NguPaul Fitzgerald no-Elizabeth Gould, World BEYOND War, Okthoba 6, 2020
IConor Tobin kaJanuwari 9, 2020 Umlando Wezombusazwe[1] isihloko esithi: Inganekwane 'Yogibe lwase-Afghanistan': UZbigniew Brzezinski ne-Afghanistan[2] imizamo “yokuqeda umbono wokuthi uMongameli Jimmy Carter, ngokunxuswa nguMeluleki Wezokuphepha Kuzwelonke uZbigniew Brzezinski, wasiza i-Afghan Mujahedin ngenhloso yokuheha iSoviet Union ukuba ihlasele i-Afghanistan ngo-1979.” Njengoba uTodd Greentree evuma ekubuyekezweni kwakhe ngoJulayi 17, 2020 kwendatshana kaTobin, izigxobo ziphakeme ngoba “lo mqondo” awungabazi ifa likaMongameli Carter kuphela, kodwa nokuziphatha, idumela kanye "nokuziphatha okuhle kwe-United States ngesikhathi seMpi Yomshoshaphansi nangale kwayo."[3]
Okumaphakathi nodaba lokuthi uTobin ubiza ini ngokuthi “yingqophamlando yoGibe lwase-Afghan,” kusho intatheli yaseFrance uVincent Jauvert. 1998 I-New Observer interview noBrzezinski lapho aziqhayisa khona ngohlelo oluyimfihlo olwasungulwa nguye noMongameli Carter ezinyangeni eziyisithupha ngaphambi kokuhlasela kweSoviet “okwaba nomthelela wokudonsela abantu baseRussia esicupheni se-Afghanistan…” “Ngokusho komlando osemthethweni, i-CIA isiza IMujahideen yaqala ngonyaka we-1980, okusho ukuthi, ngemuva kokuthi amasosha aseSoviet ehlasele i-Afghanistan, ngomhlaka-24 Disemba 1979. Kodwa iqiniso, eligadwe ngasese kuze kube manje, lihluke ngokuphelele. ” UBrzezinski uqoshwe njengothi. “Ngempela, kwakungoJulayi 3, 1979 lapho uMongameli Carter asayina khona umyalo wokuqala wosizo oluyimfihlo kwabaphikisana nombuso owawusekela iSoviet eKabul. Ngalo lolo suku, ngabhalela umongameli incwadi ngamchazela ukuthi ngokubona kwami lolu sizo luzongenelela ekungeneleni kwamasosha aseSoviet. ”[4]
Ngaphandle kokuthi uhlelo oluyimfihlo selivele lwembulwa yilowo owayengumphathi we-CIA we-Operations for the Near East naseNingizimu Asia uDkt.Charles Cogan nowayenguMqondisi we-CIA uRobert Gates futhi wanganakwa, ukwamukelwa kukaBrzezinski kuletha ukunakekela umbono ongaqondile ngezinhloso zaseSoviet e-Afghanistan izazi-mlando eziningi ezingakhetha ukuziyeka zingachazeki. Kusukela ngesikhathi kuxoxwa noBrzezinski ngo-1998 kube nomzamo wokushiseka kwesobunxele nakwilungelo lokuphika ukusebenza kwaso njengokuziqhayisa okungenamsebenzi, ukuhunyushwa okungalungile ngalokho ayekusho, noma ukuhumusha okubi kusuka esiFulentshi kuya esiNgisini. Ukwamukelwa kukaBrzezinski kubucayi kakhulu kwabangaphakathi kwi-CIA, uCharles Cogan wabona kufanele ukuthi kuphume ingxoxo ye-Cambridge Forum ngencwadi yethu e-Afghanistan (Umlando Ongabonakali: Indaba ye-Afganistan yase-Afghanistan)[5] ngo-2009 ukusho ukuthi yize umbono wethu wokuthi abaseSoviet babenqikaza ukuhlasela wawuyiqiniso, iBrzezinski I-New Observer ingxoxo bekufanele ibe nephutha.
UTobin uyanaba ngalesi sikhalazo ngokukhala ngokuthi inhlolokhono yaseFrance yonakalise umlando kakhulu kangangoba isibe cishe yiso sodwa isisekelo sokufakazela ubukhona betulo lokuheha iMoscow “ku-Afghan Trap.” Ube eqhubeka ebhala ukuthi njengoba uBrzezinski egomela ukuthi inhlolokhono yayingochwepheshe hhayi ingxoxo kodwa izingcaphuno kusukela ingxoxo futhi ayikaze yamukelwe ngendlela evele ngayo futhi ukuthi njengoba uBrzezinski eye wakuphika kaninginingi ezikhathini eziningi— “ithisisi 'yesicupho' ayinasisekelo sangempela.”[6] UTobin ube eseqhubeka nokucaphuna amadokhumende asemthethweni ukufakazela ukuthi “okwenziwe nguBrzezinski ngo-1979 kwakhombisa umzamo onengqondo woku phikisa [ukugcizelela kungezwe] IMoscow ingangeneleli… Ngamafuphi, ukungenelela kwamasosha aseSoviet akuzange kufunwe futhi kungafuneki ngabaphathi bakaCarter futhi uhlelo olufihlekile olwaqalwa ehlobo luka-1979 alwanele ukukhokhisa uCarter noBrzezinski ngokuzama ukubamba iMoscow ngo Ugibe lwase-Afghanistan. '”
Ngakho-ke lokhu kuvezani ngokusebenza okuyimfihlo kukahulumeni wase-US okwenziwa ezinyangeni eziyisithupha ngaphambi kokuhlasela kweSoviet ngoDisemba 1979 futhi hhayi ukuziqhayisa ngoBrzezinski kwaze kwaba nguJanuwari ka-1998?
Ukufingqa isikhalazo sikaTobin; Ukuziqhenya kukaBrzezinski okusolwa ngokuheha abaseSoviet “ogibeni lwase-Afghanistan” akunasisekelo. UBrzezinski kusho okuthile kodwa yini- akucaci, kepha noma ngabe yini ayishoyo, akukho mlando wayo futhi noma kunjalo bekunganele ukuheha abaseSoviet bangene e-Afghanistan ngoba yena noCarter babengafuni ukuthi abaseSoviet bahlasele noma kunjalo ngoba kungabeka engcupheni ukuxoxisana nezingxoxo ze-SALT II. Ngakho-ke yini le mpikiswano engaka?
Ukucabanga kukaTobin ukuthi uMongameli wase-United States kanye ne-CIA yakhe babengeke bazimisele ngamabomu ukubhebhethekisa iMpi Yomshoshaphansi phakathi kwendawo enjalo enobudlova, kungaveza okuningi ngokwenzelela kukaConor Tobin kunokuqonda kwakhe isu lempi likaBrzezinski . Ukufunda i-athikili yakhe kungukungena engilazini ebheke endaweni ehlukile lapho (ukucacisa nge-TE Lawrence) amaqiniso athathelwa indawo amaphupho emini bese abaphuphayo bezenza ngamehlo abo evulekile. Ngokokuhlangenwe nakho kwethu ne-Afghanistan kanye nabantu abakwenze kwenzeka lokhu, “umsebenzi obalulekile kaTobin womlando wamanxusa wendabuko” (njengoba ucashunwe ekubuyekezweni kukaTodd Greentree) awusebenzi neze emlandweni.
Uma ubheka emuva kulokho uBrzezinski avuma kukho ngo-1998 akudingi imvume ephezulu yokuqinisekisa. Izisusa Ezinkulu Ezinjengomdlalo ngemuva kwethsis yokucupha i-Afghan zazaziwa ngesikhathi sokuhlaselwa kwanoma ngubani onolwazi ngomlando wenani lamasu esifundeni.
U-MS Agwani we-Jawaharlal Nehru School of International Studies washo okuningi kumagazini i-Schools Quarterly Journal ka-Okthoba-Disemba 1980 ecaphuna izinto eziningi eziyinkimbinkimbi ezisekela isicupho sase-Afghanistan: “Esethu isiphetho kulokhu okungenhla kukabili. Okokuqala, iSoviet Union kungenzeka ukuthi yangena ogibeni olwalubekwe abaphikisi bayo. Ngokwenzelwa kwayo ezempi akuzange kuyinikeze inzuzo ngokuya ngezokuphepha kweSoviet eyayingakujabuleli ngaphansi kwemibuso yangaphambilini. Ngokuphambene nalokho, ingakuthinta ukusebenzisana kwayo neZwe Lesithathu ngokujwayelekile futhi ikakhulukazi amazwe amaSulumane. Okwesibili, ukusabela okunamandla kwaseMelika ekungeneleleni kweSoviet akukwazi ukuthathwa njengobufakazi bokukhathazeka kwangempela kweWashington ngesiphetho se-Afghanistan. Kuyenzeka impela ukuthi kuthiwe izintshisekelo zayo ezibalulekile eGulf zizosizakala kangcono ukuhlangana okwandisiwe kweSoviet ne-Afghanistan ngoba laba bangasizakala ngokuxosha abaseSoviet kuleso sifunda. Okwenzeka e-Afghanistan kubonakala sengathi kusizile ukuthi i-United States yenyuse ubukhona bayo kwezempi eGulf nasezindaweni ezizungezile ngaphandle kokuvusa umbhikisho onzima emazweni ase-littoral. ”[7]
Noma nini lapho ebuzwa eminyakeni ecishe ibe ngamashumi amabili ngemuva kokuvela kwendatshana yeNouvel Observateur kuze kube sekufeni kwakhe ngo-2017, izimpendulo zikaBrzezinski ngokunemba kokuhumusha zazivame ukwehluka ukusuka ekwamukelweni kuye ekulahlweni kuye kwenye indawo lapho kufanele kuphakame imibuzo ngokuncika kakhulu eqinisweni lakhe ukucabanga. Yize kunjalo uConor Tobin ukhethe ukucaphuna kuphela ingxoxo ye-2010 noPaul Jay we I-Real News Network [8] lapho uBrzezinski aliphika khona, ukuze enze udaba lwakhe. Kule ngxoxo ka-2006 nomenzi wamafilimu uSamira Goetschel[9] uthi “ukuhumusha okukhululekile,” kodwa uyavuma ngokuyisisekelo ukuthi uhlelo oluyimfihlo “cishe lwaqinisekisa abaseSoviet nakakhulu ukuthi benze lokho ababehlela ukukwenza.” UBrzezinski wenza iphutha ekulungisisweni kwakhe kwemibono (okwabelwana nama-neoconservatives) ukuthi kusukela abaseSoviet basezinhlelweni zokunwebela e-Afghanistan noma kunjalo njengengxenye yecebo eliphakeme lokufeza ubukhosi eSouthwest Asia nasezifundazweni ezikhiqiza uwoyela eGulf, [10] (isikhundla esaliwe nguNobhala Wombuso uCyrus Vance) iqiniso lokuthi kungenzeka ukuthi ubangela ukuhlasela kwakungabalulekanga kangako.
