar gwamnatin Mossadegh ta hanyar cin hanci da rashawa, da tarzomar kochestrated. A cikin martani, Firayim Ministan ya kira magoya bayansa su shiga tituna don nuna zanga-zangar, suka sa Shah ya bar kasar. Lokacin da Birnin Birtaniya ke goyon baya daga kwakwalwar, CIA ta yi aiki tare da sojojin Shah-Shah da kuma sojojin Iran don shirya juyin mulki a kan Mossadegh. Wasu mutanen 300 sun mutu a cikin wuta a tituna na Tehran, kuma an kori firaministan kasar kuma aka yanke masa hukumcin shekaru uku a kurkuku. Sai Shah ya dawo da karfin iko, ya sanya kashi 40 cikin dari na tashar man fetur na Iran zuwa kamfanonin Amurka. An kashe shi da dala da makamai na Amurka, ya ci gaba da mulkin mallaka fiye da shekaru ashirin. A cikin 1979, duk da haka, Shah ya tilasta wa mulki kuma ya maye gurbinsa ta tsarin addinin Musulunci na addini. Daga bisani a wannan shekara, mayakan 'yan bindiga sun kama ofishin jakadancin Amurka a Tehran kuma suka kame ma'aikatan Amurka har zuwa Janairu 1981. Wadannan su ne farkon wadanda suka biyo baya bayan rikicewar mulkin gwamnatin dimokuradiyya na Iran wanda zai kaddamar da Gabas ta Tsakiya a baya. tasiri.
Agusta 20. A cikin wannan rana a cikin 1968, rundunar 200,000 Warsaw da ƙungiyar 5,000 sun mamaye Czechoslovakia don murkushe wani ɗan gajeren lokaci na sassauci a cikin 'yan gurguzu da ake kira "Prague Spring". Karkashin jagorancin mai kawo sauyi Alexander Dubcek, sannan a cikin watannin takwas a matsayin Sakatare na Farko na kwamitin tsakiya na jam'iyyar kwaminisanci, kungiyar sassaucin ra'ayi ta ingiza a gudanar da zabukan dimokiradiyya, da soke takunkumi, 'yancin fadin albarkacin baki da kuma addini, da kuma kawo karshen takurawa kan tafiye-tafiye. Goyon bayan jama'a ga abin da Dubcek ya kira "gurguzanci tare da fuskar mutum" ya kasance a fili wanda ya sa Tarayyar Soviet da tauraron dan adam nata suna ganin hakan a matsayin wata barazana ga mamayar da suke yi a Gabashin Turai. Don magance barazanar, an yi kira ga sojojin Warsaw Pact su mamaye Czechoslovakia kuma su kawo shi dunduniya. Ba zato ba tsammani, sojojin sun haɗu ko'ina ta hanyar ayyukan tsautsayi na rashin jituwa wanda ya hana su samun iko. A watan Afrilu 1969, duk da haka, matsin lambar siyasa ta Soviet ba ta yi nasarar tilasta Dubcek daga mulki ba. Sauye-sauyen nasa ya sauya da sauri kuma Czechoslovakia ya sake zama memba na haɗin gwiwa na Warsaw Pact. Koyaya, Guguwar Prague ta ƙarshe ta taka rawar gani don dawo da dimokiradiyya ga Czechoslovakia. A cikin zanga-zangar titin kwatsam da aka fara a ranar 21 ga Agusta, 1988, jami'in 20th ranar tunawa da mamaye na Soviet, wadanda suka yi wa marubuta sun yi kira ga sunan Dubcek da kuma kira ga 'yanci. A shekara mai zuwa, masanin wasan kwaikwayo na Czechoslovakia da kuma mai suna Vaclav Havel sun jagoranci wani shiri wanda ba shi da tushe wanda ake kira "The Revolutionary Revolution" wanda hakan ya kawo ƙarshen mulkin Soviet. Ranar Nuwamba 28, 1989, jam'iyyar kwaminisanci ta Czechoslovakia ta sanar da cewa zai kawar da iko da rarraba tsarin jam'iyya.
