NguRichard Falk, World BEYOND War, Ngo-Ephreli 29, i-2021
ZISONGELA UMTHETHO WOMHLABA WONKE NOMYALELO WOMHLABA
Ama-drones ahlaselwe mhlawumbe yisikhali esinzima kunazo zonke esifakwe ku-arsenal yokwenza impi kusukela ngebhomu le-athomu, futhi ngokombono wezwer, kungahle kube yingozi nakakhulu emiphumeleni nasemiphumeleni yalo. Lokhu kungabonakala njengesitatimende sokukhathazeka esingajwayelekile, esethusayo nesinomoya ophefumulayo. Ngemuva kwakho konke, ibhomu le-athomu ekusetshenzisweni kwalo kokuqala lazibonakalisa likwazi ukubhubhisa amadolobha wonke, lisabalalise imisebe ebulalayo nomaphi lapho umoya wawuyisa khona, lisongela ikusasa lempucuko, futhi lisongela nokusinda kwalolu hlobo. Ishintshe kakhulu isimo sempi yamasu, futhi isazoqhubeka nokukhathaza ikusasa lomuntu kuze kube sekupheleni kwesikhathi.
Kodwa-ke, yize kungenangqondo nemicabango yempi echaza ubuholi bokungazimiseli kwabaholi bezepolitiki ukuthi basebenze ngonembeza ekuqedeni izikhali zenuzi, kuyisikhali esingakaze sisetshenziswe kule minyaka engama-76 kusukela saqala ukudalulwa kubahlali abangenathemba IHiroshima neNagasaki.[1] Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukufeza okungasetshenziswanga bekuyinto ehamba phambili kwezomthetho, yokuziphatha, nokuqonda kwabaholi nabahleli bempi selokhu ibhomu lokuqala labangela ukwethuka nokuhlupheka okungachazeki kumaJapane ahlaselwe yilokho abekhona ngalolo suku kulawo madolobha abhujisiwe. .
The ukuhleleka kwesibili izinkinga ebekiwe emashumini eminyaka angenele ukugwema impi yenuzi, noma okungenani ukunciphisa ubungozi bokwenzeka kwayo, yize bekungekho okungenangqondo, futhi okungenzeka ukuthi kungagcineki esikhathini eside, okungenani bekuhambisana nohlelo lwe-world order oluye lwavela ukuze lusebenze izintshisekelo eziyinhloko ezihlanganyelwe zezindawo ezithile.[2] Esikhundleni sokugcina lesi sikhali sokugcina sokubhujiswa kwabantu abaningi ngenhloso yempi yempi nokunqoba ezempi, izikhali zenuzi ziboshwe kakhulu ezindimeni zazo ukuvimbela kanye nezombusazwe zokuphoqelela, okuthi noma kungemthetho, kube nezinkinga zokuziphatha, futhi kungabaze ezempi, kucabange ukuthi uhlaka lwengxabano enkulu yamazwe omhlaba kunqunyelwe ekusebenzisaneni okulwa kwamazwe azimele.[3]
Ukuqinisa lezi zingqinamba ukulungiswa okuhambisanayo okutholwe ngezivumelwano zokulawulwa kwezikhali nokungavikeleki. Ukulawulwa kwezikhali okususelwa kuzintshisekelo zombuso wezikhali zenuzi eziyinhloko, i-United States neRussia, kufuna ukuzinza okuthe xaxa ngokunciphisa inani lezikhali zenuzi, ukwedlula ezinye zezinto ezinqabisayo nezimba eqolo, nokugwema izinhlelo zezikhali ezibizayo ezinganikeli noma yikuphi ukuvimbela okukhulu noma inzuzo yamasu.[4] Ngokuphikisana nokulawulwa kwezikhali, ukungazibeki phansi kubeka phambili futhi kuqinise ubukhulu obuqonde mpo bokuhleleka komhlaba, kugunyaze ukwakheka kwezomthetho okubili okuphezulu komqondo nomthetho ovundlile wokulingana kwamazwe.
Umbuso wokungavikeleki uye wavumela iqembu elincane, elanda kancane kancane ukuba liphathe futhi lithuthukise izikhali zenuzi, futhi lenze izinsongo zenuzi, ngenkathi livimbela izifunda ezisele ezingama-186 noma ezingaphezulu ukuzithola, noma zithole nomngcele wokukhiqiza izikhali zenuzi.[5] Lezi zimiso zokungazibandakanyi ziphinde zaphazanyiswa ukuxhumanisa ne-geopolitics, okwenza kube namazinga aphindaphindiwe, ukuphoqelelwa kokukhetha, kanye nezinqubo zobulungu eziphikisanayo, njengoba kubonakala ngesisekelo sempi sokuvimbela esincike maqondana ne-Iraq manje ne-Iran, kanye nendawo yokuthula yokuthula evunyelwe ku-arsenal yezikhali zenuzi ezaziwayo, nokho ezingamukelwa ngokusemthethweni.
Lokhu okuhlangenwe nakho kwezikhali zenuzi kusitshela izinto eziningana ngomthetho wamazwe omhlaba kanye nokuhleleka komhlaba okubeka isizinda esiwusizo sokucabanga ngezinselele ezahlukahlukene kakhulu nezilingo ezethusayo ezivela ekuziphendukeleni okusheshayo kwama-drones ezempi nokusakazeka kwawo emazweni angaphezu kwekhulu nakwamanye amazwe angewona ombuso. abalingisi. Okokuqala, ukungathandi kanye / noma ukwehluleka kohulumeni ababusayo – amazwe aseWestphalian amile - ukuqeda lezi zikhali zokugcina ukubhujiswa okukhulu nokufeza umhlaba ongenazo izikhali zenuzi yize kunemithelela ye-apocalyptic. Intando edingekayo yezepolitiki ayikaze yakheke, futhi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi yehlile empeleni.[6] Kunezincazelo eziningi ezinikeziwe ngalokhu kwehluleka ukususa ubuntu kule Achilles Heal yokuhleleka komhlaba, kusuka ekwesabeni ukukopela, ukungakwazi ukukhipha ubuchwepheshe, isimangalo sokuphepha okuphezulu lapho ukuvinjelwa nokubusa kwamasu kuqhathaniswa nokulwa nezikhali, a uthango ekuqhamukeni kwesitha esibi nesokuzibulala, umuzwa odakayo wamandla amakhulu, ukuzethemba kokuxhasa iphrojekthi yokubusa umhlaba wonke, kanye nodumo oluza nokwekilabhu ekhetheke kakhulu ukujoyina amazwe amakhulu aphakeme.[7]
Okwesibili, imibono yokunqanda nokungaziphathi kahle ingaqondaniswa nobuhle nokucabanga okulawule isiko lobuqiniso bezepolitiki okuhlala kuchaza indlela abacabangi bakahulumeni abacabanga futhi benze ngayo kuwo wonke umlando wokuhleleka komhlaba okuphakathi kukahulumeni.[8] Umthetho wamazwe omhlaba awusebenzi ekulawuleni izifiso zamasu nokuziphatha kwamazwe anamandla, kepha uvame ukuphoqelelwa ngenkani kwezinye izifundazwe ngenhloso yezinjongo zezombusazwe, ezibandakanya ukuzinza kohlelo.
Okwesithathu, umthetho wezempi wamazwe omhlaba uhlale ubeka izikhali namasu amasha ahlinzeka izinzuzo ezinkulu zamasosha ezweni elizimele, ehlanjululwa ngokucela 'ukuphepha' kanye 'nesidingo sezempi' ukuze asuse eceleni noma yiziphi izithiyo zomthetho nezokuziphatha ezisendleleni.[9] Okwesine, ngenxa yokwanda kokungathembani, ezokuphepha zilinganiselwe ukubhekana nezimo ezimbi kakhulu noma eziseduze kakhulu, okuyiyona imbangela enkulu ukungavikeleki kanye nezinkinga zomhlaba. Lawa maqoqo amane we-generalizations, yize engenakho ukucashunwa nesibonelo, ahlinzeka ukuqonda okungemuva kokuthi kungani imizamo yokulawula izindlela zokulwa nempi, izikhali nokuziphatha kobutha kube nemiphumela edumazayo kangaka, yize ubuhlakani obunamandla nobunamandla izimpikiswano ezisekela imikhawulo eqinile kakhulu ohlelweni lwempi.[10]
IZIMBALI ZOKUPHIKISA: I-CHIAROSCURO GEOPOLITICS[11]
Ama-Drones, njengezinhlelo ezintsha zezikhali eziphendula izinsongo zokuphepha zanamuhla, zinenqwaba yezici ezibenza babonakale kunzima kakhulu ukuzilawula, uma kubhekwa isimo sengxabano yezombusazwe yangaleso sikhathi. Lokhu kufaka ikakhulukazi izinsongo ezenziwa ngabalingisi abangawona ombuso, ukuthuthukiswa kwamaqhinga amaphekula angewona ombuso nawombuso asongela amandla ngisho namazwe amakhulu ukusekela ukuphepha kwezwe, kanye nokwehluleka noma ukungathandi kohulumeni abaningi ukuvimbela indawo yabo ukuthi isetshenziswe ukwethula ukuhlasela kwamazwe omhlaba ngisho nasezweni elinamandla kakhulu. Ngokombono wombuso ucubungula izindlela zawo zempi ngaphakathi kwesimo samanje somhlaba jikelele, ama-drones abonakala ekhanga kakhulu, futhi izinzuzo ezingokoqobo zokutholwa, ukuthuthukiswa kanye nokusetshenziswa zikhulu kakhulu kunasezikhali zenuzi.
Ama-Drones awabizi kakhulu kumafomu awo amanje uma kuqhathaniswa nezindiza zempi ezinamadoda, cishe aqeda ngokuphelele noma iyiphi ingozi yokulimala komhlaseli, ikakhulukazi maqondana nempi elwa nabalingisi abangawona ombuso, izinhloso zasolwandle, noma amazwe akude, anamandla qalisa iziteleka ngokunemba ngisho nasezindaweni ezikude kakhulu zokucasha okunzima ukufinyelela emabuthweni omhlaba, zingakhomba ngokunembile ngesisekelo semininingwane ethembekile eqoqwe ngokusetshenziswa kwama-drones wokubheka anamandla amakhulu okuzwa nokubukisisa, ukusetshenziswa kwawo kungaba ezombusazwe ilawulwa ukuqinisekisa ukuzibamba kanye nohlobo olusha lwenqubo efanele evumela ukufaneleka kokuhlosiwe ezinqubweni zokuhlola ezenziwa ngemuva kweminyango evaliwe, kanti ukulimala okuqondile okwenziwe nokucekelwa phansi okubangelwe ama-drones kuyinto encane uma kuqhathaniswa nezinye izindlela zobuphekula nezinhlobo ezahlukahlukene impi engalingani. Empeleni, kungani ukusetshenziswa kwama-drones kungathathwa njengempi ebucayi ngokuziphatha, ehlakaniphile, futhi esemthethweni eguqula inqubomgomo yabashokobezi baseMelika ibe yimodeli yokulawulwa kwengxabano efanele kunokuba igxekwe futhi ikhalelwe ngokuchitha umthetho wobuntu wamazwe omhlaba?[12]
Kunokulandisa okubili okuphikisanayo, nokuhlukahluka okuningi ngakunye, kuhlaziywa ikhwalithi ebalulekile (yomthetho, yokuziphatha) yempi yempi yedrone, neqhaza layo elibaluleke kakhulu muva nje ekusebenziseni amaqhinga okubulala okuqondisiwe kwabantu ababekiwe. Ngakolunye uhlangothi lwenkhulumomphendvulwano, kukhona 'abantwana bokukhanya' abathi benza konke okusemandleni abo ukunciphisa izindleko nezinga lempi ngenkathi bavikela umphakathi waseMelika ebudloveni babashisekeli abanhloso yabo ukusebenzisa udlame ukubulala abaningi izakhamizi ngangokunokwenzeka. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, kukhona 'izingane zobumnyama' ezivezwa ngokugxeka njengezenza ubugebengu bohlobo olubi kakhulu lokubulala abantu abathile, kufaka phakathi izakhamizi zaseMelika, ngaphandle kokuzenzisa kokuziphendulela ngamaphutha okwahlulela nangokweqile kokuhlaselwa. Empeleni, zombili lezi zindaba ziveza impi njengendlela yokuzikhethela yokubulala okulandelanayo ngaphansi kwezinhlaka zombuso, egunyaze ngokusemthethweni ukubulawa kwabantu ngaphandle kwamacala noma ngaphandle kwesizathu esinemigomo noma ukuphendula noma ngabe inhloso iyisakhamuzi saseMelika.[13]
Ukuqhathaniswa kokusetshenziswa kwe-drone nezikhali zenuzi kuyadalula nakulesi simo. Akukaze kube khona mzamo wokuxhasa iqhaza lempucuko elingenziwa ngokusatshiswa nokusetshenziswa kwezikhali zenuzi, ngale kombango oshukumisayo, ongasoze wakhonjiswa, ukuthi ukuba khona kwabo nje kwavimbela iMpi Yomshoshaphansi ekubeni yiMpi Yesithathu Yomhlaba. Isimangalo esinjalo, ukuze sithembeke, sisekelwe enkolelweni yokuziphatha ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwabo uqobo kuzoba yinhlekelele ezinhlangothini zombili, kufaka phakathi nabasebenzisi, ngenkathi usongo lokusebenzisa lwalunezizathu zokudambisa ukuthatha ingozi nokucasulwa yisitha.[14] Ngokuphambene nalokho, ngama-drones, icala elihle lokuqinisekisa ukuthi izikhali zihlotshaniswa kuphela nokusetshenziswa kwangempela uma kuqhathaniswa nezinye izindlela zendlela ejwayelekile yempi yokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu emoyeni noma ukuhlaselwa komhlaba.