Esekhiphe imithelela yamazwi aqondile kaBrzezinski, uTobin wabe esola ukukhula nokwamukelwa komcabango wokubamba wase-Afghanistan ikakhulukazi ngokuthembela ngokweqile “kudumo” lukaBrzezinski abese eqhubeka nalo ngokucaphuna ama-memos ka-Brizinsinski emva kokuhlasela. wembula ukukhathazeka, hhayi ithuba, okusho ukuthi injongo yakhe yayikunxenxa ukuhlasela. ”[11] Kepha ukuchitha isisusa esaziwayo sikaBrzezinski sokucekela phansi ubudlelwano be-US / Soviet ngazo zonke izindlela ukulahlekelwa yi-raison d'être yomsebenzi kaBrzezinski ngaphambi kokuwa kweSoviet Union. Ukwamukela ukwenqatshwa kwakhe kunganaki indima yakhe ekuletheni i-ajenda yangemva kwe-Vietnam neoconservative (eyaziwa njengeThimba B) eWhite House kungasaphathwa ithuba lokushintsha unomphela inqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseMelika iye embonweni wakhe wezwe omelene neRussia ngokucasula abaseSoviet kuzo zonke izinyathelo.
U-Anne Hessing Cahn, njengamanje onguScholar in Residence e I-American University owayesebenza njengeChief of the Social Impact Staff e I-Arms Control and Disarmament Agency kusuka ngo-1977-81 kanye noMsizi Okhethekile ku Iphini Likasekela Nobhala Wezokuvikela 1980-81, wayenakho lokhu ukusho ngesithunzi sikaBrzezinski encwadini yakhe yango-1998, Ukubulala iDentente: “Lapho uMongameli uCarter ebiza uZbigniew Brzezinski njengomeluleki wakhe wezokuphepha kuzwelonke, kwamiswa kusengaphambili ukuthi ukuhlangana neSoviet Union kwakusezikhathini ezinzima. Kuqale kwafika isiphakamiso sokulawulwa kwezikhali esingalindelekile sangoMashi 1977, esisuke esivumelwaneni seVladivostok[12] futhi yadalulwa kwabezindaba ngaphambi kokuthi yethulwe kwabaseSoviet. Ngo-Ephreli uCarter wayecindezela abalingani beNATO ukuthi bakhe kabusha, efuna ukuzibophezela okuqinile kuwo wonke amalungu eNATO ukuthi aqale ukukhulisa izabelomali zawo zokuzivikela ngamaphesenti amathathu ngonyaka. Ehlobo lika-3 Imemorandamu-1977 KaMongameli KaCarter's Review Memorandum-10[13]ubizele ukuthi 'kube namandla okuphumelela' uma kungenzeka kube nempi, amagama abonisa umbono weQembu B. ” [14]
Kungakapheli nonyaka ethathe isikhundla uCarter wayesekhombisile amaSoviet amahlandla amaningi ukuthi ubephendulela abaphathi ekubambisaneni nasezimpikiswaneni futhi abaseSoviet babelalele. Enkulumweni eyayibhalwe nguBrzezinski futhi eyethulwa eWake Forest University ngoMashi 17, 1978, “uCarter waqinisekisa ukusekelwa kweMelika yi-SALT nokulawulwa kwezingalo, [kodwa] ithoni yayihluke kakhulu kunonyaka ngaphambili. Manje usehlanganise yonke imidlalo yokuhlunga ethandwa uSenator Jackson kanye ne-JCS… Ngokuqondene ne-détente — igama elingakaze lishiwo empeleni ekhelini - ukubambisana neSoviet Union bekukwazi ukuhlangabezana nezinhloso ezifanayo. 'Kodwa uma behluleka ukukhombisa ukuzibamba ezinhlelweni zemicibisholo nakwamanye amabutho wamandla noma ekubonisweni kwamabutho amaSoviet noma abameli kwamanye amazwe nasemazwenikazi kuzosekelwa impela e-United States ngokubambisana okunjalo nabaseSoviet.' ”
AbaseSoviet bathola umyalezo ovela kukheli likaCarter futhi ngokushesha baphendula esihlokweni somhleli we-TAAS News Agency ukuthi: “'Izinhloso zaseSoviet phesheya' zihlanekezelwe njengezaba zokwandisa umncintiswano wezikhali. '” [15]
Engqungqutheleni yeNobel nge-Cold War ekwindla ka-1995, umeluleki we-Harvard / MIT Senior Security Studies, uDkt. Carol Saivetz wakhuluma ngokuthambekela kokunganaki ukubaluleka kwemibono kaBrzezinski enqubweni yokuthathwa kwezinqumo ngeCold War nokuthi kungani lokho kwaholela kulokho ukungaqondi okuyisisekelo kwezinhloso zohlangothi ngalunye. “Engikufunde ezinsukwini ezimbalwa ezedlule ukuthi leyo mqondo — into thina eNtshonalanga ebesibhala ngenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseSoviet besivame ukuyithatha njengeyinhlelekile ... Ngokwezinga elithile, umbono womqondo — umbono wezwe onemibono, ake ikubize — yadlala indima ebalulekile… Noma ngabe uZbig wayevela ePoland noma kwenye indawo, wayenombono womhlaba, futhi wayevame ukutolika imicimbi njengoba yayiqhubeka ngokukhanya kwayo. Ngokwezinga elithile, ukwesaba kwakhe kwaba iziphrofetho ezizigcwalisayo. Wayefuna izinhlobo ezithile zokuziphatha, futhi wayezibona — kahle noma kabi. ”[16]
Ukuqonda ukuthi “ukwesaba” kukaBrzezinski kwaba kanjani iziphrofetho ezizigcwalisa yena uqobo ukuqonda ukuthi ulayini wakhe onzima ngokumelene namaSoviet e-Afghanistan wacasula imiphumela ayeyifuna futhi wamukelwa njengenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseMelika ngokuhambisana nezinhloso zethimba le-neoconservative; "Ukucekela phansi izintandokazi kanye nokubuyisela inqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US ezingeni lokulwa namanye amazwe aseSoviet Union."[17]
Yize noma kungabhekwa njenge-neoconservative futhi ephikisana nokuxhumanisa izinhloso zakwa-Israyeli ePalestine nezinhloso zaseMelika, indlela kaBrzezinski yokwakha iziphrofetho ezizigcwalisayo kanye nezinhloso zenhlangano yezombusazwe yokuhambisa i-US esimweni esinzima ngokumelene neSoviet Union yathola inhloso efanayo e-Afghanistan . Indlela yabo okwabelwana ngayo njengamaqhawe aseCold ahlangana ukuze ahlasele i-détente ne-SALT II lapho kungenzeka khona lapho kubhidlizwa izisekelo zanoma yibuphi ubudlelwano bokusebenzisana namaSoviet. Enkulumweni ka-1993 esasiyenza nomphathi wezingxoxo ze-SALT II uPaul Warnke, waqinisekisa inkolelo yakhe yokuthi abaseSoviet babengeke bahlasele i-Afghanistan kwasekuqaleni ukube uMongameli Carter wayengeyena isisulu sikaBrzezinski kanye nethimba le-Team B lokuzonda i-dententente kanye nokubukela phansi ukuzethemba kweSoviet ukuthi uSALT II uzoqinisekiswa.[18] UBrzezinski wabona ukuhlasela kweSoviet njengokuqinisekisa okukhulu kwesimangalo sakhe sokuthi i-US yayikhuthaze ubudlova baseSoviet ngenqubomgomo yobuthakathaka yakwamanye amazwe okwathi lapho yaqinisekisa isikhundla sayo esinzima ngaphakathi ekuphathweni kukaCarter. Kepha angasho kanjani ukuthi ulwelwa izenzo zeSoviet ebe edlale indima ebaluleke kangaka ekucasuleni izimo abasabela kuzo?[19]
Umeluleki wezesayensi kaMongameli Dwight D. Eisenhower uGeorge B. Kistiakowsky nowayeyisekela lomqondisi we-CIA, uHerbert Scoville uwuphendule lowo mbuzo kwiBoston Globe Op-ed cishe ezinyangeni ezimbili ngemuva komcimbi. "Empeleni, kwakuyizenzo zikaMongameli ezazenzelwe ukushweleza kubaphikisi bakhe bezombusazwe ababelukhuni ekhaya okwabhubhisa ukuntengantenga kohulumeni baseSoviet… Izimpikiswano ezaqeda amazwi abaphathi baseKremlin zakhula ngenxa yokushabalala okwakusondela kwesivumelwano se-SALT II kanye nokushushuluza okunamandla kokulwa neSoviet kwezinqubomgomo zikaCarter. Ukuqhubeka kwakhe nokwamukela imibono yoMeluleki Wezokuphepha Kuzwelonke uZbigniew Brzezinski kuholele ekulindeni ukubusa e-United States ngababhebhezela eminyakeni eminingi ezayo… ”[20]
Ku-athikili ka-Ephreli 1981 ephephabhukwini laseBrithani iThe Round Table, umbhali uDev Murarka wembula ukuthi abaseSoviet babenqabile ukungenelela kwezempi ezikhathini eziyishumi nantathu ezihlukene ngemuva kokubuzwa nguhulumeni wase-Afghanistan uNur Mohammed Taraki noHafizullah Amin - bazi ukuthi ukungenelela kwezempi kuzonikeza izitha zabo kanye nalokho abekade bekufuna. Kwaba ngesicelo seshumi nane kuphela lapho abaseSoviet bahambisana khona "ngenkathi kutholwa imininingwane eMoscow yokuthi u-Amin wenze isivumelwano nelinye lamaqembu aphikisayo." UMurarka uphawula ukuthi “Ukuhlolisiswa kwezimo zesinqumo seSoviet sokungenelela kugcizelela izinto ezimbili. Eyokuqala, ukuthi lesi sinqumo asithathwanga ngamawala ngaphandle kokucatshangelwa okufanele. Okwesibili, ukuthi ukungenelela bekungewona umphumela onqunyelwe ngaphambili wokukhula kokubandakanyeka kweSoviet e-Afghanistan. Ezimweni ezahlukahlukene ibingagwemeka. ”[21]
Kepha esikhundleni sokugwema, izimo zokuhlasela kweSoviet zakhuthazwa yizenzo ezicashile ezathathwa nguCarter, Brzezinski kanye neCIA ngqo nangabameli baseSaudi Arabia, ePakistan naseGibhithe beqinisekisa ukuthi ukungenelela kweSoviet kwakungagwenywa kepha kwakhuthazwa.