Agusta 21. A wannan rana a cikin 1983, Firaministan kasar Benigno (Ninoy) Aquino, ya kashe kansa a wani jirgin saman da ya kawo shi gida daga shekaru uku na gudun hijira a Amurka.. By 1972, Aquino, Sanata na Liberal Party da kuma sukar sukar gwamnatin rikon kwarya na shugaba Ferdinand Marcos, ya zama sananne kuma yana da sha'awar rinjayar Marcos a zaben shugaban kasa ta 1973. Amma, Marcos ya bayyana dokar sharia a watan Satumba na 1972, wadda ba wai kawai ta yanke hukuncin kundin tsarin mulkin ba amma ya sanya Aquino a matsayin fursunoni na siyasa. Lokacin da Aquino ya kamu da zuciya a kurkuku a 1980, an yarda da shi zuwa Amurka don tiyata. Amma, bayan ya ci gaba da zama a makarantar ilimin kimiyyar Amurka, ya ji bukatar 1983 na bukatar komawa Philippines kuma ya tilasta Shugaba Marcos ya dawo da dimokradiyya ta hanyar zaman lafiya. Filaton jirgin sama ya ƙare wannan aikin, amma, a lokacin da Aquino bai samu ba, tattalin arziki a Philippines ya riga ya haifar da tashin hankali. A farkon 1986, an matsa Marcos don ya kira zaben shugaban kasa inda ya gudu da matar Aquino, Corazon. {Asar ta yi ta goyon baya ga "Cory," amma yawanci da cin hanci da rashawa ya sa sakamakon za ~ en ya yi. Ba tare da wani zabi ba, wasu Filipinos miliyan biyu, suna yin waka "Cory, Cory, Cory," sunyi nasu juyin juya halin jini a cikin garin Manila. Ranar 25 na 1986, XNUMX, Corazon Aquino ya fara shugabanci kuma ya ci gaba da mayar da mulkin demokra] iyyar zuwa Philippines. Amma duk da haka, Filipinos ma suna murna da mutumin da ya ba da yunkuri ga juyin juya halin su. Ga mutane da yawa, Ninoy Aquino ya kasance "shugaban kasa mafi girma ba mu taba ba."
Agusta 22. A wannan rana a cikin 1934, mai sayar da kamfanin Marine Corps Major General Smedley Butler ya bukaci wani mai sayarwa mai sayarwa don babban bankin Wall Street don jagoranci juyin mulki ga Shugaba Roosevelt da gwamnatin Amurka. Shirye-shirye na juyin juya halin ya ci gaba da Wall Street financiers, wadanda suka kasance sun yi adawa da rashin amincewar da shugaban kasar ya yi na Fuskantarwa na Gold Standard, wanda suka yi imanin zai lalata dukiya da kasuwanci da kuma haifar da bashi na kasa. Don kauce wa wannan lamarin, Wakilin Wall Street ya shaida wa Butler cewa masu tayar da kayar sun hada dakarun tsohuwar rundunar soja na 500,000 na yakin duniya na farko wanda zasu iya rinjayar dakarun kasa da kasa na rashin lafiya da kuma bude hanya zuwa tsarin mulkin fascist wanda zai fi dacewa da kasuwanci. Butler, sun yi imanin, shi ne cikakken dan takara don jagorancin juyin mulki, kamar yadda tsoffin tsofaffi ya girmama shi don tallafawa jama'a game da yakin basasa na Bonus don fara farashin karin kudaden da gwamnati ta alkawarta musu. Duk da haka, makiyaya ba su san wata hujja mai mahimmanci ba. Duk da jagorancin shugaban na Soler na yaki, ya zo ya yi fushi da cin zarafin da sojojin ke amfani da shi a lokacin da ake amfani da shi. By 1933, ya fara faɗar jama'a a gaban jama'a da kuma jari-hujja. Amma duk da haka, ya kasance mai karfin zuciya. A ranar Nuwamba 20, 1934, Butler ya ruwaito rahoton da aka yi a kotu na Kwamitin Ayyuka na Amirka, wanda a cikin rahotonsa ya amince da tabbacin da aka tsara na juyin mulki, amma bai kawo laifin aikata laifi ba. A nasa bangaren, Smedley Butler ya ci gaba da bugawa War ne Racket, wanda ke ba da shawarar sauya sojojin Amurka zuwa cikin rundunar kare kai kawai.
