Indlela Impi Yokuqothulwa Yashintsha Umhlaba E-1928

NguDavid Swanson, World BEYOND War

Lapho ngibhala incwadi mayelana neKellogg-Briand Pact izinhloso zami bekuwukuthola izifundo enhlanganweni eyidalile, nokubhekisa ukunakekelwa ebukhoneni bayo njengomthetho osekhona njengamanje owephulwa njalo - ngethemba lokukhuthaza ukuthobela. Ngemuva kwakho konke, kungumthetho ovimbela amazwe ukuthi angazibandakanyi empini - into eyinhloko uhulumeni wesizwe sami ayenzayo, ngezimpi eziyishumi nambili zase-US ezihamba nganoma yisiphi isikhathi manje.

Manje kushicilelwe u-Oona Hathaway noScott J. Shapiro I-Internationalists: Yeka ukuthi uhlelo olukhulu kangakanani lokuqeda impi luyasusa umhlaba wonke. Izinhloso zabo zibonakala njengokusikhombisa ukuthi izwe lihluke kanjani futhi libi ngokwedlulele ngezindlela ezithile ngaphambi kwePact, kanye nokufuna impumelelo enkulu nokuhambisana ngokujwayelekile kwephathi.

Ngifunde lukhulu kulencwadi emangalisayo, incwadi elula kunazo zonke engizifunde eminyakeni edlule. Ngingabhala i-eseyi ekhasini ngalinye lamakhasi ayo angaphezu kwama-400. Ngenkathi ngivumelana nokuningi kwayo futhi ngiphikisana kakhulu nezingxenye ezithile, zombili zehlukaniswa kalula. Izingxenye ezikhazimulayo azibalulekile kangako ngenxa yalezo zingxenye ezisilelayo.

Le ncwadi yakha ukuphikiswa kokugcina komqondo olula wobuntwana wokuthi ngoba iMpi Yesibili Yomhlaba yalandela ukukhishwa kwempi ngo-1928 ukuthi ukwenqatshelwa kwaba ukwehluleka - indinganiso engikwaziyo engakaze isetshenziswe komunye umthetho. (Ngabe akekho owashayela edakiwe selokhu kwavinjelwa ukushayela uphuzile?) Empeleni, ukushushiswa kokuqala ngqa kokwephula umthetho, eNuremberg naseTokyo, kulandelwe ukwehliswa kwezimpi okubandakanya kakhulu ukungabi bikho okuqhubekayo izimpi zenziwa ngqo phakathi kwamazwe acebile ahlomile - okungenani kuze kube manje.

Njengoba uHathaway noShapiro babonisa, i-Peace Pact yaseParis iguqule umhlaba kakhulu kangangokuba kunzima ukukhumbula okwandulelayo. Impi yayingokomthetho ku-1927. Zombili izinhlangothi zempi zazisemthethweni. Izenzo zonya ezenziwa phakathi nezimpi cishe zazingokomthetho njalo. Ukunqotshwa kwendawo kwakungokomthetho. Ukushiswa nokuphanga kanye nokuphanga kwakungekho semthethweni.

Impi, empeleni, yayingemthetho kuphela; futhi kwaqondwa ngokwayo ukuthi kungokomthetho. Impi yayingasetshenziswa ukuzama ukulungisa noma ikuphi ukungacabangi okubhekwa njengokungabi nabulungisa. Ukuthathwa kwezinye izizwe njengemikhosi kwakungekho semthethweni. Isisusa sokuba amakoloni azame ukuzikhulula abuthakathaka ngoba kungenzeka babanjwe esinye isizwe uma begqashula kumcindezeli wabo wamanje.