Ngokwengeziwe okungekho ekuhlaziyweni kukaTobin iqiniso lokuthi noma ngubani owazama ukusebenzisana noBrzezinski eCarter White House — njengoba kufakazelwe ngumxhumanisi weSALT II uPaul Warnke kanye noMqondisi weCIA uCarter uStansfield Turner — babemazi njengomuntu wezwe wasePoland nongumqondo oqhutshwayo.[22] Futhi noma ngabe I-New Observer ukuxoxisana kwakungekho kwakungeke kushintshe isisindo sobufakazi bokuthi ngaphandle kokucasha kukaBrzezinski noCarter nokucasula ngokweqile, abaseSoviet babengeke basizwe isidingo sokuwela umngcele futhi bahlasele i-Afghanistan.
Kundatshana kaJanuwari 8, 1972 kwiNew Yorker Magazine, enesihloko esithi Ukucabanga: Ku-Thrall To Fear,[23] USenator J. William Fulbright uchaze uhlelo lwe-neoconservative lokwakha impi engapheli eyayigcina i-US iboshiwe eVietnam. "Into ephawuleka ngempela ngalesi sifo sokusebenza kwengqondo seCold War ukudluliswa okungenangqondo ngokuphelele komthwalo wobufakazi usuka kulabo ababiza labo abababuzayo… AmaCold Warriors, esikhundleni sokuthi basho ukuthi bazi kanjani ukuthi iVietnam iyingxenye yohlelo for the Communisation of the world, so manipulated the terms of the public discussion ukuze bakwazi ukufuna ukuthi abagxeki bafakazele ukuthi kwakungeyona. Uma abagxeki behluleka impi kufanele iqhubeke — ukuze iphele bekungaba engozini ukuphepha kwezwe. ”
UFulbright wabona ukuthi amaCold Warold aseWashington ayesephendulile umqondo wokwenza impi ngaphakathi ngokuphetha ngokuthi, “Sifika ekugcineni okungenamqondo: impi iyinkambo yokuhlakanipha nokuziphatha kuze kube yilapho icala lokuthula lifakazelwa ngaphansi kwemithetho engenakwenzeka yobufakazi - noma kuze kube isitha siyazinikela. Abantu abanengqondo abakwazi ukubhekana ngale ndlela. ”
Kodwa la "madoda" nohlelo lwawo ayenemibono; hhayi okunengqondo nokuzimisela kwabo ukuqhubekisela phambili igunya labo lokunqoba ubuKhomanisi baseSoviet kwaqina kuphela ngokulahlekelwa okusemthethweni kweMpi yaseVietnam ngonyaka we-1975. Ngenxa yeBrzezinski, ukwakheka kwenqubomgomo yase-US ezungeze abaphathi bakaCarter e-Afghanistan, SALT, détente naseSoviet Union bahlala ngaphandle Umbuso walokho okwakudluliselwe ekwenziweni kwenqubomgomo yamanxusa yendabuko ekuphathweni kweNixon neFord ngenkathi kunqotshwa ithonya elinobuthi le-neoconservative leThimba B elalilawula ngaleso sikhathi.
UTobin uyakushaya indiva lokhu kuhlangana okukhazimulayo komlando kwezazi zezimfundiso ezifana nezazo. Ugcizelela ukuthembela kwirekhodi elisemthethweni ukuze afinyelele eziphethweni zakhe kodwa abese eyishaya indiva indlela lelo rekhodi elenziwe ngayo nguBrzezinski futhi lathonywa yinkolo yaseWashington yabanama-neoconservatives ukuletha isiprofetho sabo sokuzigcwalisa. Ube esekhetha amaqiniso asekela isicupho sakhe sokulwa ne-Afghan ngenkathi enganaki ingcebo yobufakazi kulabo abaphikisana nemizamo kaBrzezinski yokulawula ukulandisa nokushiya imibono ephikisayo.
Ngokwezifundo eziningi uBrzezinski uguqule indima yokuba ngumeluleki wezokuphepha kuzwelonke ukudlula umsebenzi obekuhlosiwe. Esikhathini sokuhlela noMongameli Carter eSt. Simon Island ngaphambi kokungena e-White House wathatha ukulawula ukwakhiwa kwezinqubomgomo ngokunciphisa ukufinyelela kumongameli kuze kube ngamakomidi amabili (i-Policy Review Committee PRC, ne-Special Coordinating Committee SCC). Wabe esenamandla okudlulisela uCarter phezu kwe-CIA kwi-SCC ayengusihlalo wayo. Emhlanganweni wokuqala weKhabhinethi ngemuva kokungena esikhundleni uCarter wamemezela ukuthi uphakamisa umeluleki wezokuphepha kuzwelonke ezingeni lekhabhinethi futhi ukukhiya kukaBrzezinski ezenzweni zokucasha kuphelile. Ngokusho kososayensi wezepolitiki nomlobi uDavid J. Rothkopf, “Kwakuyisiteleka sokuqala se-bureaucratic se-oda lokuqala. Uhlelo lolu belunikeza uBrzezinski umthwalo wemfanelo wezindaba ezibaluleke kakhulu futhi ezizwelayo. ” [24]
Ngokwesifundo esithile semfundo,[25] esikhathini esiyiminyaka emine uBrzezinski wayevame ukuthatha izinyathelo ngaphandle kolwazi noma kwemvume kamongameli; ithathe ukuxhumana okuthunyelwe e-White House emhlabeni wonke futhi kukhethwe ngokucophelela kuphela lezo zokuxhumana ukuze umongameli abone lokho kuvumelana nemibono yakhe. IKomidi lakhe Lokuxhumanisa Elikhethekile, i-SCC kwakuwumsebenzi wezitofu owawusebenza ngenhloso yakhe kuphela futhi wenqaba imininingwane nokufinyelela kulabo ababengamphikisa, kubandakanya uNobhala Wezwe uCyrus Vance noMqondisi weCIA uStansfield Turner. Njengelungu lekhabhinethi wayephethe ihhovisi laseWhite House ehlangene nendawo yokwamukela izivakashi evela eHhovisi le-Oval futhi wahlangana kaningi noMongameli, abagcini bamarekhodi abangaphakathi endlini bayeka ukulandela imihlangano.[26] Ngokuvumelana noMongameli uCarter, wayezobe ebhala amamemo amathathu wamakhasi ale mihlangano nanoma imiphi bese eyiletha kumongameli mathupha.[27] Usebenzise leli gunya eliyingqayizivele ukuzikhethela njengomkhulumeli oyinhloko wezokuphatha kanye nesithiyo phakathi kweWhite House nabanye abeluleki bakamongameli futhi waze wenza nobhala wezindaba ukuthi adlulisele izinqumo zakhe zenqubomgomo ngqo kwiMainstream Media.
Wayebuye aqoshwe njengowodwa owasungula ukuhlangana kabusha neChina ngoMeyi ka-1978 ngendlela elwa neSoviet eyayiphikisana nenqubomgomo yase-US ngaleso sikhathi ngenkathi idume ngokudukisa umongameli ezindabeni ezibucayi ukuze athethelele isikhundla sakhe ngamanga.[28]
Ngakho-ke kusebenze kanjani e-Afghanistan?
