NguDavid Swanson, Disemba 15, 2020
Wake wazibuza ukuthi ngabe isiko laseNtshonalanga ligxile ekubhubhiseni kunokuvimbela umdlavuza, futhi likhulume ngalo lonke ulimi lwempi elwa nesitha, ngoba yileyo ndlela isiko elenza ngayo izinto, noma ngabe indlela yomdlavuza empeleni yadalwa ngabantu ukulwa impi yangempela?
Le ndaba bekungeyona imfihlo empeleni, kepha bengingazi okuningi ngayo ngize ngifunde Imfihlo Enkulu nguJennet Conant.
IBari idolobha elihle elisethekwini lase-Italiya elinesonto elikhulu lapho kungcwatshwa khona uSanta Claus (Saint Nicholas). Kepha uSanta ukuthi ufile akude nesambulo esibi kakhulu emlandweni kaBari. UBari usiphoqa ukuba sikhumbule ukuthi ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe II, uhulumeni wase-US utshale imali enkulu ekucwaningeni nasekukhiqizeni izikhali zamakhemikhali. Eqinisweni, ngisho nangaphambi kokuba i-US ingene kwi-WWII, yayihlinzeka iBrithani ngobuningi bezikhali zamakhemikhali.
Lezi zikhali kwakungafanele zisetshenziswe kuze kube yilapho amaJalimane esebenzisa ezazo kuqala; futhi zazingasetshenziswa. Kepha baba sengozini yokusheshisa umjaho wezikhali zamakhemikhali, wokuqalisa impi yezikhali zamakhemikhali, kanye nowokudala ukuhlupheka okwesabekayo ngengozi engafanele. Lokho kugcine ukwenzeka, okunyantisa igazi eBari, futhi iningi lokuhlupheka nokufa kungenzeka kusengaphambili kwethu.
Lapho amasosha aseMelika nawaseBrithani ethuthela e-Italy, bafika nezikhali zabo zamakhemikhali. NgoDisemba 2, 1943, itheku laseBari laligcwele imikhumbi, futhi leyo mikhumbi yayigcwele amathuluzi empi, kusukela ezintweni zesibhedlela kuya kwigesi yesinaphi. Abantu abaningi abangaziwa eBari, izakhamizi namasosha ngokufanayo, umkhumbi owodwa, i- UJohn Harvey, ibiphethe amabhomu egesi wesinaphi angu-2,000 100 700-lb kanye namacala angama-100 amabhomu amhlophe angama-200,000-lb amhlophe. Eminye imikhumbi yayiphethe uwoyela. (UConant endaweni eyodwa ucaphuna umbiko othi “100 2,000-lb. H [mustard] amabhomu” kodwa yonke indawo ubhala “XNUMX” njengoba kwenza eminye imithombo.)
Izindiza zaseJalimane zaqhumisa ibhomu ethekwini. Kwaqhuma imikhumbi. Enye ingxenye ye- UJohn Harvey ngokusobala iqhume, yaphonsa amanye amabhomu ayo amakhemikhali esibhakabhakeni, yanisa igesi yesinaphi emanzini nasemikhunjini engomakhelwane, futhi umkhumbi wacwila. Ukube wonke umkhumbi waqhuma noma umoya wawuvunguza uqonde ogwini, le nhlekelele yayingase ibe yimbi kakhulu kunalokho eyayiyikho. Kwakukubi.
Labo abaziyo ngegesi yesinaphi abasho nelilodwa igama, ngokusobala bebazisa imfihlo noma ukuthobela ngaphezu kwempilo yalabo abasindiswe emanzini. Abantu obekufanele bahlanzwe masinyane, ngoba bebemanziswe ukuxubana kwamanzi, uwoyela, negesi yesinaphi, bafudunyezwa ngezingubo futhi bashiywa behamba ngolwandle. Abanye bahamba ngemikhumbi kwaphela izinsuku bengagezi. Abaningi abasindile babengeke baziswe ngegesi yesinaphi amashumi eminyaka. Abaningi abasindanga. Abanye abaningi bahlupheka kakhulu. Emahoreni okuqala noma ezinsukwini noma emavikini noma ezinyangeni abantu bebengasizwa ngolwazi lwenkinga, kepha bashiyeke ekuhluphekeni nasekufeni kwabo.