“IZINGANE ZOKUKHANYA”
Izingane zohlobo olulula lwempi ye-drone zanikezwa isikhundla se-canonical ngenkulumo kaMongameli uBarack Obama eyethulwe, ngokufanelekile, eNational Defense University, ngoMeyi 23, 2013.[15] U-Obama uqinise ukuphawula kwakhe ngokuholwa okunikezwe uhulumeni esikhathini esiyiminyaka engamakhulu amabili lapho isimo sempi siguquke kakhulu kaningi kepha kuthiwa akukaze kululaze ukwethembeka ezimisweni ezisungulayo zeriphabhuliki ezifakwe kuMthethosisekelo, "ezisebenza njenge ikhampasi yethu kuzo zonke izinhlobo zoshintsho. . . . Izimiso zoMthethosisekelo zibhekane nazo zonke izimpi, futhi zonke izimpi seziphelile. ”
Ngalesi sizathu, u-Obama uqhubeka nenkulumo engeyinhle ayithola ku-Bush President, ukuthi ukuhlaselwa kuka-9/11 kuqale impi kunokuba kwakhiwe okukhulu ubugebengu. Ngamazwi akhe, “Le kwakuyimpi ehlukile. Awekho amabutho eza ogwini lwethu, futhi ibutho lethu lalingeyona isisulu esiyinhloko. Esikhundleni salokho, iqembu lamaphekula leza lizobulala izakhamuzi eziningi ngangokunokwenzeka. ” Awukho umzamo wokubhekana nombuzo wokuthi kungani lokhu kucasulwa kungaphathwa kangcono njengobugebengu, obekuzosebenza ekuqaliseni izimpi ezingapheli zangaphambi kuka-9/11 'izimpi ezingunaphakade' ne-Afghanistan ne-Iraq. Esikhundleni salokho, u-Obama uhlambalaza, futhi esikhundleni sokuphikisa isimangalo esithi inselelo bekuwuku "vumelanisa izinqubomgomo zethu nomthetho."[16]
Ngokusho kuka-Obama, usongo olwenziwa yi-al-Qaeda eminyakeni eyishumi eyedlule luye lwancipha kakhulu, yize lunganyamalalanga, okwenza kwaba “yisikhathi sokuzibuza imibuzo enzima — ngohlobo lwezinsongo zanamuhla nokuthi kufanele sihlangabezane nazo kanjani.” Vele, kuveza ukuthi ukuthweswa umqhele kwalolu hlobo lwempi bekungekhona ukunqoba enkundleni yempi noma indawo yokuhlala, kepha ukubulawa ngo-2011 komholi we-al-Qaeda, u-Osama bin Laden, endaweni engeyona eyokulwa ukucasha okungabalulekile kangako ekusebenzeni emkhankasweni obanzi wokulwa nabashokobezi. U-Obama uveze lo muzwa wokufeza okuthile ngokubiza amagama ahlabayo ohlwini lwababulali: "Namuhla, u-Osama bin Laden ushonile, kanjalo nabaningi bakhe abaphezulu." Lo mphumela awusiwo umphumela, njengasezimpini ezedlule, wokuhlangana kwamasosha, kepha kunalokho kungumphumela wezinhlelo zokubulala ezihlosiwe ngokungemthetho kanye nokusebenza kwamabutho akhethekile okwephula amalungelo wobukhosi bezinye izifundazwe lapho kungekho khona imvume yabo esemthethweni.
Kukulesi simo lapho inkulumo ka-Obama iphendukela khona empikiswaneni edalwe ukuthembela kuma-drones, okusetshenziswe kwawo kukhuphuke kakhulu selokhu u-Obama afike eWhite House ngo-2009. U-Obama uqinisekisa ngolimi olungaqondakali nolungaqondakali ukuthi “izinqumo esizenzayo ukwenza manje kuzochaza uhlobo lwesizwe — nomhlaba — esiwushiyela izingane zethu. . . . Ngakho-ke iMelika isesiphambanweni. Kumele sichaze uhlobo nobubanzi balo mzabalazo, kungenjalo wona uzosichaza. ” Ngomzamo wokuphinda agxile emzabalazweni wokulwa nobushokobezi bomhlaba wonke, u-Obama unikeza ulimi olwamukelekile lokwehlisa abasebenzi: “. . . akumele sichaze umzamo wethu hhayi 'njengempi yomhlaba wonke yokulwa nobuphekula,' kodwa njengochungechunge lwemizamo ephikelelayo, ebhekiswe ekuqedeni izinethiwekhi ezithile zabashokobezi abanodlame abasongela iMelika. ” Kodwa-ke akukho ncazelo enikezwayo yokuthi kungani imizabalazo yokulawulwa kwezepolitiki ezindaweni ezikude njengaseYemen, eSomalia, eMali, ngisho nasePhilippines kufanele ibhekwe njengezindawo zokulwa ngokubona kwezokuphepha kwezwe ngaphandle kokuthi ukufinyelela kwecebo lomhlaba wonke laseMelika kuhlanganisa wonke amazwe emhlabeni. Impela, ukwethula amandla ezempi aseMelika kulokho okubonakala kuwumzabalazo wokulawula impilo yezepolitiki yangaphakathi yochungechunge lwamazwe angaphandle akwenzi izizathu emthethweni wamazwe omhlaba wokubalekela impi noma nokusongela nokusetshenziswa kwamandla omhlaba.
Akukhona ukuthi u-Obama akanandaba nokukhathazeka ngalezi zinto ezikhathazayo[17], kepha ukungazimiseli kwakhe ukungagunci ukuhlola amaqiniso aphathekayo walokho okwenziwa egameni laseMelika okwenza isithombe sakhe esimpofu ngempi ye-drone siphazamise futhi sidukise. U-Obama uqinisekisa ukuthi “[a] s kwakuyiqiniso ezingxabanweni zangaphambilini ezihlomile, lobu buchwepheshe obusha buphakamisa imibuzo ejulile — mayelana nokuthi ngubani ohlosiwe, nokuthi kungani, mayelana nabalimele umphakathi, kanye nengozi yokwakha izitha ezintsha; mayelana nokuba semthethweni kwalezo ziteleka ngaphansi komthetho wase-US nomthetho wamazwe omhlaba; ngokuphathelene nokuziphendulela nokuziphatha. ”[18] Yebo, lezi ngezinye zezingqinamba, kepha izimpendulo ezinikeziwe zingcono kakhulu kunokukhishwa okungekho emthethweni kokukhathazeka okungokomthetho nokuziphatha okuphakanyisiwe. Impikiswano eyisisekelo ebekiwe ukuthi impi ye-drone ibilokhu ikhona ngempumelelo futhi zomthetho, nokuthi kubangela ukulimala okumbalwa kunezinye izindlela zempi. Lokhu kuphikisana kungaphansi kokungabaza okunzima okungakaze kubhekwane nakho ngamagama aphathekayo angafaneleka uma u-Obama bekusho lokho akushoyo ngokubhekana nemibuzo enzima.[19]
Ukuvikela kwakhe ukuba semthethweni kujwayelekile kunqubo yonke. ICongress yanikeza iSigungu Esiphezulu, igunya elingenamkhawulo ukuthi lisebenzise wonke amandla adingekayo ukubhekana nezinsongo ezavela ngemuva kokuhlaselwa kwango-9/11, ngaleyo ndlela kwanelisa izidingo zomthethosisekelo wasekhaya wokwehlukaniswa kwamandla. Kumazwe omhlaba, u-Obama ubeka izimpikiswano mayelana nelungelo le-United States lokuzivikela ngaphambi kokuqinisekisa, "Ngakho-ke le yimpi enobulungiswa — impi elwa ngokulingana, ekugcineni, kanye nokuzivikela." Kulapha lapho ayengaphakamisa khona imibuzo eyayinokungabaza mayelana nokuhlaselwa kweWorld Trade Center nePentagon njengokuthathwa 'njengezenzo zempi' kunamacala obugebengu obukhulu njengokuthi 'ubugebengu obumelene nabantu.' Kwakunezinye izindlela zokulwa nempi ezihambisana nesimangalo sokuzivikela ngenethiwekhi yamaphekula yamazwe omhlaba i-al Qaeda ebonakala iyikho okungenzeka ukuthi yahlolwa okungenani, noma ngabe yayingamukelwa empeleni, emuva ngonyaka we-2001. Ukuhlelwa kabusha okunjalo kwezokuphepha Umzamo ka-2013 ubungaphakamisa lo mbuzo oyisisekelo noma, ngesizotha, wehlise isenzo sobuphekula esivela empini saya empini yomhlaba wonke yokulwa nobugebengu bamazwe omhlaba obuqhutshwa ngomoya wokubambisana phakathi kohulumeni ngendlela ehlonipha umthetho wamazwe omhlaba, kufaka phakathi i-UN Charter ..