UTobin uyawenqaba wona kanye umqondo wokuthi uBrzezinski uyoke acebise uCarter ukuthi avume ngenkuthalo inqubomgomo engabeka engcupheni i-SALT ne-détente, ifake umkhankaso wakhe wokhetho engcupheni futhi isongele i-Iran, iPakistan nePersian Gulf ekungeneni kweSoviet okuzayo - ngoba kuTobin “akunakwenzeka neze. ”[29]
Njengobufakazi bokusekela kwakhe inkolelo kaBrzezinski ezifisweni zesikhathi eside zaseSoviet zokuhlasela iMiddle East ngeAfghanistan, uTobin ucaphuna indlela uBzezezinski “ayekhumbuza ngayo uCarter 'ngenqubo yendabuko yaseRussia eya eningizimu, futhi wamtshela ngokuningiliziwe ngesiphakamiso sikaMolotov kuHitler ngasekupheleni kuka-1940 ukuthi amaNazi ayaziqaphela izimangalo zaseSoviet zokuvelela esifundeni esiseningizimu yeBatum naseBaku. '”Kodwa uTobin uyehluleka ukusho ukuthi lokho uBrzezinski akwethulela umongameli njengobufakazi bezinhloso zeSoviet e-Afghanistan kwakuyincazelo engaziwa kahle[30] walokho uHitler noNgqongqoshe Wezangaphandle uJoachim von Ribbentropp wayehlongozile kuya eMoloto - futhi nokuyinto uMolotov ayenqaba. Ngamanye amazwi, okuphambene nalokho uBrzezinski akwethulela uCarter — kepha uTobin akalinaki leli qiniso.
Kusukela lapho i-Afghanistan yamemezela ukuzimela kwayo kusuka eBrithani ngo-1919 kuze kube "yiMarxist coup" yango-1978 inhloso enkulu yenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseSoviet kwakungukugcina ubudlelwane obunobungani kepha buqaphile ne-Afghanistan, ngenkathi kugcinwa izintshisekelo zaseSoviet.[31] Ukubandakanyeka kwe-US bekuhlala kuncane kakhulu lapho i-US imelwe ngabalingani bePakistan ne-Iran esifundeni. Ngama-1970s i-US yathatha ukuthi izwe selivele likhona emkhakheni weSoviet wethonya ekubeni i-defacto isayinelwe kulolo lungiselelo ekuqaleni kweMpi Yomshoshaphansi. [32] Njengoba ochwepheshe ababili baseMelika besikhathi eside e-Afghanistan bachaza nje ngo-1981, “Ithonya lamaSoviet lalinamandla kodwa lingesabisi kwaze kwaba ngo-1978.”[33] Ngokuphikisana nokushiwo kukaBrzezinski ngomklamo omkhulu waseSoviet, uNobhala Wombuso uCyrus Vance akabubonanga ubufakazi besandla seMoscow ekuqothulweni kukahulumeni wangaphambilini ngo-78 kodwa ubufakazi obuningi bokufakazela lokhu kubabamba bemangele.[34] Empeleni kubonakala sengathi umholi wamavukelambuso uHafizullah Amin wesaba ukuthi abaseSoviet babezomvimba ukube bathola itulo. USelig Harrison uyabhala, "Umbono oshiywe yibufakazi obutholakalayo ungenye yezindlela ezingaphusile zokuphendula iSoviet esimweni esingalindelekile… Kamuva, i-KGB 'yathola ukuthi imiyalo ka-Amin mayelana nalokhu kuvukela yayihlanganisa nokuvinjelwa okunzima ukwazisa abaseRussia mayelana izenzo ezihleliwe. '”[35]
IMoscow yathatha uHafizullah Amin ehambisana ne-CIA futhi yambiza ngo “'ongxiwankulu abavamile nabanobuzwe obudlulele bePastu… enezifiso zezepolitiki ezingenamkhawulo nokulangazelela amandla,' ayezobheka kunoma yini futhi enze noma yibuphi ubugebengu ukuze abufeze. ' ”[36] Ngasekuqaleni kukaMeyi 1978 abaseSoviet babesungula uhlelo lokumsusa futhi esikhundleni sakhe kwathi ehlobo lika1979 baxhumana nababengamalungu kaKhosi nohulumeni kaMahammad Daoud ababengewona amakhomanisi ukwakha uhulumeni “ongewona wobukhomanisi, noma wobumbano, ozophumelela Umbuso kaTaraki-Amin, ”sonke lesi sikhathi ugcina ukwaziswa okuphelele kwamanxusa aseMelika uBruce Amstutz.[37]
Kwabanye ababenokuhlangenwe nakho kwabo siqu ezenzakalweni ezazizungeze ukuhlaselwa kweSoviet, akungabazeki ukuthi uBrzezinski wayefuna ukukhuphula iziteki zabaseSoviet e-Afghanistan futhi wayekwenza okungenani kusukela ngo-Ephreli ka-1978 ngosizo lwamaShayina. Ngesikhathi sokuthunywa okungumlando kukaBrzezinski eChina ngemuva kwamasonto ambalwa kuthathwe izintambo eMarxist e-Afghanistan, waphakamisa udaba lokuxhaswa kwamaShayina lokulwa nokuqothulwa kombuso kwakamuva kukaMarxist. [38]
Ukusekela umbono wakhe wokuthi uBrzezinski wayengavuseleli ukuhlasela kweSoviet, uTobin ucaphuna incwadi evela kumqondisi we-NSC Wezindaba ZaseNingizimu Asia, uThomas Thornton ngoMeyi 3, 1978 ebika ukuthi “i-CIA yayingazimisele ukucubungula”[39] ngaleso sikhathi futhi waxwayisa ngoJulayi 14, ukuthi "kungabikho sikhuthazo esisemthethweni" okufanele sinikezwe "abakha uzungu."[40] Isigameko sangempela uThntnton abhekise kuso sithinta ukuxhumana kwesikhulu sesibili esiphakeme samasosha ase-Afghanistan esaphenya inxusa lase-Embassy laseMelika uBruce Amstutz ukuthi ngabe i-US izoyeseka yini ukuketula “umbuso kaMarxist” osanda kufakwa kaNur Mohammed Taraki noHafizullah Amin.
UTobin ube esecaphuna isexwayiso sikaThornton kuBrzezinski ukuthi umphumela “wokusiza… kungenzeka ube isimemo sokubandakanyeka okukhulu kweSoviet,” futhi wengeza ngokuthi uBrzezinski wabhala “yebo” emaphethelweni.
UTobin uthatha isexwayiso esivela kuThornton obunye ubufakazi bokuthi uBrzezinski wayekhuthaza isenzo esivusa inkanuko ngokusayina u "yebo" esixwayisweni sakhe. Kepha okushiwo nguBrzezinski ngokubhala olayini we-margin ukuqagela kwanoma ngubani, ikakhulukazi ngenxa yengxabano yakhe yenqubomgomo ebabayo mayelana nodaba lokudambisa umbuso ngenxusa elizayo le-US u-Adolph Dubs ofike nangoJulayi.
"Ngingakutshela nje ukuthi uBrzezinski wayenenkinga yenqubomgomo yaseMelika ebheke e-Afghanistan ngo-1978 nangama-79 phakathi kwentatheli nesifundiswa sikaBrzezinski noDubs" USelig Harrison wasitshela kwinhlolokhono esayiqhuba ngo-1993. “UDubs wayenguchwepheshe waseSoviet… enombono oyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu wokuthi uzokwenzani ngokwezombusazwe; obekuzozama ukwenza u-Amin abe nguTito - noma into esondele kakhulu kuTito - amkhombe. Futhi uBrzezinski wayecabanga ukuthi lokho kwakuyimbudane nje… UDubs wayemelela inqubomgomo yokungafuni i-US ukuthi izibandakanye nokusiza amaqembu aphikisayo ngoba wayezama ukubhekana nobuholi bamaKhomanisi base-Afghanistan futhi abunikeze usizo olungazinzile nolwezomnotho nezinye izinto izoyivumela ukuthi incike kancane eSoviet Union… Manje uBrzezinski ubemele enye indlela, okusho ukuthi konke bekuyingxenye yesiphrofetho esizigcobile. Konke bekusebenziseka kakhulu kubantu abanjengoBrzezinski ababenombono othile ngobuhlobo jikelele neSoviet Union. ”[41]
Encwadini yakhe noDiego Cordovez Ngaphandle kwe-Afghanistan, UHarrison ukhumbula ukuvakasha kwakhe noDub ngo-Agasti ka-1978 nokuthi ezinyangeni eziyisithupha ezalandela ukungqubuzana kwakhe noBrzezinski kwenza impilo yaba nzima kakhulu futhi yaba yingozi kuye ukusebenzisa inqubomgomo yoMnyango Wezwe. "UBrzezinski noDubs babesebenzela ukwenza izinhloso ezithile ngasekupheleni kuka-1978 nasekuqaleni kuka-1979." UHarrison uyabhala. "Lokhu kulawulwa kwemisebenzi ecashile kwenza uBrzezinski akwazi ukuthatha izinyathelo zokuqala zokulwa nenqubomgomo elwa neSoviet Afghanistan ngaphandle kokuthi uMnyango Wezwe wazi okuningi ngayo."[42]