Agusta 23. A wannan kwanan wata a 1989, kimanin mutane miliyan biyu sun shiga hannayensu a sashin 400-mile a fadin Baltic jihohin Estonia, Latvia, da Lithuania. A cikin zanga-zangar da ba a nuna ba, wanda ake kira "The Baltic Way," suna nuna rashin amincewarsu da ci gaba da mulkin ƙasashensu ta hanyar Soviet Union. An yi zanga-zangar zanga-zangar a ranar cika shekaru 50 na yarjejeniyar haramtacciyar haramtacciyar Hitler-Stalin a watan Agustan 23, 1939, Jamus ta janye a 1941. Amma wannan yarjejeniya ta ƙunshi sharuɗɗa na sirri wanda ya bayyana yadda kasashen biyu zasu raba ƙasashen Turai ta gabas da su don cimma burinsu. A karkashin wadannan sharuɗɗa cewa Soviet Union na farko sun mallaki ƙasashen Baltic a 1940, suna tilasta mutanen da suke zaune a yammacin Yammacin Turai su zauna a karkashin mulkin mallaka na Jam'iyyar Kwaminis. Duk da haka, har zuwa 1989, Soviets sun yi ikirarin cewa yarjejeniyar Hitler-Stalin ba ta da wata maƙasudin sirri, da kuma cewa Baltic jihohi sun shiga cikin Soviet Union. A cikin zanga-zanga na Baltic Way, mahalarta sun bukaci Yammacin Soviet su amince da ka'idoji kuma su yarda da jihohin Baltic su sake sabunta 'yancin kansu na tarihi. Abin mamaki shine, zanga-zangar zanga-zangar da ta yi sanadiyyar shekaru uku na zanga-zangar, ya tilasta Soviet Union ta yarda da bin ka'idojin da kuma bayyana su ba daidai ba. Tare, shekaru uku na zanga-zangar nuna rashin amincewa sun nuna yadda ƙarfin gwagwarmaya zai iya kasancewa, idan ya bi manufa ta asali da 'yan uwa. Wannan yakin ya zama misali mai kyau ga sauran ƙasashen gabas ta Turai da neman 'yancin kai, kuma ya tabbatar da motsa jiki ga tsarin sakewa a Jamus. Kasashen Baltic sun sake samun 'yancin kai bayan faduwar Soviet Union a watan Disamba na 1991.