U-Obama wehlulekile ukusebenzisa leli thuba. Esikhundleni salokho wethule isethi yezimpendulo ezingekhohlisayo ekugxekeni okuyinhloko komphakathi kwempi yedrone njengombono nokwenza. U-Obama uthi, naphezu kobufakazi obukhulayo obuphambene nalokhu, ukusetshenziswa kwe-drone kuvinjelwe "uhlaka olulawula ukusetshenziswa kwethu kwamandla ukulwa namaphekula - ephikelela eziqondisweni ezicacile, ukwengamela nokuziphendulela manje okuhlanganiswe ku-Isiqondiso Senqubomgomo kaMongameli." Ilandele imigqa efanayo naleyo eyathathwa nguJohn Brennan enkulumweni eyayiseHarvard Law School ngonyaka noma ngaphambili. UBrennan ngaleso sikhathi wayesebenza njengomeluleki omkhulu wokulwa nobushokobezi ka-Obama. Ugcizelele ukuzibophezela kukaHulumeni wase-US ekulandeleni umthetho kanye namagugu entando yeningi anikeze umphakathi waseMelika isimo sawo esihlukile: “Ngibe nokwazisa okukhulu ngendima edlalwa izindinganiso zethu, ikakhulukazi umthetho. ukugcina izwe lethu liphephile. ”[20] UBrennan, ngenkathi ethi wenza konke okungenziwa ukuvikela abantu baseMelika kulezi zinsongo ezivela ngaphandle nangaphakathi waqinisekisa izethameli zakhe zesikole somthetho ngendlela efaka phakathi "ukunamathela ekusebenzeni komthetho" kuzo zonke izinto azenzileyo, ngokusho okucacile kokuthi " izenzo ezicashile. ” Kepha okushiwo lapha ngokusobala akukhona ukuyeka ukusetshenziswa kwamandla anqatshelwe ngumthetho wamazwe omhlaba, kepha kuphela ukuthi imisebenzi ecashile esebe yingxenye enkulu 'yempi yokulwa nobuphekula' kaweqi “iziphathimandla esizinikezwe yiCongress. ” Ngomqondo obhedayo, uBrennan ukhomba umthetho kuphela ezifuywayo igunya lezomthetho ngenkathi kubonakala sengathi kulungisiswa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla emazweni ahlukahlukene angaphandle. Uma kukhulunywa ngokubaluleka komthetho wamazwe omhlaba, uBrennan uthembele ekwakhiweni kokuzenzela kanye nakwamanye amazwe okunengqondo ngokomthetho ukuphikisa ukuthi umuntu angabhekiswa uma ebhekwa njengosongo noma ngabe ukude nalokho okubizwa ngokuthi 'indawo yokulwa eshisayo,' lokho , noma yikuphi emhlabeni kungenzeka kube yingxenye yendawo esemthethweni yempi.[21] Isimangalo esinjalo sikhohlisa ngokujulile njengoba ukusetshenziswa kwe-drone emazweni afana neYemen neSomalia kungekude nje kuphela nenkundla yempi eshisayo; izingxabano zabo empeleni zinqanyuliwe ngokuphelele, futhi okubizwa ngokuthi 'izimangalo zesiginesha' kuthathwa njengezinjongo ezifanele abantu abenza ngokusolisayo kuzimo zabo zakwamanye amazwe.
Isimangalo sobumongameli buka-Obama ukuthi ama-drones abhekise kuphela kulabo abasongela, ukuthi kuthathwa ukunakekelwa okukhulu ukugwema ukulimala komphakathi, nokuthi inqubo enjalo iveza ukulimala okuncane kanye nomonakalo kunalokho obekuzovela ekusetshenzisweni kwangaphambilini kwezinsongo ezazithembele ubuchwepheshe be-cruder bezindiza ezinamabhuzu namabhuthi phansi. U-Obama uphendule lo mbuzo ongaqondakali wokuthi ngabe kungaleli gunya yini ukukhomba izakhamizi zaseMelika ezenza ezombusazwe ngenkathi zihlala kwelinye izwe. U-Obama wasebenzisa udaba luka-Anwar Awlaki, umshumayeli wamaSulumane, ukuze achaze isisekelo sesinqumo sokumbulala, ekhomba ukuxhumana kwakhe nezinsolo zobuphekula ezehlulekile e-United States: “. . . lapho isakhamuzi sase-US siya phesheya siyolwa neMelika. . . Ukuba yisakhamuzi akumele kusetshenziswe njengesihlangu njengoba nesigilamkhuba esidubula abantu abangenacala kufanele sivikeleke eqenjini le-swat. ”[22] Nokho leyo ncazelo ayiphenduli kubagxeki ukuthi kungani ngaphambi kokubulawa kwakhe kungekho macala ayebekwe u-Awlaki abekwa phambi kohlobo oluthile lwenhlangano yokwahlulela, okwenza ukuba ezokuvikela eziqokwe yinkantolo, ziqinisekise ukuthi 'inqubo efanelekile' eqenjini elalithatha izinhloso hhayi nje isitembu senjoloba sezincomo ze-CIA ne-Pentagon, futhi impela kungani kungenakudalulwa okugcwele kwe-post-facto kobufakazi nezizathu.[23]
Okuphazamisa kakhulu, ngoba kuphakamisa ukholo olubi, ukwehluleka kuka-Obama ukuletha inkinga eyedlula yonke eyenzelwe iqembu le ntsha endaweni engafani neYemen kunalapho idrone ibambeke khona u-Anwar Awlaki. Iqembu ebelihlosiwe bekukhona nendodana ka-Awlaki eneminyaka engu-16, u-Abdulrahman Awlaki, umzala wakhe, nezinye izingane ezinhlanu ngenkathi belungiselela ukosa inyama evulekile ngo-Okthoba 14, 2011, emasontweni amathathu ngemuva kokuthi idrone ibulale ubaba ka-Abdulrahman. Umkhulu ka-Abdulrahman, u-Yemeni odumile owayengungqongqoshe wekhabhinethi kanye nomongameli waseyunivesithi, ulandisa ngemizamo yakhe ekhungathekisayo yokuphonsela inselelo ezinkantolo zaseMelika ukuthembela kulezi zinhlu ezikhona kanye nokungabikho kokuziphendulela ngisho nasezimweni ezimbi kakhulu. Lolu hlobo lwesigameko olugqamisa ukuthi kungani sonke isimangalo sokusebenza kwama-drones singaphansi kwalokhu dark ifu lokungakholwa. U-Awlaki omncane ubonakala eyisisulu salokho okubhalwe embizeni yezempi ngokuthi 'isiteleka sokusayinda,' okungukuthi, uhlu olushaywayo olwenziwe ngabantu abaqokiwe kepha luneqembu abahlaziyi beCIA noma bePentagon abalithola lisolisa ngokwanele ukufakazela ukubulala kwabo ukuqedwa. Ngokuphawulekile, u-Obama akakaze asho iziteleka ezisayinwayo enkulumweni yakhe, ngakho-ke akakwazi ukuzibophezela kuhulumeni ukuqeda lokho kubhekiswa. Lokhu kubukela phansi isimangalo sakhe sonke sokuthi ukukhomba kwenziwa ngendlela enokwethenjelwa ngaphansi kokuqondisa kwakhe futhi kwenziwa ngendlela ehlakaniphe ngokweqile okubeka imikhawulo kubantu ababizwa ngokuthi 'abaphezulu' abasongela ngqo ukuphepha kwe-US kanye nokuhlela noma yikuphi ukuhlaselwa ukuze kuqedwe ubukhulu bomonakalo ongaqondile kubantu bomphakathi. Lolu hlobo lokuhlenga luyakhohlisa noma ngabe lwamukelwa ngokwalo njengoba iziteleka ze-drone nezinsongo ngohlobo lwazo zisabalalisa ukwesaba okujulile kuyo yonke imiphakathi, ngakho-ke noma ngabe kubulawa noma kulimale umuntu oyedwa kuphela, umthelela wesiteleka uzwakala kakhulu kabanzi esikhaleni, futhi isikhathi eside ngesikhathi. Isifiso sokwesaba umbuso sibanzi ngokungenakugwenywa kunenhloso ethembisiwe yethagethi evunyelwe ngaphandle kwalapho umuntu ohlosiwe ehlala yedwa emaphandleni.
Kunezinye izindaba ezimbili enkulumweni ka-Obama ezidinga ukunakwa. Umqondo wakhe ophakathi nendawo wokubeka phambili ukuvikela abantu baseMelika kuzo zonke izinsongo, kubandakanya nezasekhaya eziluhlobo olukhonjiswe ukuqhuma kwamabhomu eFort Hood naseBoston Marathon, kepha uqinisekisa ukuthi akekho umongameli waseMelika okufanele "athumele amadroni ahlomile Inhlabathi yase-US. ”[24] Okokuqala, kuthiwani uma kunesibopho sokuvikelwa noma sokuphoqelelwa? Okwesibili, kunokubonakala kuvunywa okunikezwe, okungenani ngokuthula, kuma-drones angahlomile, okusho ukubhekwa emoyeni kwemisebenzi yasekhaya yabantu abasolwayo.
Indlela ka-Obama yokwamukela ukuthi osomaqhinga baseMelika babhekana nezinsongo zokuphepha ezidlula lezo amanye amazwe abhekene nazo ibukeka ingabazisayo, echaza ukuthi “[int] yakhe yinani lokuba yisizwe esinamandla amakhulu emhlabeni, ikakhulukazi njengoba impi yenguquko ihlasela umhlaba wama-Arabhu. ” Futhi ukukhishwa okungaqondakali akulokothi kuveze ukhonkolo: kungani kukhethwa abameli baseMelika? Ngabe izikhalazo zabo ezisemthethweni ezibhekiswe e-United States, okungathi uma zisuswa, zithuthukise ezokuphepha zaseMelika ngisho nangaphezu kokwenza ama-ambassade abe yizinqaba nokwenza ukuhlaselwa kwe-drone noma yikuphi emhlabeni kunikezwe kuphela umongameli ongaphenduli? Ngabe izimangalo zombuso waseMelika kanye nenethiwekhi yomhlaba wonke yezisekelo zamasosha nobukhona bamasosha zihambisana nokuhlolwa kwezomthetho kwezinsongo noma ukusetshenziswa kwamandla omhlaba? Kuthiwani ngohlelo lokubhekwa komhlaba wonke oludalulwe emibhalweni kahulumeni ekhishwe ngu-Edward Snowden?
Futhi lokho kukhishwa kuhle, kwesinye isikhathi kuze kucaciswe, enkulumweni yabo ehlukanisiwe yenkulumo, ngaphandle kokuthi kuze kube kuqhathaniswa nokwenziwa kokhonkolo kwezinqubomgomo, okugubuzelwe ubumnyama, okungukuthi, kuncishwe ukukhanya. Ekukhuthazeni amathoni, ngemuva kokunikeza isizathu sokuqhubeka nendlela yempi, u-Obama uyabona ekugcineni kwenkulumo yakhe ukuthi le mpi “njengezimpi zonke, kumele iphele. Yilokho umlando okweluleka ngakho, yilokho intando yeningi yethu ekudingayo. ” Uphetha ngokuchuma kokuzibophezela kokushisekela izwe: “Yilokho abantu baseMelika abazimisele ngakho — futhi abazimisele ukungadidwa.” UBrennan ukhethe amagama acishe afane ekugcineni inkulumo yakhe yaseHarvard Law School: “Njengabantu, njengesizwe, asikwazi — futhi akumele — sinqotshwe yisilingo sokubeka eceleni imithetho yethu nezindinganiso zethu lapho sibhekene nokusongelwa kwezokuphepha kwethu… re kangcono kunalokho. SingamaMelika. ”[25] Iphuzu elidabukisayo ukuthi ukukhishwa kungamanyala. Lokho esikwenze egameni lezokuphepha yikho kanye okushiwo ngu-Obama noBrennan okungafanele sikwenze maqondana nomthetho namagugu ezwe, futhi imizwa enjalo isanda kuphindwa nguBiden noBlinken. Lokhu kuthambekela kwezikhulu eziphezulu zaseMelika emthethweni wezamazwe omhlaba kwezothando kususwe ngokuphelele ekusetshenzisweni kwenqubomgomo yezangaphandle uma kukhulunywa 'ngezokuphepha' noma isu elihle. Siyazitshela futhi sifundisa abanye ukuthi bahlanganyele nathi ekubukeni izwe elibuswa umthetho, kepha indlela esiziphatha ngayo iphakamisa amaphethini asuselwa ekuboneni nasekufihleni.