Ukuthathwa kwezomnotho okwenziwa yizizwe ezingathathi hlangothi bekungemthetho, noma ukujoyina impi kungenzeka. Futhi ukwenza izivumelwano zokuhweba ngaphansi kosongo lwempi kwakungokomthetho ngokuphelele futhi kwamukeleka, njengoba beyiqala enye impi uma isivumelwano esinjalo esiphoqiwe sephulwa. Ukudlwengula owesifazane empini kungaba semthethweni, kepha ukumbulala kungalandelwa ngokuphelele umthetho. Ukubulala bekungokomthetho noma nini lapho kuthathwa njengengxenye yempi, futhi bekungekho emthethweni ngenye indlela.

Okunye kwalokhu kungazwakala kujwayelekile. Kungenzeka ukuthi uke wezwa uRosa Brooks etshela iCongress ukuthi ukubulawa kwabantu nge-drone kuyamukeleka uma kuyingxenye yempi nobugebengu ngenye indlela, kanti ukuhlukunyezwa kuyicala nganoma iyiphi indlela. Kepha izinga lapho ilebula "lempi" liqondakala khona livumela ukubulawa namuhla lilinganiselwe kakhulu emcabangweni futhi ikakhulukazi empeleni. Futhi namuhla impi iqondwa njengelayisense lokubulala abantu abaningi kuphela, kanti bekujwayele ukunika ababambiqhaza ithuba lokubulala, ukweqa umthetho, ukugqekeza nokungena, ukweba, ukushaya, ukukhubaza, ukuthumba, ukuphanga, ukucekela phansi impahla noma ukushisa. Namuhla isosha lingabuya ebunzimeni bokubulala futhi lishushiswe ngokukopela intela yalo. Unikezwe ilayisense yokubulala nokubulala kuphela, akukho okunye.

Bafuna namuhla ukuthi iCongress yaseMelika ichithe Ukugunyazwa Kokusetshenziswa Kwempi Yezempi ye-2001 iphinde ibuyele enkambisweni yayo endala yokumemezela izimpi, kunokuba imane ixhase (futhi ikhonkotha) ngezimpi umongameli azikhokhelayo, noma kungenakuba yindlela enhle. kokunciphisa ukufudumala, kepha kuyfana nokufuna ukubuyela ezweni lasendulo, umkhuba owathi lapho usetshenziswa wenza isimemezelo sokuthi konke kusukela manje kuzovunyelwa inqobo nje uma kuhlukunyezwa noma yibaphi abantu bempi ababebizwa ngokumelene nabo.

Ngokwezinga elithile kuphela lapho izwe langaphambi kwe-1928 lalinemithetho yokulwa nezimpi, kwakuyimithetho kuphela emelene nokuhlukunyezwa okuthile. Ngamanye amagama, izwe lapho i-Amnesty International neHuman Rights Watch zizama khona ukuhlala namuhla, lapho impi isemukeleka ngokuphelele khona, kepha isakhi ngasinye sezimpi siyinto engalawuleki ubugebengu: lokho kwakuyinto engcono kakhulu iNtshonalanga okwakungafuneka inikezwe ngayo kusukela ezikhathini zasendulo nge-1928.

Umhlaba ngemuva kwe-1928 uhlukile. Ukwenqatshwa kwempi kwehlise isidingo samazwe amakhulu, futhi amazwe amancane aqala ukubumba ngenqwaba, esebenzisa ilungelo lawo lokuzinqumela. Amakoloni, ngokufanayo, ayefuna inkululeko yawo. Ukunqunyelwa kwendawo ngemuva kwe-1928 akwenziwe. U-1928 unyaka waba umugqa ohlukanisayo wokunquma ukuthi yikuphi ukunqoba okusemthethweni futhi okungekho. Futhi iPact of course yayisemqoka ekushushisweni (kwabasakazi) beMpi Yezwe II ngecala lempi. Ukuhwebelana kwamazwe omhlaba sekuchume lapho kungekho ukunqotshwa okusemthethweni. Yize kungelona iqiniso impela, kuncane kakhulu isitatimende sokuphoxeka, sokuthi izizwe ezineMcDonalds azihlaselani, kungaba yiqiniso ukuthi izwe elinobungozi obuncishisiwe bokuhlaselwa, ngokungcono noma okubi kakhulu, likhiqiza iMcDonalds eyengeziwe.