Agusta 24. A wannan rana a shekarar 1967, Abbie Hoffman & Jerry Rubin sun jefa takardar kudi dala 300 daga baranda zuwa benen Kasuwar Hannun Jari ta New York don tarwatsa kasuwanci kamar yadda aka saba. Abbie Hoffman, masanin wasan kwaikwayo mai kula da wasan kwaikwayo, ya koma New York a cikin 1960s yayin da 'yan gwagwarmaya da masu zanga-zangar adawa da yaki da yaki da yakin basasa suka kasance suna zaune a tsakiyar Park. Hoffman ya shiga tsakani tare da wata kungiya mai kunnawa da aka haɗa da gidan wasan kwaikwayo, da Diggers, a San Francisco. Ta hanyar abubuwan da suka faru a can, ya koyi darajar wasan kwaikwayon game da jawo hankali ga dalilai, kamar yadda zanga-zangar da matakai suka zama na kowa kuma a wasu lokuta wasu kafofin watsa labaru basu yarda da su ba. Hoffman ya sadu da dan wasan mai suna Jerry Rubin wanda ya rabu da ra'ayinsa ga jari-hujja a matsayin tushen hanyar yaki da rashin daidaito a Amurka. Tare da dan jarida mai suna Jim Fouratt, Hoffman da Rubin sun shirya zanga-zanga a New York Stock Exchange, mai suna Marty Jezer, editan mujallar War Resisters League, WIN Magazine, Warrior War Warrior Keith Lampe, da kuma mai neman zaman lafiya Stewart Albert, tare da dozin wasu, da kuma manema labarai. Kungiyar ta nemi yin rangadin gidan gini na NYSE inda Hoffman ke raba hannunsu na takardun dala guda ɗaya tare da kowanne kafin a bishe su zuwa bene na biyu inda suka tsaya suna kallo akan masu bangon Wall Street. Bayan haka, an jefa takardun kudade a kan tashar jirgin ruwa, suna zuwan ƙasa a ƙasa. Brokers sun dakatar da kasuwancin su yayin da suka kulla tattara kudade da yawa, wanda ya haifar da ikirarin yiwuwar cinikayyar cinikayya. Hoffman daga bisani ya bayyana: "Gudun kuɗi a kan masu gado Wall Street shi ne yanayin da ake amfani da su a cikin gidan talabijin."
Agusta 25. A wannan rana a cikin 1990, kwamitin sulhu na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ya bai wa mayakan duniya damar yin amfani da karfi don dakatar da cin zarafin takunkumi kan Iraki. {Asar Amirka ta yi la'akari da wannan nasarar. Ya yi aiki sosai don shawo kan Soviet Union, China, da kuma ƙasƙantar da kasashe uku na duniya cewa an bukaci aikin gaggawa don duba yiwuwar aiwatar da takunkumi na tattalin arziki da aka sanya wa Iraqi bayan nasarar da 2 ya kai a Kuwait. Sai dai takunkumin da aka sanya, ba ya tilasta janye sojojin Iraqi ba. A maimakon haka ne suka yi tawaye a watan Fabrairu na 1991 a Gulf War na Amurka. Duk da haka, har ma tare da sake mayar da 'yancin kai na Kuwaiti, an sanya takunkumi a matsayin wanda ake zargi da shi ne don matsa lamba ga yakin Iraqi da wasu manufofi. A gaskiya, duk da haka Amurka da Birtaniya sun bayyana a koyaushe cewa za su hana duk wani tasowa ko gyaran gyare-gyare mai tsanani a matsayin Saddam Hussein ya zama shugaban kasar Iraki. Wannan ya kasance duk da hujja mai karfi da cewa takunkumi ba shi da tushe ga Saddam amma ya yi mummunan rauni ga 'yan kasar Iraki marasa laifi. Wadannan yanayi sun ci gaba har sai Maris 2003, lokacin da Amurka da Birtaniya suka sake yakin Iraqi kuma suka janye gwamnatin Saddam. Ba da daɗewa ba, Amurka ta bukaci da kuma karɓar takunkumi na takunkumi na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, ta ba da cikakken iko game da sayar da man fetur na kasar Iraki da masana'antu. Shekaru goma sha uku na takunkumi, duk da haka, ya haifar da wahalar ɗan adam. Wannan sakamako ya haifar da shakku a ko'ina cikin al'ummomin duniya game da tasiri na takunkumin tattalin arziki don cimma manufofi da kuma ka'idodin su a ƙarƙashin dokar kasa da kasa kan kula da jin dadin jama'a da kuma 'yancin ɗan adam.