“IZINGANE ZOBUMNYAMA”
Ukuphendukela ekulandiseni okuphikisayo lapho iqiniso lempi ye-drone lethulwa ngemodi ehluke ngokuphelele. Lokhu akusho ukuthi kuzokwaliwa ngokuphelele izimpi ze-drone, kepha kugcizelela ukuthi amaqhinga anjalo kanye nokusetshenziswa kwawo kwamanje akubikwa ngokufanele nangokwethembeka, futhi ngenxa yalokho, akunakubuyiswana kalula nomthetho-sisekelo noma umthetho wamazwe omhlaba noma nezindinganiso zokuziphatha ezikhona. Abagxeki benkulumo evamile yaseWashington bangabekwa icala ngokufuna ukucabanga ukuthi ayikho indlela yokunciphisa ukuthembela kuma-drones ngendlela ebucayi kumkhawulo womthetho nokuziphatha kunokuhlala kuphela ezindleleni ezihlukumezayo neziyingozi lapho ama-drones abekhona futhi asetshenziswa nguHulumeni wase-US. Ngamanye amagama, uma ukukhohlisa okuyisisekelo kwezingane ze-pro-drone zenkulumo elula ukugcina kugxilwe ezingeni elingaqondakali elingazinaki izinselelo ezikhona ezibangelwa izindlela zangempela nezingaba khona zokusetshenziswa, inkohliso ehambisanayo yezingane zesimo sobumnyama ukukhawulela ukuphawula kwabo ezingeni likakhonkolo elinganaki izingcindezi ezisemthethweni zokuphepha ezikhuthaza ukuthembela kuma-drones kanye nozakwabo esizindeni 'semisebenzi ekhethekile' ngohlu lozalo olungabuyiselwa emuva eMpini Yezwe II, uma kungenjalo ngaphambili. Inkulumo efanelekile kuma-drones ingafaka ukubumbana okwakuthatha ukuphendulwa kwezokuphepha ngenkathi kuqashelwa ukungezwani okujwayelekile kokwenza impi engenamngcele kunokuba kuchazwe ubungozi njengobugebengu obungenamkhawulo, kanye nokukhathazeka ngemiphumela yokuqinisekisa ukuthembela kurobhothi isondela ezingxabanweni lapho ukuxhumana kwabantu nezenzo zempi kuphukile noma kwenziwa kude.
Lokhu kuguqulwa kwezinsongo ezivela kubalingisi abangahambelani nendawo akungabazeki ukuthi uDick Cheney wayebhekise kuyiphi lapho ethuka ngokusobala umbono wakhe wokuthi i-United States ibuye ivikeleke emhlabeni we-post-9/11 idinga izenzo 'ohlangothini olumnyama.' Abasabalalisi bokuqala bezinkulumo 'zezingane zobumnyama' empeleni babengenamahloni ngokwamukela lesi sithombe nezinqubomgomo ezihambisanayo. Ngempela, uCheney uchaze ukungabi namthetho okuhle enhlolokhweni kaSeptemba 16, 2001 ngomhlaka Hlangana noCindezela: “Kumele futhi sisebenze, noma kunjalo, uhlobo lohlangothi olumnyama, uma uthanda. Kufanele sichithe isikhathi emathunzini omhlaba wezobunhloli. . . Yilelo zwe laba bantu abasebenza kulo, ngakho-ke kuzobaluleka ngathi ukusebenzisa noma yiziphi izindlela esinazo, ngokuyisisekelo, ukufeza inhloso yethu. ”[26] Lokhu kwakusho ukuthini ngesikhathi sangempela kwakuwukuthembela ekuhlukunyezweni, kumasayithi amnyama emazweni angaphandle, nasekubulaweni kohlu, nasekuqedeni izingqinamba zomthetho noma ukulungela ukugoqa izinkambiso zezomthetho ezifanele ukuba zingabi sesimweni sokuqinisekisa izinqubomgomo.[27] Lokhu kusho ukuthembela 'kumasayithi amnyama' ochungechungeni lwamazwe anobungani angavumela i-CIA ukuthi isebenzise izikhungo zayo zokuphenya ngemfihlo imigoqo kazwelonke yokulawula, futhi bekungeke kube nemibuzo ephakanyiswayo. Kuholele 'ekuhumusheni okungajwayelekile,' kudluliselwa abasolwa kohulumeni abazozibandakanya ekuhlushweni okungaphezu kwalokho obekusobala ukuthi kwamukeleka 'njengophenyo oluphakanyisiwe' ngaphansi kwezinhlaka eziqondile zaseMelika. Izisusa ezibonakalayo zikaDonald Rumsfeld zokwandiswa okukhulu kwePentagon Special Access Programme yeJoint Special Operations Command (JSOC) ngokwengxenye bekungukugwema ukuthembela kwi-CIA ngoba imizamo emibi ibingamazwi akhe "abulawa ukufa."[28] Lapho idokhumentari ye-PBS TV Ngaphambili wethula isithombe sayo sempi yokwesatshiswa ehambisana nobumongameli bukaGeorge W. Bush ngo-2008, wakhetha isihloko esithi “The Dark Side,” njengoba kwenza uJane Mayer ekugxekeni kwakhe kokuvala amasu asetshenziswa abaqambi beCheney / Rumsfeld impendulo kahulumeni ku-9/11.[29] Akumangazi ukuthi uCheney wayebonakala ekhululekile nangokuphonswa njengokwenziwa samuntu kobubi esikweni elidumile ngendlela ye I-star wars uhlamvu lukaDarth Vader.[30]
Njengoba kwaziwa manje, i-9/11 isize ukuxazululwa kwangaphambili nguCheney noRumsfeld ukugxila emandleni empi ehhovisi likamongameli kanye nokuphrojusa amandla aseMelika emhlabeni jikelele ngesisekelo sethuba langemva kwempi ebandayo kanye nezinto eziza kuqala ngaphandle kokubheka ukulinganiselwa kwendawo ubukhosi noma imikhawulo yomthetho wamazwe omhlaba. Inhloso yabo kwakuwukwengamela uguquko ezindabeni zamasosha olwaluzoletha impi kwabangu-21st Ikhulu leminyaka, okwakusho ukunciphisa izikhali namasu ajwayelekile, akhiqiza ukulimala kanye nokuphikisana kwasekhaya kwezepolitiki ngenqubomgomo yezwe engaphandle, nokuthembela kubuchwepheshe nobuchwepheshe obuzoba namandla okuhlinza ukunqoba noma yisiphi isitha noma yikuphi emhlabeni. U-9/11 ekuqaleni wayeyindida njengoba iqhinga elikhulu le-neocon lalihlelelwe ukufeza ukunqoba okusheshayo nokushibhile kohulumeni bamazwe angaphandle abanemodeli ye-Gulf War ngo-1991, kodwa ngokuzimisela okwandayo kokuzibandakanya kwezepolitiki ekuphoqeleni uhlobo lwezepolitiki imiphumela ezothuthukisa ukubusa komhlaba wonke kwe-US. Okwakungalindelwe, nokho, nokwethusa ukwesaba ezinhliziyweni eziningi, ukuthi abalingisi bezepolitiki abanohlonze babezophenduka abalingisi abangewona bombuso amabutho abo ahlakazeka ezindaweni eziningi futhi entula uhlobo lwesizinda esingaqondiswa ukuziphindiselela (futhi ngenxa yalokho, hhayi ngaphansi kokuvinjelwa). Ukuzijwayeza kulolo hlobo lwengozi yezokuphepha yikho okwaletha amacebo amnyama ngaphambili naphakathi nendawo, njengoba ubuhlakani babantu babubalulekile, abenzi bokubi abaphambili bangacasha noma kuphi kubandakanya ne-United States. Ngenxa yokuthi ubukhona babo bebuvame ukuxubana nabantu abangekho emphakathini, kuzodingeka ukuthi kube nodlame olungakhethi noma ukunemba okutholwe ngokubulala okuhlosiwe.
Kulapha lapho imisebenzi ekhethekile, efana nokubulawa kuka-Osama Bin Laden, kuyizimpawu, nempi ye-drone imvamisa yaba iqhinga nezindlela zokuzikhethela. Futhi kulapha lapho uphikisi wobushokobezi, yize ehlanganiswe ingubo yobumnyama, uqobo lwakhe abe uhlobo oluvunyelwe ngokusemthethweni lobuphekula. Umshisekeli wezepolitiki oqhumisa izakhiwo zomphakathi akahlukile ngokuqhathaniswa nomsebenzi kahulumeni ovula idrone noma eya emsebenzini wokubulala, noma ngabe le ngqophamlando ayisho ukuthi ikhombe ukunemba futhi yenqaba ukwamukela noma yimuphi umthwalo wokubulala ngokungakhethi.
Ngokuphendula izinga lokuqhubeka okuvezwe ngumongameli ka-Obama yize ethembele enkulumweni 'yezingane zokukhanya', abagxeki abakhululekile bathambekele ekugxileni ukuziphatha wombuso njengoba kubonakala ngokuncika kwawo kumaqhinga ohlangothini olumnyama. Ababhali abanjengoJeremy Scahill noMark Mazetti baxoxa ngezinga lapho izici ezibalulekile zomhlaba wokubuka umhlaba waseCheney / Rumsfeld zigcinwe khona, zandiswa, ngesikhathi sobumongameli buka-Obama: impi emathunzini; inkundla yempi yomhlaba wonke; ukubhekwa kwabasolwa okuchazwa ukuthi kufaka noma ngubani, yonke indawo; umcabango wosongo oluseduze njenganoma ngubani (kubandakanya izakhamizi zaseMelika) ngaphakathi noma ngaphandle kwezwe; ukushesha ukuthembela ezitelekeni ze-drone njengokugunyazwa ngumongameli; kanye nokubulala okuhlosiwe njengoba 'inkundla yempi' yamukelwa ngu-Obama ekhomba ukubulawa kuka-Osama Bin Laden njengephuzu eliphakeme lempumelelo yakhe empini elwa ne-al-Qaeda nezinhlangano ezingaphansi kwayo.
Kunokulungiswa okuthile ekuqhubekeni kwempi yobuphekula: kugcizelelwa kakhulu izitha ezingezona ezikahulumeni, futhi ukungenelela okushintsha umbuso kubadlali bezwe abanobutha kuyagwenywa uma kungenzeka; ukuhlukunyezwa njengeqhinga kusundelwa ekujuleni kobumnyama, okusho ukuthi kuyaliwa kepha akuqedwa. (isib. impikiswano yokufunza ngenkani eGuantánamo.) Ngamanye amazwi, izingane zobumnyama zisalawula impikiswano 'yangempela', eqinisekiswe kakhulu yimpendulo ebukhali ka-Obama kwabashayi bezimpempe abanjengoChelsea Manning no-Edward Snowden. Inkulumo yenkululeko yezingane zokukhanya ithulisa umphakathi waseMelika, kepha ivikela izinselelo ezibalulekile ezibhekiswe emthethweni wamazwe omhlaba kanye nokuhleleka komhlaba ngamasu aqhubekayo endlela ka-Obama yempi eqhubekayo ephendula u-9/11 (okungukuthi, kuze kube manje, Ukwabelana ngokuphelele ngombono kaCheney wokuthi kungaba yiphutha elikhulu ukuphatha 'ubuphekula' njengecala kunokuba 'impi.').
AMAKHONONI NEKUSASA LOKUYALELA KWEZWE
Impikiswano emaphakathi ngempi yedrone igxile ezindabeni zesitayela nemfihlo, futhi yehlisa izindaba zezinto. Zombili izingane zokukhanya (ezimele ubumongameli buka-Obama kanye nabasekeli abakhululekile) kanye nezingane zobumnyama (iCheney / Rumsfeld cabal) zingabameli abangavumeli ukusetshenziswa kwamasosha ama-drones, bengazinaki izingqinamba zalezo zikhali namasu avela kumbono womthetho wamazwe omhlaba kanye nomhlaba ukuhleleka. Ukugcizelela lo mbango, izinkomba ezethula izikhali zenuzi ziyafaneleka. Ngama-drones, umqondo wezingqinamba zokuqala ze-drones ngokususelwa ekuvinjelweni okungenamibandela nasekunciphiseni izikhali ukuqinisekisa ukuthi ukungabi nalutho kubonakala kungaphandle kwenkulumo mpikiswano. Njengoba kunikezwe ukukhuphuka kwabalingisi bezepolitiki abangekho kuhulumeni abanezinhloso zomhlaba wonke, ukusetshenziswa kombutho wezempi wama-drones, kanye. amandla abo okuthengisa izingalo, makhulu kakhulu ukuthi noma iyiphi iphrojekthi efuna ukwenqatshelwa kwabo kulesi sikhathi ingahle ingenzeki.