Ngokwe- "Post Profile" yoMnyango Wezwe ka-1978 yomsebenzi wenxusa, i-Afghanistan yathathwa njengesabelo esinzima "ngenxa yezimo zezepolitiki ezingalindelekile - mhlawumbe ezinodlame - ezithinta ukuzinza kwesifunda… NjengeNdunankulu yezithunywa, nezinhlangano eziyisishiyagalombili ezihlukene, cishe i-150 izikhulu zaseMelika, endaweni ekude futhi engenampilo, ”umsebenzi wenxusa wawuyingozi ngokwanele. Kepha njengoba uMmeli uDubs ayephikisana ngqo nenqubomgomo yangaphakathi kaBrzezinski eyimfihlo yokwehliswa kwemvelo kwase kubulala. UDubs ubekwazi kahle kwasekuqaleni ukuthi uhlelo oluqhubekayo lokuhlehlisa lungadala ukuthi amaSoviet ahlasele futhi achaze isu lakhe kuSelig Harrison. "UDube wachaza ukuthi iqhinga lase-United States lizoba ukwanda ngokucophelela kosizo nezinye izixhumanisi ngaphandle kokucindezela iSoviet ku-Amin futhi kungenelele ezempi."[43]
Ngokusho kowayengumhlaziyi weCIA uHenry Bradsher, uDubs wazama ukuxwayisa uMnyango Wezwe ukuthi ukwephula uzinzo kuzoholela ekuhlaselweni yiSoviet. Ngaphambi kokuya eKabul wancoma ukuthi abaphathi bakaCarter bahlele izehlakalo zokuphendula ezempi zaseSoviet futhi ezinyangeni ezimbalwa zokufika kwabo baphinda isincomo. Kepha uMnyango Wezwe wawususemaphephandabeni kaBrzezinski, isicelo sikaDubs asikaze sithathelwe phezulu.[44]
Ngasekuqaleni kuka-1979 ukwesaba nokudideka kokuthi ngabe uHafizullah Amin wayesebenzela i-CIA ngasese yini, wayesezinzise inxusa laseMelika, u-Ambassador Dubs wabhekana nomphathi wesiteshi sakhe futhi wafuna izimpendulo, kodwa watshelwa ukuthi u-Amin wayengakaze asebenzele i-CIA.[45] Kepha amahemuhemu okuthi u-Amin wayenokuxhumana ne-Intelligence Directorate yase-Pakistan i-ISI kanye nama-Islamist ase-Afghan abesekelwa yibo, ikakhulukazi uGulbuddin Hekmatyar kungenzeka ukuthi ayiqiniso.[46] Ngaphandle kwezithiyo uDubs waphikelela ekuqhubekiseleni phambili izinhlelo zakhe noHafizullah Amin ngokumelene nengcindezi esobala evela kuBrzezinski kanye ne-NSC yakhe. UHarrison uyabhala. "Okwamanje uDubs ubephikisana kakhulu nokugcina izinketho zaseMelika zivulekile, encenga ukuthi ukuhlukumezeka kombuso kungadala ukungenelela okuqondile kweSoviet."[47]
UHarrison uqhubeka athi; “UBrzezinski wagcizelela kwinhlolokhono ngemuva kokushiya kwakhe eWhite House ukuthi wayehlala ngaphakathi kwemigomo kaMongameli ngaleso sikhathi yokuthi anganikeli usizo oluqondile kumvukelo wase-Afghanistan [osekuvele ukuthi awulona iqiniso]. Njengoba kwakungekho taboo ekusekelweni okungaqondileKodwa-ke, i-CIA yayikhuthaze uZia Ul-Haq owayesanda kugxila ukuthi aqale uhlelo lwayo lokuxhasa amasosha. I-CIA kanye nePakistan Interservices Intelligence Directorate (ISI) uthe, basebenze ngokubambisana ekuhleleni izinhlelo zokuqeqesha abavukelambuso nasekuxhumaniseni usizo lwamaShayina, lwaseSaudi Arabia, lwaseGibhithe nolweKwaiti olwaluqala ukungena. Ekuqaleni kukaFebhuwari 1979, lokhu ukusebenzisana kwaba yimfihlo evulekile ngesikhathi iWashington Post ishicilela [Februwari 2] umbiko wofakazi wokuzibonela wokuthi okungenani abantu abayizinkulungwane ezimbili base-Afghanistan baqeqeshwa ezindaweni ezazingamasosha asePakistan ezazigadwe ngamaphoyisa asePakistan. ”[48]
UDavid Newsom, Undersecretary of State for Political Affairs owayehlangane nohulumeni omusha wase-Afghanistan ehlobo lika-1978 watshela uHarrison, “Kusukela ekuqaleni, uZbig wayenombono wesimo esiphikisayo kakhulu ngalesi simo kunoVance futhi iningi lethu eMbusweni. Wacabanga ukuthi kufanele ngabe senza okuthile ngokufihla ukukhungathekisa izifiso zeSoviet kuleyo ngxenye yomhlaba. Kwezinye izikhathi bengingeyedwa lapho ngibuza imibuzo ngobuhlakani nokuthi kungenzeka yini lokho afuna ukukwenza. ” 'UMqondisi we-CIA uStansfield Turner, isibonelo,' "wayeqaphele kakhulu kunoZbig, wayevame ukuphikisa ngokuthi okuthile ngeke kusebenze. UZbig wayengakhathazekile ngokucasula abaseRussia, njengoba abanye bethu babenjalo… ”[49]
Yize ephawula ukubulawa kuka-Ambassador Dubs okwalandela ngoFebhuwari 14 ezandleni zamaphoyisa ase-Afghanistan njengesiphetho esikhulu sokuba uBrzezinski agudluze inqubomgomo yase-Afghan aqhubeke nokulwa namaSoviet, uTobin uyayigwema ngokuphelele idrama eyaholela ekubulaweni kukaDubs, ukungqubuzana kwakhe UBrzezinski nokwesaba kwakhe okuveze obala ukuthi ukucasula abaseSoviet ngokwenza kube nozinzo kuzoholela ekuhlaselweni.[50]
Ngasekuqaleni kwentwasahlobo yango-1979 isimemo “seVietnam yaseRussia” sasizungeza kabanzi emaphephandabeni aphesheya njengoba ubufakazi bokuthi amaShayina ayesekela ukuhlubuka kwama-Afghan kwaqala ukuvela. I-athikili yango-Ephreli kwiCanada MacLean's Magazine ibike ukuba khona kwezikhulu zamasosha aseChina kanye nabafundisi ePakistan beqeqesha futhi behlomisa "ama-guerilla ama-Afghan ophiko lwangakwesokudla" ngempi yawo engcwele "ngokumelene nombuso waseKabul owabuyela emuva eMoror Noor Mohammed Taraki."[51] I-athikili kaMeyi 5 kuyiWashington Post enesihloko esithi “Afghanistan: IVietnam yaseMoscow?” uye ngqo ephuzwini ethi, "inketho yamaSoviet yokukhipha ngokuphelele ayisatholakali. Banamathele. ”[52]
Kepha ngaphandle kwesimangalo sakhe sokuzibophezela ku INouvelle Observateur , isinqumo sokugcina abaseRussia bebhajwe e-Afghanistan kungenzeka ukuthi sesivele saba yinto elandelwayo uBrzezinski asizakala ngayo. Ku-1996 yakhe Kusuka eShadows, owayengumqondisi we-CIA uRobert Gates no-Brzezinski abasiza e-NSC baqinisekisa ukuthi i-CIA yayikulelicala kudala ngaphambi kokuba abaseSoviet bezwe isidingo sokuhlasela. "Abaphathi bakaCarter baqale ukubheka ukuthi kungenzeka yini ukuthi kusizwe ngasese kubavukeli ababephikisana nohulumeni kaMengameli uTaraki owayesekela iSoviet, ekuqaleni kuka-1979. NgoMashi 9, 1979, i-CIA yathumela izindlela eziningi zokufihla eziphathelene ne-Afghanistan ku-SCC … I-DO yazisa i-DDCI Carlucci ngasekupheleni kuka-Mashi ukuthi uhulumeni wasePakistan kungenzeka aqhamuke kakhulu maqondana nokusiza abahlubuki kunalokho abakholelwa phambilini, ecaphuna indlela isikhulu esiphezulu sasePakistan esisebenzele ngayo isikhulu se-Agency. ”[53]
Ngaphandle kwezinhloso zezombusazwe ezihambisana nemibono kaBrzezinski, isitatimende sikaGates siveza esinye isisusa sokwengeza isicupho sase-Afghan: Izinhloso zesikhathi eside zamakhosi ezidakamizwa ekuhwebeni kwe-opium kanye nezifiso zomuntu wasePakistan Jikelele owaziwa ngokwenza ugibe lwase-Afghanistan ngokoqobo.
Ngo-1989 uLieutenant General Fazle Haq wasePakistan wazichaza njengesikhulu esiphezulu sasePakistan esasithonye uBrzezinski ekusekeleni amaklayenti e-ISI nokwenza umsebenzi uxhase abavukeli abasaqhubeka. “Ngitshele uBrzezinski ukuthi uqinisile eVietnam naseKorea; kungcono uyithole kahle manje ”utshele intatheli yaseBrithani uChristina Lamb enhlolokhono yencwadi yakhe, Ukulinda u-Allah.[54]
Esikhundleni sokukhulula uBrzezinski nganoma yimuphi umthwalo wokuheha abaseSoviet emgibeni wase-Afghanistan, ukwamukelwa kukaHaq ngonyaka ka-1989 kuhlangene nesambulo seGates 1996 kuqinisekisa ukuzimisela okuhleliwe kokusebenzisa ukwenqabela ukucasula abaseSoviet empendulweni yezempi bese besebenzisa leyo mpendulo ukuqala impi enkulu Ukubuyekeza okwakhulunywa ekuphenduleni kweSoviet ekhelini likaCarter's Wake Forest ngoMashi ka-1978. Iphinde ixhumanise izinhloso zikaFazle Haq noMongameli Carter noBrzezinski futhi ngokwenza njalo, yenza izesekeli zombili zokusabalalisa izidakamizwa ezingekho emthethweni ngenxa yeCarter's "isu likahulumeni lokuvikela ukusetshenziswa kabi kwezidakamizwa nokushushumbiswa kwezidakamizwa."