Zonke lezi zinguquko ezinhle zivele ngenxa yesivumelwano esivame ukuhlekwa usulu lapho singanakwa. Kepha azihlanganisi nombono omuhle womhlaba odudulwa ngabantu abanjengoSteven Pinker kanye noHathaway noShapiro. Lowo mbono omuhle wezwe eliqeda impi uvela ngezibalo ezikhethiwe, ezaziwa nangokuthi amanga, amanga amakhulu, kanye nokuhlukahluka kwe-US. E-Pinker, ukufa akubalwa kakhulu, bese kuqhathaniswa nabantu bonke bomhlaba kunesizwe esifanele, noma kusulwe ngokuwahlukanisa kabusha "njengempi yombango" ngakho-ke hhayi ukufa kwabantu ezimpini.

UHathaway noShapiro babona ukuketulwa okukodwa kwase-US (i-Iran) nempi (i-Iraq) sengathi akukho okunye okwenzekile noma okwenzekayo. INakba ibonakala ingekho. Lokho wukuthi, ubugebengu nokuhlupheka obekukubandakanya akukhulunywa, yize "impi yama-Arab nama-Israyeli" isho.

Ababhali bakhuluma nge-Iraq 2003-ekhona njengempi okwathi ngo-2015 kwabulawa abantu "abangaphezu kwezinkulungwane eziyishumi" ekubulaweni "okuhlobene nempi". (Angikacaci ukuthi yikuphi ukubulawa okungafakwa “okuhlobene nempi.”) Abalokothi basho ukuthi “abangaphezu kwesigidi esisodwa” babulewe kuleyo mpi.

Kusukela ngeMpi Yesibili Yomhlaba, ngesikhathi ababhali abasibiza ngokuthi “inkathi yokuthula engakaze ibonwe,” amasosha ase-United States abulale abantu abangaba yizigidi ezingama-20, aketula okungenani ohulumeni abangama-36, aphazamisa okungenani ukhetho lwama-82 lwangaphandle, azama ukubulala abaholi bamazwe angaphezu kuka-50 , futhi baphonsa amabhomu kubantu emazweni angaphezu kwama-30. Le extravaganza yokubulala ubugebengu ibhaliwe lapha.

Izwe laseMelika labulala abanye abantu abayizigidi ezingama-5 eSoutheast Asia empini uHathaway noShapiro abasho kuphela njengesenzo sokuhlulwa yiNyakatho YaseNingizimu lapho abahlaseli ekugcineni bebaleka. Ngifika kulelo nani ngisebenzisa iHarvard cwaningo kusuka ku-2008 eVietnam (3.8 million) kanye necala likaNick Turse ku Bulala noma yini ehambayo ukuthi lokhu kubalwa okuphansi kokubalwa. Ngisebenzisa isigidi se-4 seVietnam, ngifaka isigidi sama-1 emakhulu ezinkulungwane ezihlanganisiwe abulawa imikhankaso yamabhomu ase-US ezweni ngalinye kula mazwe amabili weLaos neCambodia (zombili izilinganiso ezinzima). Angifaki ku-1 ezigidini ze-2 ezibulewe yiKhmer Rouge, noma icala linganikezwa i-United States (ngaphandle kokuyisusa komunye umuntu) ngalesosizi. Ngenkathi amasosha aseMelika engabulale wonke ama-4 ezigidi abulewe eVietnam, bekungeke kube nempi, noma ngokuqinisekile bekungeke kube nokufana nokufana nokwenziwa yiVietnam ngokuthi iMpi yaseMelika ngaphandle kweMelika.