Agusta 26. A wannan rana a 1920, Sakataren Harkokin Wajen Amurka Bainbridge Colby ya tabbatar da 19th Amincewa don hadawa a Tsarin Mulki na Amirka, ba wa mata damar da za su zabe a duk za ~ en. Wannan ci gaba na tarihi a cikin 'yancin kare hakkin bil'adama na Amurka shi ne ƙarshen ƙauyukan mata, wanda ya koma zuwa tsakiyar 19th karni. Ta amfani da hanyoyi irin su shimfidawa, da tsararruwar tashin hankali, da yunwa, mata suna bin hanyoyin da dama a jihohi a fadin kasar don samun damar yin zabe - sau da yawa a fuskar fuskantar tsayayya daga abokan adawar da suka kori, ɗaurin kurkuku, kuma wani lokaci ana zaluntar su. By 1919, suffragettes sun ci gaba da cin zarafi a cikin goma sha biyar daga cikin jihohin arba'in da takwas, musamman a yamma, kuma sun sami iyakacin yawa a yawancin sauran. A wannan lokacin, duk da haka, yawancin kungiyoyi masu fama da ciwo sun haɗa kai cikin imani cewa cikakken haƙƙin jefa kuri'a a duk jihohi za'a iya samuwa ta hanyar gyare-gyaren tsarin mulki. Wannan ya zama manufa mai mahimmanci bayan Shugaba Wilson ya furta goyon bayansa na kyautatuwa a 1918. Ya shaida wa Majalisar Dattijai: "Ina ganin yadda ake fama da ita ga mata a matsayin matukar muhimmanci ga cin zarafin bil'adama a cikinmu." Ba da daɗewa ba ne kawai da za a yi gyare-gyare a majalisar dattijai kawai . Amma a ranar Mayu 21, 1920, majalisar wakilai ta wuce ta gaba da shi, kuma makonni biyu da Majalisar Dattijai suka samu rinjaye da kashi biyu cikin uku. An tabbatar da gyare-gyaren a ranar 18, 1920, lokacin da Tennessee ta zama 36th daga cikin jihohi na 48 don amincewa da shi, ta haka ne samun yarjejeniyar da aka buƙata na uku na hudu na jihohi.
Agusta 27. Wannan shi ne kwanan wata, a cikin 1928, wanda aka ƙulla yarjejeniyar kirkirar Kellogg-Briand a Paris ta hanyar manyan kasashe na duniya. Sunan bayan marubutan, Sakataren Harkokin Wajen Amurka Frank Kellogg da Ministan Harkokin Wajen Faransa Aristide Briand, yarjejeniyar ta fara aiki a watan Yulin 1929. Ta yi watsi da yaƙi a matsayin kayan aikin manufofin ƙasa kuma ta tanadi cewa duk rikice-rikice na duniya na kowane irin yanayi dole ne a sasanta shi ta hanyar pacific yana nufin. Duk wani yaƙi tun daga 1928 ya keta wannan yarjejeniya, wanda ya hana wasu yaƙe-yaƙe kuma ya zama tushen tushen gabatar da ƙararraki na farko na laifin yaƙi a ƙarshen Yaƙin Duniya na II, tun daga wannan lokacin ƙasashe masu wadata da makamai ba su tafi yaƙi da kowannensu ba wata - zaɓi maimakon yin yaƙi da sauƙaƙe yaƙi tsakanin ƙasashe matalauta. Bayan Yaƙin Duniya na II, mamaye yankuna da yawa an ƙare. Shekarar 1928 ta zama layin rarrabuwa don tantance waɗanne yaƙe-yaƙe halal ne da wanne. Lonungiyoyi sun nemi freedomancinsu, kuma ƙananan ƙasashe sun fara kafa ta mutane da yawa. Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta murkushe haramcin Yarjejeniyar ta Peace a kan yaki a kan yakin basasa wanda ba shi da kariya ko izinin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya. Yaƙe-yaƙe waɗanda ba su da doka ko da a ƙarƙashin Yarjejeniyar Majalisar Dinkin Duniya, amma abin da mutane da yawa suka yi iƙirarin ko zaton suna halal ne, sun haɗa da yaƙe-yaƙe a Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, Somalia, Libya, Yemen, da Syria. Kusan shekaru 90 bayan ƙirƙirar yarjejeniyar Kellogg-Briand, Kotun hukunta manyan laifuka ta ƙasa da ƙasa ta amince da manufar gurfanar da laifin yaƙi, amma mafi yawan yaƙe-yaƙe a duniya, Amurka, ta yi iƙirarin haƙƙin yin aiki ba tare da doka ba .