Ngasekupheleni kuka-1977 uDkt David Musto, udokotela wezifo zengqondo waseYale wakwamukela ukuqokwa kukaCarter eMkhandlwini Wecebo Lokulwisana Nezidakamizwa E-White House. “Eminyakeni emibili eyalandela, uMusto wathola ukuthi i-CIA nezinye izinhlaka zezobunhloli zenqabile umkhandlu — amalungu awo afaka unobhala wezwe kanye nommeli-jikelele — ukuthola yonke imininingwane ehlukanisiwe yezidakamizwa, noma ngabe kwakudingeka ukwakhiwa kwenqubomgomo entsha. ”
Ngesikhathi uMusto etshela iWhite House ngokuqamba amanga kweCIA ngokubandakanyeka kwabo akazange athole mpendulo. Kepha ngenkathi uCarter eqala ukuxhasa obala abashokobezi be-mujahideen ngemuva kokuhlasela kweSoviet uMusto watshela umkhandlu. "'[T] hat sasiya e-Afghanistan ukuxhasa abalimi be-opium ekuvukeleni kwabo abaseSoviet. Akufanele yini sizame ukugwema lokho esikwenze eLaos? Akufanele yini sizame ukukhokhela abalimi uma beqeda ukukhiqizwa kwabo kwe-opium? Kwathula kwathi cwaka. ' Njengoba i-heroin evela e-Afghanistan nasePakistan yayingena eMelika phakathi no-1979, uMusto waphawula ukuthi inani labantu ababulawa yizidakamizwa eNew York City lenyuka ngamaphesenti angu-77. ”[55]
I-heroin yeGolden Triangle yayihlinzeke ngomthombo oyimfihlo woxhaso lwemisebenzi elwa namaKhomanisi e-CIA phakathi neMpi yaseVietnam. "Ngo-1971, amaphesenti angama-34 awo wonke amasosha ase-US eSouth Vietnam ayeseyimilutha ye-heroin - wonke ahlinzekwa evela kumalabhorethri asetshenziswa yimpahla yeCIA."[56] Ngenxa kaDkt David Musto, ukusebenzisa kukaHaq ukuhweba nge-Tribal heroin ukuxhasa ngasese amabutho amavukelambuso kaGulbuddin Hekmatyar kwase kuvele obala, kodwa ngenxa kaFazle Haq, uZbigniew Brzezinski nowesilisa ogama lakhe lingu-Agha Hassan Abedi I-Bank of Commerce kanye ne-Credit International, imithetho yomdlalo ibizophendulwa ingaphandle. [57]
Ngo-1981, uHaq wayesenze umngcele wase-Afghan / Pakistan waba ngumhlinzeki we-heroin ohamba phambili emhlabeni ngamaphesenti angama-60 e-heroin yase-US eza ngohlelo lwakhe[58]kwathi ngo-1982 i-Interpol yayihlela umlingani wamasu kaBrzezinski uFazle Haq njengomthengisi wamazwe omhlaba.[59]
Ngemuva kweVietnam, uHaq wabekwa ethubeni lokusebenzisa ithuba lokushintsha kwezomthetho ngokuhweba ngezidakamizwa ngokungemthetho kusukela eSoutheast Asia naseGolden Triangle kuya eSouth Central Asia naseGolden Crescent, lapho kwavikelwa khona ubuhlakani basePakistan kanye neCIA futhi lapho ichuma khona namhlanje.[60]
U-Haq no-Abedi ndawonye yaguqula ukuhweba ngezidakamizwa ngaphansi kwesembozo sempi kaMengameli uCarter elwa neSoviet yase-Afghanistan okwenza ukuthi kuphephe kuzo zonke izinhlaka zezobunhloli zomhlaba ukuthi zikwenze kube yimfihlo lokho okwakuyizinhlelo ezazifihlwa nguhulumeni ngaleso sikhathi. Futhi ngu-Abedi owaletha umhlalaphansi UMongameli Carter njengendoda yakhe ephambili ukwenza kube semthethweni ubuso bezenzo ezingekho emthethweni zebhange lakhe njengoba liqhubeka nokuxhasa ukusabalala kobuphekula bamaSulumane emhlabeni wonke.
Baningi abathanda ukukholelwa ukuthi ukuzibandakanya kukaMongameli Carter no-Agha Hassan Abedi kwaba ngumphumela wokungazi noma we-naiveté nokuthi enhliziyweni yakhe uMongameli Carter wayezama nje ukuba yindoda elungile. Kepha nokuhlolwa okuyisisekelo kwe-BCCI kuveza ukuxhumana okujulile nombuthano weCarter Democratic Party ongeke uchazwe kude ngokungazi.[61] Kungachazwa kodwa ngephethini ebaliwe yenkohliso nakumongameli ukuthi kuze kube namuhla uyenqaba ukuphendula noma imiphi imibuzo Mayelana nakho.
Kwamanye amalungu eCarter White House asebenzisana noBrzezinski phakathi neminyaka emine esesondweni kusukela ngo-1977 kuya ku-1981 inhloso yakhe yokuqhatha amaRussia ukuthi enze okuthile e-Afghanistan yayihlale icacile. Ngokusho kukaJohn Helmer isisebenzi saseWhite House esasinikezwe umsebenzi wokuphenya izincomo ezimbili zenqubomgomo kaBrzezinski eya kuCarter, uBrzezinski wayezobeka noma yini engcupheni yokucekela phansi abaseSoviet nokusebenza kwakhe e-Afghanistan kwakwaziwa kahle.
“UBrzezinski wayengumuntu owayezonda ngokweqile iRussia kuze kube sekugcineni. Lokho kwaholela ekwehlulekeni okukhulu kwesikhathi sikaCarter esikhundleni; inzondo eyakhishwa uBrzezinski yaba nomthelela oqhubeka nokuba yinhlekelele kuwo wonke umhlaba. ” UHelmer ubhale ngo-2017, "KuBrzezinski uya udumo ngokuqala kakhulu kwezifo - inhlangano, ezezimali, kanye nezikhali zama-mujahideen ama-Islamic fundamentalists asethole amandla - ngemali yaseMelika nezingalo namanje - emabuthweni amaphekula amaSulumane asebenza kude ne-Afghanistan. nasePakistan, lapho uBrzezinski aziqale khona. ”[62]
UHermer ugcizelela ukuthi uBrzezinski usebenzise amandla acishe alutheke kuCarter okwamenza waqonda ezinhlelweni zomqondo kaBrzezinski ngenkathi emphuphuthekisa ngemiphumela kwasekuqaleni kobongameli bakhe. “Kusukela ekuqaleni… ezinyangeni eziyisithupha zokuqala zika-1977, uCarter wabuye waxwayiswa ngokusobala ngabasebenzi bakhe, ngaphakathi e-White House… ukuthi angavumeli uBrzezinski ukuba aphathe izinqumo zakhe ngaphandle kwazo zonke ezinye izeluleko, nokusulwa nobufakazi iseluleko ebesisekelwe kuso. ” Kodwa-ke lesi sexwayiso sawela ezindlebeni zezithulu zikaCarter ngenkathi umthwalo wezenzo zikaBrzezinski usemahlombe akhe. Ngokusho koMqondisi weCIA kaCarter uStansfield Turner; “Umsebenzi omkhulu ngokaJimmy Carter ngokuphelele. Kufanele kube nguMongameli ohlunga lezi zinhlobo ezahlukene zeseluleko. ” [63] Kepha kuze kube namuhla UCarter uyenqaba ukubhekana nendima yakhe ekwakheni inhlekelele eye yaba yi-Afghanistan.
Ngo-2015 saqala ukusebenza nge-documentary ukuze sigcine sikhanyise kahle eminye yemibuzo engaphendulwanga ephathelene neqhaza laseMelika e-Afghanistan saphinde saxhumana noDkt Charles Cogan ngenhlolokhono. Kungekudala ngemuva kokuba ikhamera isongwe, UCogan uphazamisekile ukusitshela wayekhulume noBrzezinski entwasahlobo ka-2009 mayelana nonyaka we-1998 I-New Observer waxoxisana futhi waphazamiseka lapho ezwa ukuthi "ithisisi yokugibeka yase-Afghanistan" njengoba ishiwo nguBrzezinski yayisemthethweni ngempela.[64]
“Ngibe nengxoxo naye. Lokhu bekungumkhosi kaSamuel Huntington. UBrzezinski wayekhona. Bengingakaze ngihlangane naye phambilini ngaya kuye ngazethula ngathi ngiyavumelana nakho konke okwenzayo nokushoyo ngaphandle kwento eyodwa. Unikeze ingxoxo neNouvel Observateur eminyakeni ethile edlule wathi simunce abaseSoviet e-Afghanistan. Ngathi angikaze ngiwuzwe noma ngamukele lowo mbono wathi kimi, 'Kungenzeka ukuthi ube nombono wakho kwi-Agency kodwa sibe nombono wethu ohlukile kweWhite House,' futhi waphikelela ngokuthi lokhu kwakulungile. Futhi ngisa… lokho ngokusobala indlela ayezizwa ngayo ngakho. Kepha angizange ngithole mxhaka walokho ngenkathi ngiyiChief Near East South Asia ngesikhathi sempi yase-Afghanistan elwa namaSoviet.
Ekugcineni kubonakala sengathi uBrzezinski wayehehe abaseSoviet ukuba bangene eVietnam yabo ngenhloso futhi wayefuna uzakwabo — njengesinye sezikhulu ezisezingeni eliphezulu zeCIA ukuthi abambe iqhaza emisebenzini yezobunhloli yaseMelika enkulu kunazo zonke kusukela ngeWWII — ukuze azi. UBrzezinski wayesebenze lolu hlelo ukufeza izinhloso zakhe zomqondo futhi wakwazi ukuyigcina iyimfihlo futhi ingekho kwirekhodi elisemthethweni. Wayedonse amaSoviet emgibeni wase-Afghanistan futhi babewela ogibeni lokuloba.