Noma nje kungenakuphikwa ukuthi izisulu ezazigcwele kuzo zonke izibhedlela eziseduze zahlushwa izikhali zamakhemikhali, iziphathimandla zaseBrithani zazama ukusola izindiza zaseJalimane ngokuhlaselwa ngamakhemikhali, ngaleyo ndlela zandisa ingozi yokuqalisa impi yamakhemikhali. Udokotela wase-US uStewart Alexander waphenya, wathola iqiniso, futhi wafaka ikhebuli kubo bobabili uFDR noChurchill. UChurchill uphendule ngokuyala wonke umuntu ukuba aqambe amanga, kushintshwe wonke amarekhodi ezokwelapha, hhayi igama elizokhulunywa. Isisusa sakho konke ukuqamba amanga, njengoba kuvame ukuba njalo, ukugwema ukubukeka kubi. Kwakungekhona ukugcina imfihlo kuhulumeni waseJalimane. AmaJalimane ayethumele phansi i-diver futhi athola ingxenye yebhomu lase-US. Babengazi nje kuphela ukuthi kwenzekeni, kepha basheshisa umsebenzi wabo wezikhali zamakhemikhali ekuphenduleni, futhi bamemezela ngqo okwenzekile emsakazweni, begcona ama-Allies ngokufa ngezikhali zabo zamakhemikhali.
Izifundo esizifundile azibandakanyi izingozi zokuqongelela izikhali zamakhemikhali ezindaweni eziqhunyiswa ngamabhomu. UChurchill noRoosevelt baqhubeka nokwenza lokho eNgilandi.
Izifundo esizifundile azibandakanyi ubungozi bokugcina imfihlo nokuqamba amanga. U-Eisenhower waqamba amanga ngamabomu embhalweni wakhe wango-1948 wokuthi bekungekho abalimele eBari. UChurchill waziqamba amanga ememenini yakhe yango-1951 ethi akubanga khona ngozi yezikhali zamakhemikhali.
Izifundo esizifundile azibandakanyi ingozi yokugcwalisa imikhumbi ngezikhali bese uyifaka ethekwini likaBari. Ngo-Ephreli 9, 1945, omunye umkhumbi wase-U.S UCharles Henderson, iqhume ngesikhathi kuthululwa umthwalo wayo wamabhomu nezinhlamvu, kwashona abasebenzi abangu-56 kanye nabasebenzi basemkhunjini abangu-317.
Izifundo esizifundile azibandakanyi ingozi yokufaka ushevu emhlabeni ngezikhali. Eminyakeni embalwa, kulandela iWWII, bekunenqwaba yamacala abikwe ngobuthi begesi lwesinaphi, ngemuva kokuthi amanetha okudoba ekhiphe amabhomu ashonile UJohn Harvey. Kwathi ngo-1947, kwaqalwa umsebenzi wokuhlanza owawusuthathe iminyaka engu-XNUMX, ngokwamazwi kaConant, “cishe izinkulungwane ezimbili zezinhlamvu zegesi yesinaphi. . . . Zadluliselwa ngokucophelela esikebheni, esakhishelwa olwandle sazika. . . . Isigaxa esibhidlikayo sisaphuma ngezikhathi ezithile odakeni futhi sidale ukulimala. ”
O, awu, inqobo nje uma bebaningi babo futhi kwenziwa “ngokucophelela.” Inkinga encane isala ukuthi umhlaba awunamkhawulo, ukuthi impilo incike olwandle lapho lezi zikhali zamakhemikhali ezithile zadonswa zacwila khona, nalapho inani elikhulu kakhulu lalikhona futhi, emhlabeni wonke. Inkinga ihlala ukuthi izikhali zamakhemikhali zihlala isikhathi eside kunezingqimba eziqukethe. Lokho uprofesa wase-Italy akubiza ngokuthi "ibhomu lesikhathi ezansi ethekwini laseBari" manje sekuyibhomu lesikhathi elingezansi kwetheku lomhlaba.
Isigameko esincane esenzeka eBari ngo-1943, ngezindlela eziningi esifana nesibi kakhulu kunaleso sango-1941 ePearl Harbour, kodwa esingesihle kangako ngamagama enkulumo-ze (akekho umuntu ogubha iBari Day ezinsukwini ezinhlanu ngaphambi kosuku lwePearl Harbor), kungenzeka sibhujiswe kakhulu namanje ngokuzayo.