Isimo esifanayo siphathelene nezithiyo ze-oda lesibili elihlotshaniswa nezilawuli ekusatshalalisweni kwazo okuqhathaniswa nendlela yokungavikeleki. Ama-drones asevele anabantu abaningi, ubuchwepheshe bujwayeleke kakhulu, imakethe inamandla kakhulu, futhi ukusetshenziswa okusebenzayo kwezindawo eziningi kukhulu ukucabanga ukuthi noma yimuphi umlingisi ophethe izwe noma umlingisi ongeyena wombuso one-ajenda yezepolitiki eyingozi angahlehlisa izinzuzo ezihlobene ngokuphathwa kwama-drones, yize ukuthunyelwa kwama-drones okuhlasela kungasala isikhathi esifushane ngokuya ngombono wezinsongo zokuphepha ohulumeni abahlukahlukene. Ngakho-ke, okuhle okungathenjelwa ngalesi sikhathi imihlahlandlela ethile okuvunyelwene ngayo maqondana nokusetshenziswa, okungabizwa njengezithiyo zokuhleleka okwesithathu okufana nendlela umthetho wezempi obe nomthelela ngayo ekuqhutshweni kobutha ngendlela lokho kusengcupheni yokushintsha kwemibono 'yezidingo zamasosha' njengoba izikhali nezinto ezintsha ezenziwa ngamasu okuletha ushintsho ezindleleni zempi.
Izinkinga ze-world order nazo zivinjelwe engxoxweni eqhubekayo ngokusetshenziswa kwama-drones, akukaze kushiwo enkulumweni ka-Obama kaMeyi 23rd, futhi yamukelwa ngokungaqondile ngqo ekubukeni kwaseCheney / Rumsfeld kwendawo yangemva kuka-9/11 yempi. Ngamafuphi, ukuphathwa kokuhlaselwa kwe-9/11 njenge 'zenzo zempi' kunokuthi 'ubugebengu' kubaluleke kakhulu kunokuhlala ngokwazo. Kuholela cishe ngokungacabangi ukubuka umhlaba njengenkundla yempi yomhlaba wonke, nasempini engenaso isiphetho sangempela njengoba bekulokhu kwenzeka ezimpini ezedlule. Empeleni, ithobela umqondo wempi engapheli, nokwamukelwa okuhlobene nombono wokuthi wonke umuntu, kufaka phakathi izakhamizi nabahlali, bangaba yizitha. Lo mqondo wezimpi zaphakade ubekwe inselelo ngokuzibophezela kukaBiden ukukhipha amasosha aseMelika e-Afghanistan ngemuva kweminyaka engu-20 yokuzibandakanya kwezempi okubizayo nokungatheli ngomkhosi we-9/11. Abaphathi bezepolitiki kanye nabaphathi bezempi abaphezulu beluleke ngalesi senzo, kanti uBiden uzishiyile egumbini lokuguqula inkambo yakhe ngezinye izindlela ngaphandle kwamabhuzu phansi.
Njengoba ukukhonjwa kwezinsongo zokuphepha kubhebhezelwa ukuqoqwa kobuhlakani, okwenziwa ngasese, ubukhulu obunikezwe ukuvikela isizwe kanye nenani labantu banikeza abaholi bezepolitiki kanye neziphathimandla ezingekho emthethweni ilayisense yokubulala, ukubeka isijeziso senkantolo esengeziwe ngaphandle kokungenelela ukucubungula izinyathelo zokumangalelwa, ukushushiswa, nokuquliswa kwecala. Njengoba isikhathi sihamba, le ngxowankulu egunyazayo yamandla kahulumeni njengoba iba yinto ejwayelekile ilulaza kokubili kungenzeka 'ukuthula' kanye 'nentando yeningi,' futhi ibeke esimweni 'isimo esijulile' njengenqubo yokusebenza ejwayelekile yokubusa kwanamuhla. Uma kuxhunyaniswa nokuhlanganiswa kwemali nokwezezimali emaphethini wethonya lentando yeningi, ukufika kwezinhlobonhlobo ezintsha zobuFascism cishe akunakugwenywa, noma ngabe yikuphi ukuma kohlelo lokuphepha lomhlaba jikelele.[31] Ngamanye amagama, ama-drones aqinisa ezinye izitayela ekuhlelweni komhlaba okucekela phansi amalungelo abantu, ubulungiswa bomhlaba wonke, kanye nokuvikelwa kwezintshisakalo zabantu emhlabeni wonke. Lezi zindlela zifaka phakathi ukutshalwa kwezimali okukhulu ezinhlelweni zokuqapha zomhlaba eziyimfihlo ezibhekisisa izimpilo ezizimele zezakhamizi emakhaya, abantu abahlukahlukene phesheya, kanye nokuqondiswa kohulumeni bamazwe ngezindlela ezithe xaxa neziphambanisayo kunezobunhloli bendabuko. Izintshisekelo zemikhakha ezimele ekuthengiseni izikhali nokuthengisa phesheya zakha izixhumanisi zombuso / zomphakathi ezixhasa izabelomali eziphakeme zokuvikela, izinsongo zokuphepha ezeqisayo, nezisekela ezomhlaba jikelele ezikhubaza konke okwenzekayo ekubhekaneni nendawo yokuhlala nokuthula okusimeme.
IMPI YE-DRONE NOMTHETHO WOMHLABA WONKE: UKUNCIPHA UKUBUYISELA
Kunemiphumela ethile ethize yempi yedrone ebeka ubunzima emizameni yomthetho wamazwe omhlaba wokunqanda ukusetshenziswa kwamandla nokulawula ukwenziwa kwempi. Lokhu kuxoxwe ngakho ngabagxeki abathile 'bezingane zokukhanya' mayelana nezinqubomgomo ezisemthethweni mayelana nobubanzi bokusetshenziswa kwamadrones. Empeleni, ama-drones awaphonselwa inselelo ngamunye, kepha kuphela indlela yawo yokugunyazwa kanye nemithetho yokuzibandakanya ephathelene nokusetshenziswa.
Ukuphindela empini
Umzamo omkhulu womthetho wanamuhla wamazwe omhlaba bekungukuphazamisa ukubuyela empini ukuxazulula izingxabano zomhlaba wonke ezivela phakathi kwamazwe azimele. Ezimweni eziningi, lowo msebenzi uphumelele ebudlelwaneni phakathi kwamazwe amakhulu maqondana ne- International izimpi njengoba zihlukile ku- ngaphakathi izimpi. Ukucekelwa phansi kwempi, ukuncipha kokubaluleka kokunwetshwa kwezindawo, kanye nokukhuphuka komnotho womhlaba wonke kuqinisekisa ukuthi lo mbono wempi njengesinqumo sokugcina ungukufezeka okubalulekile kwesigaba sakamuva sokuhleleka komhlaba okugxile embusweni. Impumelelo enjalo manje isengozini ngenxa yokwanda kodlame olungelona olwentengiselwano yamazwe omhlaba kanye nokuphendula ngendlela yama-drones namabutho akhethekile asebenza ngaphandle kokubheka imingcele. Lokhu kusho ukuthini ukuthi impi yamazwe omhlaba iya ngokuya ingasebenzi kahle, futhi isimo sengqondo sempi siguqulelwa ezimpini ezintsha ezilwelwa umbuso womhlaba wonke zilwa nabalingisi bezepolitiki abangaphandle kombuso. Futhi lezi zimpi, eziqhutshwa kakhulu ngemuva kwesembozo esindayo semfihlo, futhi nezingozi eziphansi zokulimala ohlangothini oluthembele ekuhlaselweni kwe-drone, zenza impi ingabi nankinga kakhulu ekhaya: umphakathi akudingeki uqiniseke, Ukuvunyelwa kweCongressional kungafinyelelwa ngezikhathi eziyimfihlo, futhi akukho ukulimala okungenzeka kwezempi zase-US noma ukuphambukiswa okukhulu kwemithombo. Lezi zimpi ezisemaceleni zomlingiswa ongalingani ziye zishibhe futhi zibe lula, yize kungengenxa yabantu abangekho odlameni olunonya lwabalingisi bezepolitiki abanenkani. Lokhu kuhlolwa kusheshe kuqedwe ngenxa yokwanda okusheshayo kwezikhali ze-drone, kufaka phakathi nabalingisi bezimpi ezingezona ezombuso kanye nokuthuthuka okusheshayo kobuchwepheshe be-drone.
Ezimweni zakamuva, i-Azerbajan isebenzise ama-drones ahlaselayo ukubhekana namathangi ase-Armenia ekuqubukeni kwempi ngonyaka we-2020 esigodini saseNagorno-Karabakh. AmaHouthis asabele ekungeneleleni kweSaudi Arabia e-Yemen ngokuhlaselwa okubabazekayo kwe-drone ngoSepthemba 14, 2019 enkundleni ye-Khurais Oil kanye nasezikhungweni eziningi zokucubungula u-Aqaiq. Kubukeka sengathi bonke abalingisi abaphambili eMiddle East manje sebephethe ama-drones njengengxenye ebalulekile yezindawo zabo zokugcina izikhali. Ngokungangabazeki, umjaho wezingalo obandakanya izinhlobo ezahlukahlukene zama-drones usuvele uyaqhubeka, futhi kungenzeka ube nomkhuhlane, uma kungenjalo vele.
Ukwesaba Kombuso
Kwakukhona njalo ukuthambekela okuthile kwamaqhinga ezimpi okubandakanya ukuthembela okusobala kokwesatshiswa kombuso, okungukuthi, umbutho wamasosha oqondiswe kubantu bezakhamizi. Ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu okungakhethi emadolobheni aseJalimane nawaseJapane ngesikhathi sokugcina seMpi Yezwe II kwaba ngesinye sezimo ezimbi kakhulu, kepha ukuvinjelwa kwamaJalimane kwamadolobha aseSoviet, amarokhethi adubula emadolobheni aseNgilandi, kanye nokwanda kwempi yasolwandle emelene nemikhumbi ethwele ukudla kanye nokusiza abantu izimpahla kubantu bezinye izibonelo ezivelele. Kodwa-ke uhlobo 'lwezimpi ezingcolile' olwenziwa ngemuva kuka-9/11 lwamukela ukwethuka kombuso njengengqikithi yokuziphatha okubi komzamo wokuqeda inethiwekhi ye-al-Qaeda, futhi nokwenza ukubhujiswa kwamanethiwekhi abizwa ngokuthi amaphekula omhlaba noma wesifunda finyelela. Njengoba imisebenzi yaseMelika eYemen naseSomalia iphakamisa, umbono 'wokufinyelela emhlabeni wonke' uthathelwe indawo yiminyakazo ehlomile noma amaqembu anokuzazisa kwe-jihadist noma ngabe ubukhulu bezinhloso zabo bugciniwe emingceleni yezwe, kungenzi songo, okuseduze noma okunye, Ukuphepha kwezwe laseMelika uma kukhulelwe ngokwemvelo yendawo.