KuBrzezinski, ukuthola abaseSoviet ukuba bahlasele i-Afghanistan kwakuyithuba lokuguqula isivumelwano saseWashington siye kulayini onzima ongapheli weSoviet Union. Ngaphandle kokubhekelwa ekusebenziseni kwakhe okokufihla njengosihlalo we-SCC, ubedala izimo ezidingekayo ukucasula impendulo yokuzivikela yaseSoviet ayeyisebenzisa njengobufakazi bokunwetshwa kweSoviet okungapheli futhi wasebenzisa nemithombo yezindaba, ayephethe, ukuqinisa, ngaleyo ndlela kwakha isiprofetho esizigcwalisayo. Kodwa-ke, lapho uhlelo lwakhe lwehaba lukaRussophobic namanga ngomsebenzi wakhe wokucasha selwamukelekile, bathola ikhaya ezikhungweni zaseMelika futhi bayaqhubeka nokuhlupha lezo zikhungo kuze kube namuhla. Inqubomgomo yase-US kusukela ngaleso sikhathi isebenze ku-Russophobic haze of triumphalism zombili ezisusa izehlakalo zomhlaba wonke bese zisebenzisa izinxushunxushu. Ngokudumazeka kukaBrzezinski wathola ukuthi akakwazi ukucisha inqubo.
Ngo-2016, unyaka ngaphambi kokufa kwakhe uBrzezinski wethula isambulo esijulile ku-athikili enesihloko “Ukuya Ekuqondaneni Komhlaba Wonke” Ixwayisa ngokuthi “i-United States iseyinhlangano enamandla emhlabeni kwezepolitiki, kwezomnotho, nakwezempi, kepha uma inikezwa ushintsho oluyinkimbinkimbi kwezombusazwe ezilinganisweni zezifunda, ayisekho amandla ombuso womhlaba jikelele. ” Kepha ngemuva kweminyaka eminingi efakaza ngeziphambeko zaseMelika maqondana nokusetshenziswa kwayo kwamandla ombuso, waqaphela iphupho lakhe lokuguqulwa okuholwa yiMelika ohlelweni lomhlaba olusha ngeke lube khona. Yize wayengaxolisi ekusebenziseni ama-hubris akhe ombuso ukuhehela abaseSoviet e-Afghanistan, wayengalindelanga ukuthi uMbuso Wakhe othandekayo waseMelika uzowela ogibeni olufanayo futhi ekugcineni waphila isikhathi eside ngokwanele ukuqonda ukuthi unqobe ukunqoba kwePyrrhic kuphela.
Kungani uConor Tobin eqeda ubufakazi obubucayi maqondana neqhaza laseMelika ekuhlaselweni yiSoviet 1979 kwe-Afghanistan MANJE?
Ngenxa yalokho okwenziwe kwirekhodi lomlando ngomzamo kaConor Tobin wokuqeda “umbono we-Afghan Trap” nokususa igama likaZbigniew Brzezinski kanye noMongameli Carter amaqiniso odaba ahlala acacile. Ukuhlazisa iBrzezinski's I-New Observer ukuxoxisana akwanele emsebenzini wakhe ngenxa yengxoxo yethu yango-2015 nowayengumphathi we-CIA uCharles Cogan kanye nobufakazi obuningi obuphikisana ngokuphelele nomqondo wakhe we-anti "Afghan Trap".
Ngabe uTobin “wayeyisifundiswa esisodwa” esasifisa ukuhlanza isithunzi sikaBrzezinski sokuthi uzokuza emsebenzini othile wesikole imizamo yakhe ingaba yinto eyodwa. Kepha ukubeka umcabango wakhe omncane kumagazini ovamile onegunya wezifundo zamazwe omhlaba njengokucabanga kabusha okucacile kokuhlasela kweSoviet kweAfghanistan kuncenga umcabango. Kepha-ke, izimo ezazizungeze ukuhlasela kweSoviet, isenzo sikaMongameli Carter esasihleliwe kusengaphambili, impendulo yakhe ebucayi kuso kanye nokubamba iqhaza kwakhe ngemuva kukamongameli nomxhasi wezimali we-CIA u-Agha Hassan Abedi, kushiya okuncane emcabangweni.
Kubo bonke ubufakazi obuphikisana nomqondo kaTobin wokulwa ne-Afghan Trap thesis, okufinyeleleka kakhulu futhi okunenkinga kubaphathi 'bokulandisa okusemthethweni' mayelana neqhaza laseMelika ekuhlaseleni kweSoviet Afghanistan kusalokhu kuyintatheli uVincent Jauvert ngo-1998 Inhlolokhono yeNouvel Observateur. Ukuthi lo mzamo wokusula irekhodi uhlanzekile yini isisusa sencazelo kaConor Tobin okusazotholakala. Kungenzeka ukuthi ibanga phakathi kwamanje nokufa kukaBrzezinski likhombise ukuthi isikhathi besifanele ukuthi achaze kabusha izitatimende zakhe zomphakathi zerekhodi elisemthethweni.
Kube yinhlanhla ukuthi sikwazile ukuthola umzamo kaConor Tobin futhi sayilungisa ngangokunokwenzeka. Kepha i-Afghanistan yisikhathi esisodwa kuphela lapho abaseMelika bedukiswe khona. Sonke kufanele sazi kakhulu ukuthi inqubo yethu yokwenza indatshana ivinjwe kanjani amandla abengaba khona kwasekuqaleni. Kubalulekile ukuthi sifunde ukuthi singayibuyisela kanjani emuva.
UBertolt Brecht, Ukuphakama Okuphikisayo kuka-Arturo Ui
"Uma besingafunda ukubheka esikhundleni sokuklwebheka,
Sizobona ukwethuka enhliziyweni ye-farce,
Ukube nje besikwazi ukwenza esikhundleni sokukhuluma,
Besingeke siphele njalo ngezimbongolo zethu.
Le nto yacishe yasenza sazi kahle;
Musa ukujabula ngokunqotshwa kwakhe, nina madoda!
Yize umhlaba usukume wamisa lo mhlola,
Unogada omzalayo usekushiseni futhi. ”
UPaul Fitzgerald no-Elizabeth Gould bangababhali be- Umlando Ongabonakali: Indaba ye-Afganistan yase-Afghanistan, Ukweqa iZero Impi ye-AfPak eThenning Point Yombuso WaseMelika futhi The Voice. Vakashela amawebhusayithi abo ku- umlando ongabonakali futhi mzwandile.
[1] Umlando Wezombusazwe wumagazini osemthethweni weSociety for Historians of American Foreign Relations (SHAFR). Iphephabhuku linxusa abafundi abavela ezifundeni ezahlukahlukene, ezibandakanya izifundo zaseMelika, ezomnotho zomhlaba wonke, umlando waseMelika, izifundo zokuphepha kuzwelonke, kanye nezifundo zaseLatin-American, Asia, Afrika, Europe kanye naseMpumalanga Ephakathi.
[2] Umlando Wezombusazwe, Umqulu 44, Issue 2, Ephreli 2020, Amakhasi 237–264, https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhz065
Ishicilelwe: 09 Januwari 2020
[3] I-H-Diplo Article Review 966 ngeTobin .: UZbigniew Brzezinski ne-Afghanistan, 1978-1979. ” Ukubuyekezwa nguTodd Greentree, i-Oxford University Changing Character of War Center
[4] Vincent Jauvert, Interview with Zbigniew Brzezinski, Le Nouvel Observateur (France), Jan 15-21, 1998, p. 76 * (Kunezinhlobo okungenani ezimbili zomagazini; ngaphandle kwe-Library of Congress kuphela, inguqulo ithunyelwe e-United States imfushane kunenguqulo yesiFulentshi, kanti ingxoxo yeBrzezinski ayifakwanga enguqulweni emfushane).
[5] UPaul Fitzgerald no-Elizabeth Gould, Umlando Ongabonakali: Indaba ye-Afganistan yase-Afghanistan, (I-San Francisco: Izincwadi Zezibani Zedolobha, 2009).
[6] UConor Tobin, Inganekwane 'Yomgibe Wase-Afghanistan': UZbigniew Brzezinski kanye ne-Afghanistan, 1978--1979 Umlando Wezombusazwe, Umqulu 44, Issue 2, Ephreli 2020. k. 239
https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhz065
[7] MS Agwani, Umhleli Wokubukeza, "I-Saur Revolution nangemva kwalokho," IJOURNAL YEKOTA YESIKOLO SEZIFUNDO ZOMHLABA JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY (New Delhi, India) Volume 19, Number 4 (October-December 1980) k. 571
[8] Ingxoxo kaPaul Jay noZbigniew Brzezinski, Impi yase-Afghan yaseBrzezinski neGrand Chessboard (2/3) 2010 - https://therealnews.com/stories/zbrzezinski1218gpt2
[9] U-Samira Goetschel uxoxa noZbigniew Brzezinski, I-Own Private bin Laden yethu 2006 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EVgZyMoycc0&feature=youtu.be&t=728
[10] UDiego Cordovez, uSelig S.Harrison, Ukuphuma e-Afghanistan: Indaba engaphakathi yokuhoxiswa kweSoviet (ENew York: Oxford University Press, 1995), ikhasi 34.