Izifundo okufundwa ukuthi zinazo zifaka okuthile okubalulekile, okuyindlela entsha "yokulwa" nomdlavuza. Udokotela wezempi wase-US owaphenya uBari, uStewart Alexander, washeshe wabona ukuthi ukuvezwa ngokweqile okwatholwa izisulu zaseBari kucindezela ukuhlukaniswa kwamangqamuzana egazi amhlophe, futhi wazibuza ukuthi lokhu kungazenzelani izisulu zomdlavuza, isifo esibandakanya ukukhula kwamangqamuzana angalawuleki.
U-Alexander akazange adinge uBari ngalokho kutholakala, okungenani izizathu ezimbalwa. Okokuqala, ubesendleleni ebheke ekutholakaleni okufanayo ngenkathi esebenza ngezikhali zamakhemikhali e-Edgewood Arsenal ngo-1942 kepha wayalwa ukuthi angazinaki izindlela ezintsha zokwelashwa ukuze agxile kuphela ekuthuthukisweni kwezikhali okungenzeka. Okwesibili, ukutholwa okufanayo kwakwenziwe ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe I, kufaka phakathi u-Edward noHelen Krumbhaar e-University of Pennsylvania - hhayi amamayela angama-75 ukusuka e-Edgewood. Okwesithathu, abanye ososayensi, kubandakanya uMilton Charles Winternitz, uLouis S. Goodman, no-Alfred Gilman Sr., eYale, babesungula imibono efanayo ngesikhathi seWWII kodwa bengabelani ngalokho ababekuyo ngenxa yemfihlo yezempi.
I-Bari kungenzeka ukuthi ibingadingeki ukwelapha umdlavuza, kepha ibangele umdlavuza. Abasebenzi bezempi baseMelika nabaseBrithani, kanye nezakhamizi zase-Italy, kwezinye izimo abakaze bafunde noma bafunde emashumini eminyaka kamuva ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi wayevelaphi umthombo wezifo zabo, futhi lezo zifo zazibandakanya umdlavuza.
Ekuseni ngemuva kokuphonswa kwebhomu lenuzi eHiroshima, kwabanjwa isithangami nabezindaba phezulu kwesakhiwo iGeneral Motors eManhattan ukumemezela impi ngomdlavuza. Kusukela ekuqaleni, ulimi lwayo bekungolwezempi. Ibhomu lenuzi lalibanjwe njengesibonelo sezimangaliso ezikhazimulayo isayensi nokuxhaswa okukhulu kwemali okungahlangana ndawonye. Ukwelashwa komdlavuza kwakuzoba isimangaliso esilandelayo esikhazimulayo emigqeni efanayo. Ukubulala abantu baseJapan nokubulala amangqamuzana omdlavuza kwakuyimpumelelo efanayo. Vele, amabhomu aseHiroshima naseNagasaki, njengaseBari, aholela ekwakheni umdlavuza omkhulu, njengoba nje izikhali zempi sezenze ngesilinganiso esandayo amashumi eminyaka kusukela, ngezisulu ezindaweni ezinjengezingxenye ze-Iraq ukuhlupheka ngamazinga aphezulu omdlavuza kuneHiroshima.
Indaba yamashumi eminyaka okuqala empi yomdlavuza elandiswa yiConant ingenye yokuphikelela kancane nenkani yokuphishekela izinhloso ezifile ngenkathi ihlale ibikezela ukunqoba okuseduze, ikakhulukazi empini yeVietnam, impi e-Afghanistan, njll. Ngo-1948, i- New York Times ichaze ukwanda kwempi yomdlavuza ngokuthi yi “C-Day Landing.” Ngo-1953, kwesinye isibonelo sabaningi, i Washington Post umemezele ukuthi "Ukwelashwa Komdlavuza Kuseduze." Odokotela abahola phambili batshele abezindaba ukuthi akusengumbuzo wokuthi ngabe, kodwa uzolashwa nini umdlavuza.