Agusta 28. A wannan rana a cikin 1963, Dokar 'Yancin Bil'adama ta Amirka ta ba da shawara Martin Luther King Jr. ya ba da jawabinsa na' '' Ina da Magana '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' '' ''. Jawabin ya yi amfani da dabarun amfani da kyaututtukan Sarki don maganganun waƙa, wanda ya ba shi damar neman haƙƙoƙin daidaitawa ga Baƙin Amurkawa ta hanyar yin kira ga ruhun haɗin kai wanda ke tattare da rarrabuwar mutane. Bayan bayanan gabatarwa, Sarki ya yi amfani da kalma don bayyana cewa masu maci sun zo babban birni ne don samun "takardar sanarwa" wanda ke ba da tabbacin rai, 'yanci, da kuma neman farin ciki ga kowane Ba'amurke, amma a baya sun dawo ga mutane masu launi alama "kasa kudi." Kimanin rabin jawabin, Sarki ya tashi daga rubutun da yake na shirye-shiryen zuwa ƙwaƙwalwa daga abubuwan da aka gwada a baya "Ina da mafarki" ya hana. Ofayan daga cikin waɗannan mafarkin yanzu yana rubuce a cikin wayewar ƙasa: "cewa childrena littleana ƙanana guda huɗu wata rana zasu zauna a cikin ƙasar da ba za a yanke musu hukunci da launin fatarsu ba amma ta hanyar yanayin halayensu." Jawabin ya kammala a cikin kyakkyawar fashewar magana mai rikitarwa, dangane da taken "Bari 'yanci ya ringa": "Lokacin da muka bari ta ringa daga kowane kauye da kowane kauye…," in ji King ya ce, "za mu iya hanzarta wannan ranar. lokacin da duk 'ya'yan Allah… za su iya haɗa hannu su rera waƙa a cikin kalmomin tsohon na Negro na ruhaniya:' Kyauta a ƙarshe! Kyauta a karshe! Na gode wa Allah Maɗaukaki, a ƙarshe mun sami 'yanci!' 'A cikin 2016, Time Mujallu ta gane cewa jawabi a matsayin daya daga cikin manyan ayyuka goma na tarihi.
Agusta 29. A wannan rana a kowace shekara, ana kiyaye Ranar Kasashen duniya na Majalisar Dinkin Duniya akan gwagwarmayar Nuclear. Kungiyoyin zaman lafiya a duniya suna amfani da ranar don ilmantar da jama'a game da bukatar kawo ƙarshen gwaje-gwajen makaman nukiliya na duniya, wanda zai haifar da haɗari ga cututtuka ga mutane, muhalli, da duniya. Na farko ya lura a cikin 2010, ranar da aka kaddamar a ranar Jumma'a ta 29, 1991, ta hanyar nazarin makaman nukiliya a Kazakhstan, sannan kuma wani ɓangare na Tarayyar Soviet. Yawan daruruwan na'urori na nukiliya sun kasance sun rabu da su a can a tsawon shekaru arba'in, duka sama da ƙasa, kuma sun haddasa mummunar lalacewar lokaci zuwa mazauna kewaye. Kamar yadda na 2016, matakan radiation a cikin ƙasa da ruwa a kusa da garin Semey (tsohon Semipalatinsk), 100 mil kilomita a gabashin shafin, har yanzu sau goma ya fi yadda ya dace. An haifi jariran tare da nakasa, kuma, don rabi na yawan jama'a, rawar rayuwa ba ta da shekaru 60. Baya ga gargadi game da hatsarori na gwajin makaman nukiliya, Ranar Duniya ta Duniya kan gwagwarmayar nukiliya ta tunatar da duniya cewa yarjejeniyar da Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta dauka don kawo ƙarshen gwaji ba ta riga ta fara aiki ba. Yarjejeniyar 1996 ta Bankin Tsaro ta Nukiliya (CTBT) ta hana dukkan gwajin nukiliya ko fashewa a kowane wuri. Amma zai iya yin haka ne kawai lokacin da duk 44 ya furta cewa ya shiga tattaunawa don ƙirƙirar yarjejeniya, kuma yana da ikon nukiliya ko masu bincike a lokacin, sun tabbatar da shi. Shekaru ashirin bayan haka, jihohin takwas, ciki har da Amurka, ba a yi haka ba.