[11] Tobin “Inganekwane 'Yogibe lwase-Afghan': Zbigniew Brzezinski ne-Afghanistan,” k. 240
[12] Isivumelwano saseVladivostok, ngoNovemba 23-24, 1974, uNobhala Jikelele weKomidi Elikhulu leCPSU LI Brezhnev kanye noMongameli wase-USA uGerald R. Ford baxoxe kabanzi ngombuzo wokuqhubeka kwemikhawulo yezikhali ezihlaselayo. https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/treaties/vladivostok.html
| [13] I-PRM 10 | Ukuhlolwa Okuphelele Kwe-Net kanye ne-Military Force Posture Review |
February 18, 1977
[14] U-Anne Hessing Cahn, Ukubulala iDentente: Ilungelo lihlasela i-CIA (IPennsylvania State University Press, 1998), ikhasi 187.
[15] URaymond L. Garthoff, Detente futhi Ukubhekana (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994 Revised Edition), iphe. 657
[16] UDkt. Carol Saivetz, eHarvard University, “The Intervention in Afghanistan and the Fall of Détente” conference, eLysebu, eNorway, ngoSepthemba 17-20, 1995 k. 252-253.
[17] I-Cahn, Ukubulala iDentente: Ilungelo lihlasela i-CIA, P. 15.
[18] Ingxoxo, iWashington DC, ngoFebhuwari 17, 1993.
[19] Bheka UMHLANGANO WEPOLITBURO YEKOMITI ELIKHULU LOMKHAYA WAMAKHOMUNU WENYUNYANA YASOVIET Mashi 17, 1979 https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113260
[20] U-GB Kistiakowsky, uHerbert Scoville, “Amazwi eKremlin alahlekile,” Boston Globe , Februwari 28, 1980, k. 13.
[21] UDev Murarka, "I-AFGHANISTAN: UKUNGENELELA KWERUSSI: UKUHLAZIYWA KOMOSCOW," ITHEBULA LOMJIKELELO (ELondon, eNgilandi), No. 282 (APRIL 1981), k. 127.
[22] Ukuxoxisana noPaul Warnke, eWashington, DC, ngoFebhuwari 17, 1993. U-Admiral Stansfield Turner, owayenguMqondisi weCentral Intelligence, ingqungquthela ethi "The Intervention in Afghanistan and the Fall of Détente", eLysebu, eNorway ngoSepthemba 17-20 p. 216.
[23] J. William Fulbright, “Ukucabanga Okusehlokweni Ngokwesaba,” The New Yorker, Januwari 1, 1972 (New York, USA), Januwari 8, 1972 Ukukhishwa k. 44-45
[24] UDavid J. RothKopf - Umhleli kaCharles Gati, I-ZBIG: Isu ne-Statecraft kaZbigniew Brzezinski (Johns Hopkins University Press 2013), iphe. 68.
[25] U-Erika McLean, Ngaphandle KweKhabinethi: Ukunwetshwa kukaZbigniew Brzezinski weSikhundla Sabeluleki Bokuphepha Kuzwelonke, Ithisisi Elungiselelwe iDegree of Master of the Arts, University of North Texas, Agasti 2011. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc84249/
[26] Ibid k. 73
[27] Shwi Nomtekhala, Ongaphandle e-White House: UJimmy Carter, Abeluleki Bakhe, kanye nokwenziwa kwenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseMelika (Ithaca, New York: University of Cornell, 2009), iphe. 84.
[28] URaymond L. Garthoff, Detente futhi Ukubhekana (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994 Revised Edition), ikhasi 770.
[29] Tobin “Inganekwane 'Yogibe lwase-Afghan': Zbigniew Brzezinski ne-Afghanistan,” k. 253
[30] URaymond L. Garthoff, Detente futhi Ukubhekana, (Uhlelo Olubukeziwe), k. 1050. Phawula 202. Kamuva uGarthoff uchaza lesi sehlakalo ngokuthi “isifundo somlando esingalindelekile sikaBrzezinski ezingxoxweni zikaMoloto-Hitler ngo-1940.” (Yikuphi uCarter enza iphutha ngokwamukela ngenani elifanele) p. 1057.
[31] URodric Braithwaite, I-Afgantsy: AbaseRussia e-Afghanistan 1979-89, (I-Oxford University Press, eNew York 2011), iphe. 29-36.
[32] UDkt. Gary Sick, owayeyisisebenzi sakwa-NSC, ongungoti e-Iran nase-Middle East, "The Intervention in Afghanistan and the Fall of Détente" conference, Lysebu, p. 38.
[33] UNancy Peabody Newell noRichard S. Newell, Umzabalazo we-Afghanistan, (ICornell University Press 1981), iphe. 110-111
[34] URodric Braithwaite, Ukuxhaswa, k. 41
[35] UDiego Cordovez, uSelig S.Harrison, Ngaphandle kwe-Afghanistan, k. 27 Ecaphuna u-Alexander Morozov, “Umuntu Wethu eKabul,” I-New Times (EMoscow), Septhemba 24, 1991, k. 38.
[36] UJohn K. Cooley, Izimpi Ezingcwele: I-Afghanistan, iMelika nobuphekula bamazwe omhlaba, (Pluto Press, London 1999) k. 12 ecaphuna usomaqhinga omkhulu waseKremlin UVasily Safronchuk, Afghanistan eNkathini yeTaraki, International Affairs, eMoscow ngoJanuwari 1991, amakhasi 86-87.
[37] URaymond L. Garthoff, Detente futhi Ukubhekana, (1994 Revised Edition), ikhasi 1003.
[38] URaymond L. Garthoff, Detente futhi Ukubhekana, P. 773.
[39] Tobin “Inganekwane 'Yogibe lwase-Afghan': Zbigniew Brzezinski ne-Afghanistan,” k. 240.
[40] Ibid k. 241.
[41] Ingxoxo noSelig Harrison, Washington, DC, ngoFebhuwari 18, 1993.
[42] UDiego Cordovez - USelig Harrison, Ovela e-Afghanistan: Indaba Engaphakathi Yokuhoxiswa KweSoviet (ENew York, Oxford: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1995), iphe. 33.
[43] Ibid.
[44] UHenry S. Bradsher, I-Afghanistan neSoviet Union, uHlelo Olusha Nolwandisiwe, (Durham: Duke University Press, 1985), ikhasi. 85-86.
[45] USteve Coll, I-Ghost Wars: Umlando Oyimfihlo we-CIA, Afghanistan, noBin Laden, kusukela ekuhlaselweni kweSoviet kuya kuSepthemba 10, 2001 (Izincwadi zePenguin, 2005) p. 47-48.
[46] Ingxoxo yababhali noMalawi u-Abdulaziz Sadiq, (umngani osondelene no-Hafizullah Amin) ngoJuni 25, 2006.
[47] UDiego Cordovez - uSelig Harrison, Iphuma e-Afghanistan: Indaba yangaphakathi yokuhoxiswa kweSoviet, P. 34.
[48] UCordovez - uHarrison, Ngaphandle kwe-Afghanistan k. 34 Ecaphuna uPeter Nieswand, “Guerillas Train in Pakistan to putt Afghan Government,” Washington Post, February 2, 1979, k. A 23.
[49] Ibid. k. 33.
[50] Ibid.
[51] UPeter Nieswand, "Impi enhle kakhulu kaPeking yimpi engcwele," Ama-MacLean, (EToronto, eCanada) ngo-Ephreli 30, 1979 k. 24
[52] UJonathan C. Randal, Washington Post, Meyi 5, 1979 k. A - 33.
[53] URobert M. Gates, Kusuka Emathunzini: Indaba ka-Ultimate Insider YabaMongameli abahlanu Nokuthi Bayinqobile Kanjani Impi Yomshoshaphansi (ENew York, TOUCHSTONE, 1996), ikhasi 144
[54] UChristina Lamb, Ukulinda u-Allah: Umzabalazo WasePakistan Wentando Yeningi (IViking, 1991), ikhasi. 222
[55] U-Alfred W. McCoy, Izepolitiki zeHeroin, i-CIA Complicity ku-Global Drug Trade, (Harper & Row, New York - Revised and Expanded Edition, 1991), amakhasi 436-437 Ekhomba New York Times, May 22, 1980.
[56] U-Alfred W. McCoy, “Abalimele empini yeCIA yokulwa nobukhomanisi,” Boston Globe, Novemba 14, 1996, likh. A-27
[57] U-Alfred W. McCoy, Izepolitiki zeHeroin, i-CIA Complicity ku-Global Drug Trade, (Uhlelo Olwandisiwe), amakhasi 452-454
[58] U-Alfred W. McCoy, “Abalimele empini yeCIA yokulwa nobukhomanisi,” Boston Globe, Novemba 14, 1996, likh. A-27 https://www.academia.edu/31097157/_Casualties_of_the_CIAs_war_against_communism_Op_ed_in_The_Boston_Globe_Nov_14_1996_p_A_27
[59] U-Alfred W. McCoy no-Alan A.Block (ed.) Impi Yezidakamizwa: Izifundo Ekuhlulekeni Kwenqubomgomo Yezidakamizwa yase-US, (IBoulder, iColo .: Westview, 1992), k. 342
[60] UCatherine Lamour noMichel R. Lamberti, I-International Connection: I-Opium esuka kubalimi iye kumaPusher, (Penguin Books, 1974, English Translation) amakhasi 177-198.
[61] UWilliam Safire, “Ingxenye KaClifford Ehlazweni LaseBhange Kuphela Ngecebo Likaqhwa,” Chicago Tribune, Julayi 12, i-1991 https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1991-07-12-9103180856-story.html
[62] UJohn Helmer, "uZbigniew Brzezinski, uSvengali woMongameli kaJimmy Carter Ufile, Kodwa Ababi Baqhubeka." http://johnhelmer.net/zbigniew-brzezinski-the-svengali-of-jimmy-carters-presidency-is-dead-but-the-evil-lives-on/
[63] Samira Goetschel - Owethu uBin bin Laden, 2006. Ngo-8: 59
[64] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNJsxSkWiI0