Le mpi yomdlavuza ibingakaze ibe nempumelelo. Izinga lokufa kwezinhlobo ezahlukahlukene zomdlavuza lehle kakhulu. Kepha amacala omdlavuza anyuke kakhulu. Umqondo wokuyeka ukungcolisa imvelo, ukuyeka ukwenza izikhali, ukuyeka ukudonsa ubuthi “olwandle,” awukaze ube nokuheha "kwempi," engakaze ikhiqize imashi egqoke okombala obomvana, ayikaze iwine uxhaso lwama-oligarchs.
Kwakungafanele kube ngale ndlela. Iningi lemali yokuqala yokulwa nomdlavuza yavela kubantu abazama ukubhala iphepha ngehlazo lokuthengiselana kwabo ngezikhali. Kepha bekuyihlazo kuphela lezinkampani zase-US ezakhele amaNazi izikhali. Babengenalutho ngaphandle kokuziqhenya ngokwakhela uhulumeni wase-US izikhali ngasikhathi sinye. Ngakho-ke, ukusuka empini akuzange kungene ezibalweni zabo.
Umuntu owayexhasa ngemali ocwaningweni lomdlavuza kwakungu-Alfred Sloan, inkampani yakhe, uGeneral Motors, owayakhele amaNazi izikhali phakathi nempi, kubandakanya nomsebenzi ophoqelelwe. Kuyaziwa ukukhomba ukuthi i-Opel yakwaGM yakhela izingxenye zamabhanoyi aqhumise ibhomu eLondon. Amabhanoyi afanayo aqhumisa ngamabhomu imikhumbi ethekwini laseBari. Indlela yezamabhizinisi yokucwaninga, ukuthuthukisa nokwenza izinto eyayizakhele lezo zindiza, nayo yonke imikhiqizo ye-GM, manje yayizosetshenziswa ekwelapheni umdlavuza, ngaleyo ndlela iqinisekise i-GM nendlela esebenza ngayo emhlabeni. Ngeshwa, ukwenziwa kwezimboni, ukukhishwa kwezinto, ukungcoliswa komhlaba, ukuxhashazwa, kanye nokubhujiswa konke okususwe emhlabeni wonke ngesikhathi seWWII futhi okungakaze kudambe, kube yisikhuthazo esikhulu ekusakazekeni komdlavuza.
Umqokeleli omkhulu wemali kanye nomgqugquzeli wempi yomdlavuza, owaqhathanisa ngokoqobo umdlavuza namaNazi (futhi okuphambene nalokho) kwakunguCornelius Packard “Dusty” Rhoads. Uthathe imibiko evela kuBari naseYale ukudala imboni yonke ekuphishekeleni indlela entsha yomdlavuza: i-chemotherapy. Lawa kwakunguRhoads ofanayo owayebhale incwadi ngo-1932 eyayikhuthaza ukuqothulwa kwabantu basePuerto Rico futhi ebabiza ngokuthi “bangaphansi kakhulu kunamaNtaliyane.” Uthe ubulale abantu abangu-8 basePuerto Ricans, watshala umdlavuza wafakwa kwamanye amaningi, futhi wathola ukuthi odokotela bakujabulela ukuhlukumeza nokuhlukumeza abantu basePuerto Rico ababezama kubo. Lokhu bekucatshangwa ukuthi kuyinhlamba encane yamanothi amabili aziwa ngophenyo lwakamuva, kepha kudale ihlazo elivuselela sonke isizukulwane noma kunjalo. Ngo-1949 Isikhathi Magazine faka uRhoads ikhava yayo njenge- “Cancer Fighter.” Ngo-1950, abantu basePuerto Ricans babechukunyiswa incwadi kaRhoads, bacishe baphumelela ekubulaleni uMongameli uHarry Truman eWashington, DC.
Kuyadabukisa ukuthi uConant, encwadini yakhe, ugcina sengathi uJapan wayengafuni ukuthula kuze kube ngemuva kokuqhuma kwebhomu eHiroshima, ephakamisa ukuthi ukuqhuma kwamabhomu kwakuhlobene nokwenza ukuthula. Kuyishwa ukuthi akabuzi ngalo lonke ibhizinisi lempi. Noma kunjalo, Imfihlo Enkulu inikeza ulwazi oluningi olungasisiza ukuthi siqonde ukuthi size kanjani lapho sikhona - kufaka phakathi labo esihlala e-United States yamanje esanda kuthola ama- $ 740 billion wePentagon kanye ne- $ 0 yokwelapha ubhadane olusha olubulalayo.