Lokhu kushuba phakathi kokuphatha 'amaphekula' alwa nombuso njengohlobo olubi kakhulu lobugebengu obumisa ukuvikelwa kwezomthetho ngenkathi bethi bahlanganyela ezinhlotsheni ezifanayo zodlame ukuphuca umthetho wamazwe omhlaba igunya lawo elijwayelekile. Kuze kube yilapho iCheney / Rumsfeld yamukela impi eyimfihlo ngokubulawa, i-United States ayizange ikulandele ukwamukelwa kuka-Israyeli ukwesaba ukulwa nokulwa okuhlomile okwakuvele emithunzini yenqubomgomo yakwa-Israyeli kuya ekuvunyelweni ngokusemthethweni komthetho ngo-2000 (ngemuva kweminyaka yokungavumelani ). Ngaphezu kokwamukelwa ngobuhlakani kwendlela yamaphekula yokwenza buthakathaka isitha, kukhona ukwesatshiswa komphakathi wonkana okuyisimo sokuhlaselwa kwe-drone. Lokho wukuthi, akuyena umuntu noma iqembu elihlosiwe kuphela, kepha ulwazi lokuba neziteleka ze-drone, oludala ukukhathazeka okukhulu nokuphazamiseka okukhulu emiphakathini ehlaselwe.[32]
Ukubulala Okuqondiwe
Kokubili umthetho wamalungelo omhlaba wamazwe omhlaba kanye nomthetho wamazwe omhlaba wezempi uvimbela ukubulawa okungeziwe.[33] Ukugcizelelwa kwenziwa ukuthi lokho kuqondiswa kusemthethweni uma usongo luthathwa njengolukhulu futhi lusondele, njengoba kunqunywa yizinqubo eziyimfihlo, ezingakhokhelwa yizinqubo zangemva kwama-facto zokuphenya kanye nokuziphendulela okungenzeka kube khona. Ukuthembela kunqubo enjalo yokwenza kube semthethweni imikhuba ehambisana nempi ye-drone nokusebenza okukhethekile kwenza izinhlobo ezimbili zomonakalo emthethweni wamazwe omhlaba: (1) itholakala ekubulaweni okuhlosiwe okungafinyeleli komthetho, futhi kuncike ekuboneni okungabukezeki kukahulumeni izikhulu, kufaka phakathi ukwazisa okuzenzekelayo kwezinsongo (umqondo onjalo ngokuyisisekelo ungowokuthi 'usithembe'); futhi (2) kususa kakhulu ukuvinjelwa kokukhomba izakhamizi ezingabandakanyeki emisebenzini yokulwa, futhi ngasikhathi sinye kuqeda izingxoxo zenqubo efanele yokuthi labo ababekwe amacala banelungelo lokucatshangelwa njengabamsulwa nelungelo lokuvikela.
Ngenxa yalokho, ukwehlukaniswa komthetho wamazwe omhlaba jikelele phakathi kwezinhloso zamasosha kanye nezingezona ezempi kwenziwa buthakathaka futhi nemizamo yamalungelo abantu yokuvikela ubumsulwa bomphakathi ayinakwa ngokuphelele. Futhi, umbango wokuthi ukubulala okuqondiswe ngokwengeziwe ezinkantolo kwenziwa kancane futhi lapho kubhekene nosongo oluseduze njengoba kusekela isimangalo sokuthi 'ukucabangela' akunakubukeleka ngenxa yemfihlo ezungeze lokhu kusetshenziswa kwama-drones, kanye nokuhlolwa okuzimele okubucayi kwamaphethini wangempela ukusetshenziswa kwezintatheli nabanye akusekeli izimangalo zikahulumeni zokuziphatha kahle. Lokho wukuthi, noma ngabe impikiswano yamukelwa ukuthi umthetho wempi nomthetho wamalungelo abantu kufanele ugobe maqondana nezinsongo zokuphepha eziseduze, akukho okukhombisa ukuthi izingqinamba ezinjalo sezigcinwe noma zizobonwa zisenziwa. Umbandela wokusondela, noma ngabe uhunyushwe ngokuthembeka, udume ngokuzithoba.
Ukunweba Ukuzivikela
Impikiswano ebaluleke kakhulu maqondana nempi ye-drone ukuthi kunikezwe uhlobo lwezinsongo ezibangelwa abashisekeli bezepolitiki abaphishekela ama-ajenda ezwe lonke futhi atholakala noma kuphi nakuyo yonke indawo, amaqhinga okulungiselela kufanele agunyazwe njengezingxenye zelungelo lokuzivikela. Amaqhinga asebenzayo asuselwa ekuziphindiseleni lapho ukwehluleka kwehluleka kukhona
engasebenzi, futhi njengoba amandla okubhubhisa abalingisi abangawona ombuso ebeka izinsongo ezinkulu ezithembekile ekuvikelekeni nasekuvikelekeni kwamazwe aqinile, iziteleka zokuzikhethela ziyadingeka futhi zinengqondo. Ukuzithoba okunjalo kugcwele umbono osongelayo, futhi njengoba kusetshenziswa maqondana nezimpi ze-drone, kubukela phansi yonke imizamo yokunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwamazwe omhlaba ukuze kunqunywe ngokusobala izimangalo zokuzivikela ezingabuyekezwa mayelana nokuba nengqondo futhi maqondana nenqubo yezinhloso njengaleyo etholakala ku-Article 51 woMqulu we-UN. Isifiso esiyinhloko seSivumelwano kwakuwukukhawulela ngangokunokwenzeka ubukhulu bokuzivikela ngaphansi komthetho wamazwe omhlaba. Ukushiywa kwalo mzamo kumelela ukubuyela emuva okungamukelwanga ngendlela eqondakalayo ngaphambi kwe-Charter yokulwa nempi yamazwe azimele.[34]
Umqondo Wokubuyisana
Isici esibalulekile somthetho wempi umbono wesandulela nokwamukelwa komgomo wokuphindisela ukuthi lokho okushiwo njengokusemthethweni ngumbuso ophethe ngeke kunqatshelwe ezweni elibuthakathaka.[35] I-United States yasungula lesi sibonelo esiyimpikiswano nesiyingozi ngokubhekela ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi emkhathini, yehluleka ukuzwakalisa izikhalazo lapho amanye amazwe, kubandakanya iFrance, iSoviet Union, neChina, kamuva evivinya izikhali zawo, ngaleyo ndlela ehlonipha umqondo wokubuyisana. Ikwenzile lokhu yize ngaleso sikhathi amanye amazwe ayenza izivivinyo zasemkhathini i-United States yayilinganisela ukuhlolwa kwayo ezindaweni ezingaphansi komhlaba ezinemiphumela engemihle kwezemvelo.
Ngamaphethini wokusetshenziswa kwe-drone, noma kunjalo, umhlaba ungaba nesiphithiphithi uma lokho i-United States ekufunayo kuvumelekile ngokwenziwa kwayo nge-drones kwenziwa ngezinye izifundazwe noma ukunyakaza kwezepolitiki. Kuyisimangalo sezombangazwe se-United States kuphela maqondana nokusetshenziswa kwamandla okungahle kuvezwe esikhathini esizayo njengesisekelo esimeme sokuhleleka komhlaba, ngakho-ke kusho ukuphikiswa kwemibono yaseWestphali yokulingana kwezomthetho, njengoba kanye nelungelo lamazwe lokuhlala engathathi hlangothi maqondana nezingxabano ezingeyona ingxenye yazo. Impikiswano ye-drone ibingakagxili ngokuphelele emasikweni asemthethweni athatha ukungahloniphi kwaseMelika kube lula. Ngokwabiwa kwezikhali ze-drone lolu hlobo lwenketho ekhethwayo luyanqunywa. Imibono yase-Westphalian yokuhleleka okususelwa emazweni azimele idinga ukwehliswa ngokuphelele kwezikhali zama-drones noma ukwenziwa kube yicala kokusetshenziswa kwazo ngaphandle kwezindawo zokulwa.
Impi Yomhlaba Wonke
Ngendlela ebaluleke kakhulu, iMpi Yomshoshaphansi yaguqula umhlaba waba yimpi yomhlaba wonke, lapho i-CIA iphethe imisebenzi efihlekile emazweni angaphandle njengengxenye yomzabalazo wokulwa nokusabalala kwethonya lamaKhomanisi ('amaqhawe angenamingcele' noma iyunifomu). Ngemuva kuka-9/11 lokhu kusatshalaliswa kwembulunga yonke komhlaba kwavuselelwa ngendlela ecace bha, futhi yabhekiswa ikakhulukazi ezinsongweni zokuphepha ezenziwa yinethiwekhi ye-al Qaeda eyamenyezelwa ukuthi izinze emazweni amaningi angama-60. Njengoba izinsongo zazivela ezindaweni ezingezona ezendawo, ubuhlakani obuyimfihlo, ukubhekwa okuyinkimbinkimbi, nokuhlonzwa kwabantu abayingozi abaphila impilo ejwayelekile 'kumaseli abalele' emphakathini womphakathi kwaba yinto ephambili yokuthakazelelwa. Ohulumeni bakwamanye amazwe, ikakhulukazi iPakistan neYemen, kusolwa ukuthi banxenxwa ukuba banikeze imvume yabo eyimfihlo yeziteleka ze-drone ngaphakathi kwendawo yabo, okwaba yindaba yokuphika okuthukuthele nemibhikisho yohulumeni okukhulunywa ngabo. Amaphethini anjalo 'okuvuma' aqeda ukuzimela kwamazwe amaningi azimele, futhi adala ukungathembani okukhulu ebudlelwaneni obuphakathi kukahulumeni nabantu. Iphinde iphakamise imibuzo mayelana nalokho okungabizwa ngokuthi 'ukufaneleka kokumelwa.' Akungabazeki ukuthi ngabe le ndlela engavumelekile yemvume ephikayo inikeza izizathu ezanele zokuguguleka kwenkululeko yezepolitiki yamazwe azimele.
Isimangalo saseMelika kube ukuthi sinenketho yezomthetho yokusebenzisa ama-drones ngokumelene nezinjongo ezibeka engcupheni uma uhulumeni wakwamanye amazwe engathandi noma engakwazi ukuthatha isinyathelo ngokwawo ukususa usongo, ngesisekelo somthetho esiyisisekelo sokuthi uhulumeni une isibopho sokungavumeli indawo yayo ukuthi isetshenziswe njengendawo yokwethula udlame lwamazwe omhlaba. Okucacayo-ke nokho ukuthi ukwanda kwembulunga yonke, nokwesatshiswa nezimpendulo, akuhambisani nesakhiwo somthetho esisezingeni eliphakeme kanye nokubusa okusebenzayo komhlaba wonke. Uma i-oda lomthetho lizoqhubeka ngaphansi kwale mibandela, kufanele libumbane, futhi, kepha kunentando eyanele yezepolitiki yokusungula nokunikeza amandla izinqubo zomhlaba jikelele kanye nezikhungo ezinegunya elinjalo elisebenzayo.
Ngenxa yalokho, okuwukuphela kokunye okubonakala kungumbuso wezwe ozihlanganisayo wohlobo olukhona njengamanje, noma umbuso wobukhosi obucacile womhlaba wonke owenqaba ngendlela ecacile umqondo wokuphindisela kanye nomqondo wezomthetho wokulingana kwamazwe azimele. Kuze kube manje, azikho kulezi zindlela ezihlukile zokuhleleka komhlaba waseWestphaliya ezisunguliwe noma ezizokwamukelwa uma zimenyezelwa. Izifundazwe eziningi zingaphikisana, ngesizathu, sokuthi insimu yamazwe wesithathu isetshenziswa njengendawo ephephile yezitha. ICuba ingabeka impikiswano enjalo maqondana ne-United States, futhi ukungalingani kwamazwe ngaphezu kokuvinjelwa komthetho, okugcina imisebenzi yokudingiswa kwabantu baseCuba eFlorida ikhululekile ekuhlaselweni.