Agusta 30. A wannan rana a cikin 1963, an kafa hanyar haɗin linzamin "Hot line" tsakanin fadar fadar White House da Kremlin da aka tsara don bunkasa musayar diplomasiyya a tsakanin shugabannin kasashen biyu a yayin taron gaggawa. Kirkirar Cuban Missile Crisis na Oktoba 1962 ne ya haifar da wannan bidi'ar, inda aika sakonni ta wayar tarho ya dauki awanni kafin ya isa wani bangaren, yana kara dagula tattaunawar da ta rigaya ta kasance tsakanin manyan kasashen duniya masu dauke da makaman nukiliya. Tare da sabuwar fasahar Hot Line, saƙonnin waya da aka buga a cikin na'ura mai ɗauke da waya za su iya isa ɗaya gefen cikin 'yan mintoci kaɗan. Abin farin ciki, babu buƙatar layin Hotuna ya tashi har zuwa 1967, lokacin da Shugaba Lyndon Johnson yayi amfani da shi don sanar da Firayim Ministan Soviet na wancan lokacin Alexei Kosygin game da wata dabara ta dabara da yake tunanin shiga tsakani a Yakin Larabawa-Isra’ila na Yaki shida. Zuwa 1963, Shugaba Kennedy da Firayim Ministan Soviet Nikita Khrushchev tuni sun kulla kyakkyawar dangantaka bisa fahimtar juna da amincewa. Mafi yawan samfuran ne na musayar shekaru biyu na wasiƙu na hukuma da wasiƙu na mutum. Majoraya daga cikin manyan alamun wasikun shine dalilin sasantawa wanda ya kawo ƙarshen Rikicin Makami mai linzami na Cuba. Hakanan ta ba da ƙarfin gwiwa ga iyakance yarjejeniyar hana kera makaman nukiliya na watan 5 ga Agusta, 1963, da kuma jawabin Shugaban Amurka na Jami'ar Amurka watanni biyu da suka gabata game da alaƙar Amurka da Soviet. Can, Kennedy ya yi kira "ba kawai zaman lafiya a zamaninmu ba amma zaman lafiya na kowane lokaci." A cikin wasikar girmamawa ga Kennedy bayan mutuwarsa, Khrushchev ya nuna shi a matsayin "mutum ne mai faffadan ra'ayoyi wanda ke neman sanin halin da duniya ke ciki da kuma neman hanyoyin magance matsalolin kasa da kasa da ba su daidaita ta hanyar tattaunawa."