Impi Eyedwa-Emaceleni
Impi yeDrone iqhubekisela phambili amaqhinga ahlukahlukene ezimpi angenabungozi bomuntu ohlangothini olunamandla ngokwengeziwe kwezobuchwepheshe nasenkambisweni yezempi, futhi asebethathe ukugqama kwakamuva ngenxa yamaqhinga nezikhali ezisetshenziswe kwa-Israyeli nase-United States. Iphethini yempi yohlangothi olulodwa kube nomphumela wokuthi kugudluze imithwalo yempi iye kumphikisi ngangokunokwenzeka. Ngokwezinga elithile, ushintsho olunjalo lukhombisa uhlobo lwempi efuna ukuvikela uhlangothi lwakho ngezinga okungenzeka ngalo ekufeni nasekubhujisweni, ngenkathi ludala umonakalo omkhulu ngakolunye uhlangothi. Okuhlukile ezimweni zakamuva zokungenelela kwamasosha nobuphekula, izinkundla zemidlalo zempi ezimbili eziyinhloko, kungukubheka uhlangothi olulodwa lwezibalo zabalimele. Uchungechunge lwemisebenzi yamasosha lukhombisa leli phethini: IGulf War (1991); Impi yeNATO Kosovo (1999); Ukuhlasela Kwe-Iraq (2003); Impi ye-NATO Libya (2011); kanye nokusebenza kwamasosha akwa-Israyeli elwa neLebanon neGaza (2006; 2008-09; 2012; 2014). Ukusetshenziswa okwandayo kwama-drones okuhlasela e-Afghanistan kuyisibonelo esiphelela empini eyedwa, kususa iqembu labasebenza ngemoto yempi ngokuphelele, kuqhutshwa iziteleka ngemiyalo ekhishwe ekomkhulu elisebenza kude (isib eNevada). Ukwenqatshwa kokuhlukunyezwa njengecebo elamukelekayo lempi noma ukuphoqelelwa komthetho ngokwengxenye kukhombisa uhlangothi olulodwa lobudlelwano phakathi komhlukumezi kanye nesisulu njengokuphikisayo ngokokuziphatha nangokomthetho ngaphandle kwezimpikiswano ezikhululekile eziphikisa ukuthi ukuhlukunyezwa akusebenzi futhi akukho emthethweni.[36] Iqoqo elifanayo lokuphendula ezimpini ze-drone likhona, kufaka phakathi umbango wenkululeko wokuthi ukufutheka nentukuthelo yabantu ababhekene nokuhlaselwa kwe-drone kukhuthaza ukwanda kwalolu hlobo lwezepolitiki olwehliswa yi-drones, kanye nokuhlukanisa ohulumeni bangaphandle.
Vele, ngokusabalala kwezikhali ze-drone, izinzuzo ze-asymmetry ziyaphela ngokushesha.
Impi Yesikhathi Esizayo yeDrone
Ngenkathi osopolitiki bematasa bephendula izinsongo ezisheshayo, abenzi bezikhali nabahleli bePentagon abaphambili bahlola imingcele yezobuchwepheshe yempi yedrone. Le mingcele ifana nama-akhawunti aqanjiwe esayensi yempi yamarobhothi enezikhali eziyinkimbinkimbi, nemishini yokubulala emikhulu. Kukhona amathuba emikhumbi ye-drone engenza imisebenzi yokulwa ne-ejensi encane yabantu, ukuxhumana nabanye ukuhlanganisa iziteleka ezibulalayo ezitheni, ezingabuye zihlome ngama-drones okuzivikela. Ukuthembela kuma-drones emaphethini wamanje wempi kunomthelela ongenakugwenywa wokunaka lokho okungenziwa ukwenza ngcono ukusebenza nokuthuthukisa ukuthunyelwa okusha kwezempi. Ukuthi umfutho wezobuchwepheshe okhishiwe ungalawulwa noma uvalelwe ubonakala ungabazeka, futhi futhi ukuqhathanisa nobuchwepheshe bezempi yenuzi kuyafundisa. Kodwa-ke kubalulekile ukukhumbula ukuthi ama-drones athathwa kabanzi njengezikhali ezisebenzisekayo, kufaka phakathi izizathu zomthetho nezokuziphatha, kanti kuze kube manje izikhali zenuzi ziphathwa njengezingasetshenziswanga ngaphandle kokucatshangelwa ezimeni zokugcina zokusinda. Intuthuko esanda ukukhungatheka iyinkulumo ekhulayo yokwephula umthetho ongakahleleki wokusetshenziswa kwezikhali zenuzi ngokwakhiwa nokwakhiwa kwamakhanda enuzi ahloselwe ukusetshenziswa ngokumelene nezikhungo zenuzi ezingaphansi komhlaba noma ukwakhiwa kwamasosha asolwandle.
QAPHELA
Imigqa emine yesiphetho ivela kulokhu kuhlolwa jikelele komthelela wezimpi ze-drone, njengoba kwenziwa yi-United States, kumthetho wamazwe omhlaba kanye nokuhleleka komhlaba. Okokuqala, akunakwenzeka ukuqeda ama-drones empini uma nje ukuphepha kwezwe kusekelwe ohlelweni lokuzisiza kwezempi. Njengohlelo lwezikhali, olunikezwe izinsongo zamanje ezibangelwa abalingisi abangawona uhulumeni nezinkumbulo ze-9/11, ama-drones athathwa njengezikhali ezibalulekile. Kunoma ikuphi, umfutho wezobuchwepheshe kanye nezikhuthazo zentengiso zikhulu kakhulu ukumisa ukukhiqizwa nokusabalala kwama-drones.[37] Ngenxa yalokhu, izingqinamba zokuqala zomthetho wamazwe omhlaba njengokunqatshelwa okungenamibandela kwama-drones njengoba kwamukelwa maqondana nezikhali zebhayoloji nezamakhemikhali, futhi okuphakanyisiwe maqondana nezikhali zenuzi, akunakwenzeka.
Okwesibili, impikiswano mayelana nokuba semthethweni kwempi yamadrone ibiqhubeka ngaphakathi komongo waseMelika lapho ubungozi bokubeka izibonelo nezingozi zentuthuko yezobuchwepheshe esikhathini esizayo kunganakwa kakhulu. Le mpikiswano ibuye yancishiswa ngokwenziwa ikakhulukazi phakathi kwalabo abangafaka eceleni umthetho wamazwe omhlaba kanye nalabo abawelula ukuze basebenzise ukuguqula okubaluleke kakhulu kwezokuphepha kwezwe kwenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseMelika. Ngamanye amagama, izivimbelo zomthetho ziyabekwa eceleni noma zihunyushwe njengokuvumela i-drone ukuthi isetshenziswe njengezikhali 'ezisemthethweni'.
Okwesithathu, impikiswano ngama-drones ibonakala inganaki ubukhulu be-oda lomhlaba lokwakha inkundla yempi yomhlaba wonke nokuphoqa imvume yohulumeni bangaphandle. Okwandulelayo okubekwayo kungenzeka kuthembele kubo ngabalingisi abahlukahlukene ngokuzayo ukulandela izinhloso eziphikisana nokugcina ukuhleleka kwezomthetho emhlabeni jikelele. Ubuchwepheshe be-Drone sebuvele bukhuphukele emazweni amaningi njenge-100 kanye nabalingisi abaningi abangewona abombuso.
Okwesine, ukwamukela ukwesaba kombuso ukulwa nabalingisi abangewona abombuso kwenza impi ibe yizinhlobo zokwesaba, futhi ijwayele ukwenza yonke imikhawulo yamandla ibonakale iphikisana, uma kungenangqondo.
Kungalesi sizinda lapho impikiswano ephikisanayo ibekwa phambili phambili ekuthini impi ye-drone, futhi kungenzeka ibe yonakalisa kakhulu umthetho wamazwe omhlaba kanye nokuhleleka komhlaba kunempi yenuzi. Umbango onjalo awuhloselwe ukusikisela ukuthi ukuthembela kuzikhali zenuzi ngandlela thile kungaba ngcono ngekusasa lomuntu kunokwamukelwa komqondo wokusetshenziswa kwe-drone. Kuphela ukusho ukuthi kuze kube manje, nganoma yisiphi isikhathi, umthetho wamazwe omhlaba kanye nokuhleleka komhlaba ukwazile ukuthola imibuso ehambisanayo yesithiyo esifanele sezikhali zenuzi ezigcine ukuthula, kepha ezingakwazanga ukwenza lokho kuma-drones, futhi ngeke kube lula ukwenza njalo inqobo nje uma umbono wezempi wezimpi ezingcolile uvunyelwe ukulawula ukwakheka kwenqubomgomo yezokuphepha kazwelonke e-United States nakwezinye izindawo. Sekwephuze kakhulu, futhi mhlawumbe bekuhlala kuyize, ukucabanga ngombuso ongasabalali ubuchwepheshe be-drone.
[*] Uhlobo olusha lwesahluko olushicilelwe kuMarjorie Cohn, ed., I-Drones nokubulala okuhlosiwe (ENorthampton, MA, 2015).
[1] Kepha bona ucwaningo olucacile olukhombisa ngokukholisayo ukuthi ukugwema impi yenuzi kwakuyindaba yenhlanhla kakhulu kunokuzibamba okunengqondo. UMartin J. Sherwin, Ukugembula nge-Armageddon: I-Nuclear Roulette isuka eHiroshima iye eMissile yaseCuba
Inkinga, 1945-1962 (IKnopf, 2020).
[2] Ekusebenzeni kwe-world-centric oda lezwe, bheka UHedley Bull, I-Anarchical Society: Ucwaningo lokuhleleka kwezombusazwe zomhlaba (Columbia Univ. Cindezela, 2nd i-ed., 1995); Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and discord in the world political economy (IPrinceton Univ. Cindezela, 1984); i-eksisi ebheke phezulu yokuhleleka komhlaba ikhombisa ukungalingani kwamazwe, kanye nendima ekhethekile edlalwe yizifundazwe ezinamandla; i-eksisi evundlile ifaka ukulingana ngokomthetho kokulingana phakathi kwamazwe okuyisisekelo somthetho wamazwe omhlaba. Izithiyo ze-oda lokuqala zizobandakanya ukwenqatshelwa kwezikhali zenuzi kanye nenqubo yokulwa nezikhali eqediwe futhi eqinisekisiwe eqeda izikhali zenuzi. Okwezingqinamba zokwehluleka kwediplomacy ukufeza izingqinamba ze-oda lokuqala, bheka Richard Falk & David Krieger, The Path to Zero: izingxoxo ngezingozi zenuzi (Paradigm, 2012); URichard Falk noRobert Jay Lifton, Izikhali Ezingaqondakali: Icala lezengqondo nezombusazwe elibhekene nenuzi (Izincwadi Eziyisisekelo, 1982); UJonathan Schell, Isiphetho Somhlaba (Knopf, 1982); EP Thompson, Beyond the Cold War: Umjaho omusha wezikhali nokubhujiswa kwenuzi (Pantheon, 1982). Bheka futhi uStefan Andersson, ed., Kwezikhali Zenuzi: I-Denuclearization, Demilitarization and Disarmament: Ukubhala Okukhethiwe kukaRichard Falk (ICambridge University Press, 2019).
[3] Ngokwesisekelo esijwayelekile semfundiso yokuvimbela eyabamba iqhaza phakathi neMpi Yomshoshaphansi, ngisho nangokukaJohn Mearsheimer, ukuvimbela iMpi Yesithathu Yomhlaba. Ngokubukwa komhlaba okuvumela lokho kweqiniso ngokweqile kwezepolitiki, bheka IMearsheimer, Usizi Lwezepolitiki Yamandla Amakhulu (Norton, 2001); bona futhi I-Mearsheimer, Back to the Future, Ukuphepha Komhlaba Wonke 15 (Cha. 1): 5-56 (1990). Kuyiqiniso ukuthi ezifundazweni ezithile ezihlukanisiwe ezincane neziphakathi nendawo, izikhali zenuzi zingasebenza njengesilinganisi futhi zisuse ubukhulu bokuma komhlaba. Kukhona neqhaza elibanjwe yizikhali zenuzi ekusetshenzisweni kwezingxoxo ezisongelayo elihlolwe ngababhali abaningi. Bona U-Alexander George noWillima Simons, ama-eds., Imikhawulo Yezimbangi Zobumbano, (Westview Press, 2nd Ed., 1994). Abanye ababhali baphoqa ukucabanga ngendlela eyeqisayo ukuze bathole izindlela zokusebenzisa ngokunenzuzo ukuphakama kwaseMelika kwezikhali zenuzi. Bona Henry Kissinger, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy (eDoubleday, 1958); Herman Kahn, On Thermonuclear War (IPrinceton Univ. Cindezela, 1960).
[4] Umbuso wokulawulwa kwezikhali, yize wawunombono wokuphatha, uhlale wenqaba noma ikuphi ukwenqatshwa kwezinketho zokuqala zesiteleka, futhi ngaleyo ndlela kubeka ukungabaza ngokuziphatha nangokunikela okusebenzayo kwalezi zingqinamba ze-oda lesibili.
[5] Umbuso we-nonproliferation, ohlanganiswe ku-Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) (729 UNTS 10485), uyisibonelo esivelele sokuhlelwa okuqondile, okuvumela kuphela amazwe amakhulu ukuthi agcine izikhali zenuzi, futhi yiyona ndlela eyinhloko izingqinamba ze-oda lesibili ezithathile. Kuyafaneleka ukuqaphela ukuthi iNkantolo Yomhlaba Yezobulungiswa Embonweni Wayo Obalulekile Wokululeka we-1996 yanikeza umbono ngombono wayo omningi wokuthi ukusetshenziswa kwezikhali zenuzi kungaba semthethweni, kepha kuphela uma ukusinda kombuso kwakusengozini enkulu. Kulokho okubonakala kuyize isenzo abahluleli babumbene enkolelweni yabo yokuthi amazwe ezikhali zenuzi anesibopho esisemthethweni esicacile ku-Art VI we-NPT ukuthi ahlanganyele ezingxoxweni zokwehlisa izikhali ngokwethembeka, okuphakamisa into evundlile yezomthetho okungenzeka ukuthi ayinayo imithelela yokuziphatha . Izikhali zenuzi zithi, ngaphezu kwakho konke i-United States, ziphathe lesi sitatimende esigunyazayo sokutholwa komthetho wamazwe omhlaba njengengabalulekile esimweni sabo sengqondo ngendima yezikhali zenuzi kunqubomgomo yezokuphepha kazwelonke.
[6] UMongameli u-Obama ekuqaleni kobumongameli bakhe wanikeza ithemba kulabo okwase kuyisikhathi eside befuna ukuqedwa kwezikhali zenuzi ngenkathi ekhulumela izwe elingenazo izikhali zenuzi, kepha wasivimba isitatimende sakhe sombono ngeziqu ezicashile ezenza ukuthi kungenzeki ukuthi kuqhubeke kude kakhulu. Bona UMongameli uBarack Obama, Amazwi kaMongameli uBarack Obama ePrague (Ephreli 5, 2009); umbono wamaqiniso okhululekile uthi le mpi yezikhali zenuzi iyinjongo efiselekayo, kepha akumele yenzeke lapho kunezingxabano ezingaxazululeki zomhlaba wonke. Akukaze kucaciswe ukuthi isikhathi sizolunga nini, esinekhwalithi yesimo sokuqala esingavumeli izimpikiswano eziphoqayo zokuziphatha, zomthetho nezepolitiki zokulwa nezikhali zenuzi. Esitatimendeni esijwayelekile sombono ovamile wenkululeko, bheka UMichael O'Hanlon, Icala Lokungabaza ngeNuclear Disarmament (Brookings, 2010).
[7] Phakathi kwabanye, bheka URobert Jay Lifton, iSupppower Syndrome: Ukuxabana kwaseMelika nezwe (ISizwe Izincwadi, 2002); ukwamukela ngokungathandi isimo sezikhali zenuzi, bheka UJoseph Nye, i-Nuclear Ethics (Free Press, 1986).
[8] Kunemikhuba emibili eyeqisayo mayelana nokujwayeleka kwezombusazwe emhlabeni jikelele — inkambiso yaseKantian yokungabaza ngomthetho wamazwe omhlaba, kepha ukuqiniswa kokuziphatha kwamazwe omhlaba, kuqhathaniswa nesiko laseMachiavellian lokuziphatha nokuzicabangela okwenqaba isimilo kanye negunya elisemthethweni ekuziphatheni kombuso. ipolitiki. Umphathi wesimanje wendlela kaMachiavellian kwakunguHenry Kissinger, indlela eyamukelwa ngokuziqhenya eKissinger, eDiplomacy (Simon & Schuster, 1994).
[9] Ngaphandle kokubamba iqhaza kwabo okwandayo kuzo zonke izici zempilo yamazwe omhlaba, abalingisi abangawona ombuso bahlala ngaphandle kwesiyingi sabalingisi bezepolitiki baseWestphalian abanciphisa ubulungu kwiNhlangano Yezizwe kanye nasezikhungweni eziningi zamazwe omhlaba emazweni azimele.
[10] Ngokubukwa ukuthi umthetho wezenhlalakahle womhlaba wonke kanye nomthetho wempi ngokuvamile kuyiminikelo engabazisayo enhlalakahleni yabantu njengoba bevame ukwenza impi isikhungo senhlalo esamukelekayo, bheka URichard Wasserstrom, ed., Impi Nokuziphatha (Wadsworth, 1970); bona futhi URaymond Aron, Ukuthula neMpi: Umbono wobudlelwano bamazwe omhlaba (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966); URichard Falk, uMyalelo Wezomthetho Emhlabeni Onodlame (iPrinceton Univ. Cindezela, 1968).
[11] I-Chiaroscuro ivame ukuchazwa njengokuphathwa kokukhanya nobumnyama ekupendweni; ngomqondo osetshenziswe lapha kushiwo ukuqhathanisa kokukhanya nobumnyama emiqondweni yeqhaza laseMelika lomhlaba jikelele.
[12] Ubuholi bezepolitiki bamazwe buvunyelwe ngokhetho olukhululekile, umthetho nokuhleleka, intuthuko njengoba kulinganiswa ngamazinga okukhula, kanye namakhono okuphatha kwezepolitiki, kufaka phakathi ukuxhumana nomphakathi, futhi okwesibili ngokuthembeka emthethweni nasekuziphatheni. Ukubukwa okunjalo kunemba ngisho nangokwengeziwe lapho kusetshenziswa kumgomo wezangaphandle, futhi nangaphezulu, uma isimo sempi sikhona.
[13] Ngokuchazwa okudala, bheka UReinhold Niebuhr, Izingane Zokukhanya Nezingane Zobumnyama (Ababhali, 1960).
[14] Bona UKissinger noKahn, uNothi 2, yena, phakathi kwabanye, owayephikisana nombono weCold War ukuthi izikhali zenuzi zazidingeka njengesiqalo sokuphakama okuvamile kweSoviet Union ekuvikeleni iYurophu, nokuthi izindleko zomuntu nezomzimba zesifunda impi yenuzi kwakuyinani elamukelekayo okufanele likhokhwe. Lokhu kukhombisa ukweqisa lapho ongqondongqondo beqiniso babezimisele ukuya egameni lezinjongo zamasu.
[15] UMongameli uBarack Obama, Amazwi kaMongameli eNational Defense University (Meyi 23, 2013) (umbhalo otholakala ku-http: //www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remark-president-national -ukuzivikela-eyunivesithi).
[16] H. Bruce Franklin, Inkambo Yokuphahlazeka: Kusuka Empini Ehle Kuya Empini Phakade (IRutgers University Press, 2018).
[17] ULisa Hajjar, I-Anatomy yenqubomgomo yokubulala ehlosiwe yase-US, UMERIP 264 (2012).
[18] Obama, Supra inothi 14.
[19] Isibonelo, akukho ukucatshangelwa kokuphazamiseka komphakathi wesizwe, njengasePakistan, ngokusebenzisa ama-drones noma i-'backback 'emazweni afana nePakistan kusuka kulokho okubonakala emphakathini njengokuhlukumeza okusobala kobukhosi bezwe. Ekubonisweni okubalulekile komthelela wezimpi ze-drone emiphakathini yezizwe, bheka U-Akbar Ahmed, i-Thistle ne-Drone: Impi yaseMelika yokwesaba yaba kanjani yimpi yomhlaba wonke ku-Islam yesizwe (i-Brookings Inst. Press2013); ngokuhlolwa okujwayelekile kwezindleko ze-blowback zokuthembela kuma-drones, bheka I-Scahill, Izimpi Ezingcolile: Izwe njengenkundla yempi (Izincwadi Zesizwe, 2013); ngemigqa efanayo, bheka UMark Mazzetti, Indlela Yommese: I-CIA, ibutho eliyimfihlo, nempi ekugcineni komhlaba (IPenguin, 2013).
[20] Ngaphambi kukaBrennan, kwakunguHarold Koh, uMeluleki Wezomthetho kuNobhala Wezwe, owabeka isisekelo somthetho sokuthembela kuma-drones ekhelini elinikezwe i-American Society of International Law, Mashi 25, 2010.
[21] UJohn Brennan, Izinqubomgomo Nezenzo Zokuphatha kuka-Obama (Septhemba 16, 2012).
[22] Obama, Supra inothi 14.
[23] Bona UJeremy Scahill ngokungamangalelwa kwe-al-Awlaki, Inothi 17.
[24] Obama, Supra inothi 14.
[25] I-Supra inothi 19.
[26] Hlangana nabezindaba: UDick Cheney (Ukusakazwa kwethelevishini ye-NBC Septhemba 16, 2001), etholakala ku- http://www.fromthewilderness.com/timeline/2001/meetthepress091601.html.
[27] Okwemibhalo nokuphawula ngokuhlukunyezwa ngesikhathi sikaMongameli uBush, bheka UDavid Cole, ed., The Memor of Torture: Rationalizing the Unthinkable (New Press, 2009).
[28] Bona Scahill, Qaphela 17, indawo. 1551.
[29] UJane Mayer, Uhlangothi Olumnyama (iDoubleday, 2008); bona futhi Isikhathi sikaLaleh Khalili Emathunzini: Ukuboshwa ezindaweni eziphikisayo (iStanford Univ. Cindezela, 2013).
[30] Mayelana nalokhu, kubalulekile ukuthi wazi ukuthi uRichard Perle, isazi esiqavile sezwe lase-liliputi lama-neocon wabizwa ngokuthi 'isikhulu sobumnyama,' esaphathwa kwabezindaba njengengxenye yamahlaya, ingxenye yokuhlambalaza, nengxenye yokuhlonipha ngenxa yakhe ithonya.
[31] Ukuhlaziywa ngale migqa, bheka Sheldon Wolin, Democracy Incorporated: Democracy Democracy and the Specter of Totalitarianism (IPrinceton Univ. Cindezela, 2008).
[32] Ngemibhalo eningiliziwe, bheka U-Ahmed, Inothi 17.
[33] Ngemuva kokulalelwa kweSonto kanye nePike DRM ngeminyaka yama-1970, uchungechunge lwemiyalo yezikhulu lwakhishwa omongameli abalandelanayo baseMelika benqabela noma yikuphi ukubulawa komholi wezepolitiki waphesheya. Bheka ama-Executive Orders 11905 (1976), 12036 (1978), no-12333 (1981) ukuze kumiswe ngokusemthethweni. Ukubulawa kukaDrone kuthathwa njengezici zempi kunokuthi kubulawe ngokomqondo walezi oda eziphezulu, kepha noma ngabe izinqubomgomo ziyahambisana yini akukhulunywa ngazo ngendlela ekholisayo.
[34] Ngokunemba ngokwengeziwe, ukuthembela endleleni yokuzikhethela yempi ukubuyela esimweni sempi kwezepolitiki zomhlaba ngaphambi kokwamukelwa kweKellogg-Briand Pact (eyaziwa nangokuthi yiPact of Paris) ngo-1928, eyaziwa kakhulu ngokuthi ukuyeka impi njengethuluzi lenqubomgomo kazwelonke. ”
[35] Bona UDavid Cole, Ilayisense Eyimfihlo Yokubulala, NYR Blog (Sep 19, 2011, 5:30 PM), http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2011/sep/19/secret-license-kill/.
[36] Ukucaciswa, bheka URichard Falk, Ukuhlukunyezwa, Impi, kanye Nemikhawulo Yezomthetho Wenkululeko, in I-United States nokuhlukunyezwa: Ukuphenywa, Ukuboshwa, Nokuhlukunyezwa 119 (Marjorie Cohn ed., NYU Press, 2011).
[37] Ngengxoxo ewusizo nemibhalo, bheka IMedea Benjamin, iDrone Warfare: Ukubulala ngokulawulwa kude (I-Verso, rev. Ed., 2013).