Agusta 31. A wannan rana a cikin 1945, wasu mutane dubu biyu a London Hallminster Hall Hall sun kira batun "Duniya ta Duniya ko Duniya ta Lalata" a cikin ragawa akan yaduwar makaman nukiliya. A Westminster, a ko'ina cikin duniya, bombings na Hiroshima da Nagasaki kawai 'yan makonni da suka wuce sun sa dubban mutane su shiga cikin kundin tsarin mulki don kare' yan adam daga hallaka ta nukiliya. A farkon, tsoro na makaman nukiliya na duniya ya shiga hannun da ra'ayin gwamnati. Bertrand Russell ne ya yi nasara, tare da wasu, kuma ya jawo dubban mutane zuwa taron jama'a inda aka tattauna. Kalmar "Wata duniya ko a'a" ba ta da hankali ba kawai ta hanyar Russell, amma ta Gandhi da Einstein. Ko London Times ya bayyana cewa "dole ne ya zama ba zai yiwu ba a yakin da zai fara, ko kuma 'yan adam ya halaka." A cikin watanni masu zuwa da kuma shekaru, duk da haka, masu magana a yakin basasa na Birtaniya, yayin da suke ci gaba da hukunta masu jefa bam a kasar Japan, sun fara yin shawarwari ga makaman nukiliya iko da kwance. Ta hanyar 1950s, "Wata Duniya" ba ta kasance mahimmanci game da motsi na zanga-zangar ba, amma da farko burin masu fashi da masu bada shawara ga gwamnatin duniya. Duk da haka, ta hanyar jaddada mummunar mummunan tashe-tashen hankulan makaman nukiliya, kungiyoyin zaman lafiya da rikici a Birtaniya da kuma a ko'ina cikin Yamma sun taimaka wajen kawo sauyi a cikin tunanin mutane da yawa don karɓar iyakacin ikon sarauta. Tun da mummunar haɗari da makaman nukiliya suka fuskanta, mutane sun nuna sha'awar karɓar sabon tunani game da dangantaka tsakanin kasashen duniya. Muna godiya ga masanin tarihin Lawrence S. Wittner, wanda cikakkun rubuce-rubuce game da ƙungiyoyin nukiliya na nukiliya sun ba da bayanai game da wannan labarin.
Wannan Almanac Peace yana ba ku damar sanin mahimman matakai, ci gaba, da koma-baya a cikin motsi don zaman lafiya da ya gudana a kowace ranar shekara.
Sayi bugun bugawar, Ko PDF.
Wannan Almanac Peace ya kamata ya kasance mai kyau don kowace shekara har sai an kawar da duk yaƙe-yaƙe da samar da zaman lafiya mai ɗorewa. Riba daga tallace-tallace na buga da nau'ikan PDF suna tallafawa aikin World BEYOND War.
Rubutun da aka buga kuma aka inganta David Swanson.
Audio da aka yi rikodin Tim Pluta.
Abubuwan da aka rubuta Robert Anschuetz, David Swanson, Alan Knight, Marilyn Olenick, Eleanor Millard, Erin McElfresh, Alexander Shaia, John Wilkinson, William Geimer, Peter Goldsmith, Gar Smith, Thierry Blanc, da Tom Schott.
Tunani don batutuwa da aka gabatar David Swanson, Robert Anschuetz, Alan Knight, Marilyn Olenick, Eleanor Millard, Darlene Coffman, David McReynolds, Richard Kane, Phil Runkel, Jill Greer, Jim Gould, Bob Stuart, Alaina Huxtable, Thierry Blanc.
Music amfani da izini daga “Ofarshen Yaƙi,” ta Eric Colville.
Kiɗan sauti da haɗewa ta hanyar Sergio Diaz
Graphics by Parisa Saremi.
World BEYOND War ƙungiya ce mai son tashin hankali a duniya don kawo ƙarshen yaƙi da tabbatar da adalci mai dorewa. Muna nufin kirkirar wayar da kan jama'a game da goyon baya don kawo karshen yaki da ci gaba da wannan tallafin. Muna aiki don ciyar da manufar ba kawai hana kowane takamammen yaki ba amma mu kauda ma'aikatun gaba ɗaya. Muna ƙoƙarin sauya al'adun yaƙi da ɗayan zaman lafiya wanda hanyar tashin hankali ta rikice rikice ta rikice ya zama zubar da jini.