Eminyakeni ecishe ibe ngu-16 eyedlule, i-United States ibiqeda ngokuhlelekile isifunda somhlaba, ibhomu i-Afghanistan, i-Iraq, iPakistan, iLibya, iSomalia, iYemen neSyria, ingasaphathwa eyePhilippines. Izwe laseMelika "linamandla akhethekile" asebenza kokuthathu kwamazwe omhlaba kanye namabutho angewona akhethekile amiswe ezingxenyeni ezintathu zawo. Lesi “yisikhathi sokuthula esingakaze sibonwe” uHathaway noShapiro abasichaza njengesisongelwa yiRussia, iChina ne-ISIS. (“Njengoba nje izithembiso ezigqamile ze- [the Pact] sezigcwalisekile, ezinye izinsongo ezimnyama zigijimele kulo msebenzi.” Qagela ukuthi obani labo!)

Kusobala impela ukuthi umuntu akakwazi ukulingana nayo yonke into ephathelene nesihloko sencwadi encwadini. Kepha ukubhala ngenkinga yempi ngaphandle kokukhuluma ngokubuswa kwe-US insimu kungukuphikisana. Kunesizathu sokuthi amazwe amaningi avota ngoDisemba 2013 nguGallup esibizwa e-United States usongo olukhulu kakhulu lokuthula emhlabeni. Kepha yisizathu esidlula leso simo se-US academia echaza kuqala impi njengento amazwe namaqembu angewona awaseMelika, bese ephetha ngokuthi impi icishe yaphela emhlabeni, noma isisendleleni ephumayo, nokuthi izinsongo ezinkulu kakhulu zempi zivela eChina, eRussia nase-ISIS.

Okuxakayo ukuthi ukuhlaziywa okukhaliphile okunikeza iKellogg-Briand Pact okufanele kungenzeka ukuthi kwakubhalwe kuphela ngabantu baseMelika - umhlaba wonke ubuka izenzo zase-US ngempi nangokuthula ngokuzithemba okukhulu nentukuthelo. Kepha noma yini ebhalwe ngabantu baseMelika iza nemithwalo yaseMelika.

The I-Lusitania wahlaselwa yiJalimane ngaphandle kwesixwayiso, siyatshelwa, yize iGerman yayinezixwayiso ezishicilelwe emaphephandabeni naseNew York emaphephandabeni ase-United States. Lezi zixwayiso zaphrintwa eduze kwezikhangiso zokuhamba ngomkhumbi ku- I-Lusitania futhi asayinwa yinxusa laseGerman. Amaphephandaba abhale izindatshana ezikhuluma ngalezi zixwayiso. Inkampani yeCunard yabuzwa ngalezi zixwayiso. Ukaputeni wangaphambili we I-Lusitania base bevele beyeka - kubikwa ngenxa yokucindezeleka kokuhamba ngomkhumbi ngalokho uJalimane ayekusho emphakathini endaweni yempi. Okwamanje uWinston Churchill ucashunwe njengoba ethi "Kubaluleke kakhulu ukuheha ukuthutha okungahambisani naso emagcekeni ethu ethemba ikakhulukazi okuhlanganisa i-United States neJalimane." Kwakuyi-oda yakhe ukuthi ukuvikelwa kwezempi yaseBrithani okungavamile kwakunganikezwa I-Lusitania, yize uCunard esho ukuthi bekuncike kulokho kuvikelwa. Iningi lencwadi kaHathaway noShapiro inikelwe kwimithwalo yemfanelo yangaphambi kuka-1928 yezizwe ezingathathi hlangothi ukuze zihlale zingathathi hlangothi. UNobhala Wezwe uWilliam Jennings Bryan wesule esikhundleni ngokwehluleka kweMelika ukuhlala engathathi hlangothi. Ukuthi i- I-Lusitania wayephethe izikhali namabutho ukusiza amaBrithani empini eyayizomelana neJalimane kwaqinisekiswa yiJalimane nabanye ababukeli, futhi kwakuyiqiniso. Yebo ukucwila kwe I-Lusitania Kwakuyisenzo esibi sokubulawa kwabantu abaningi, njengoba kwakulayishwa ngezikhali nangamabutho ukuze kuyiwe empini. Ukuziphatha kuzo zonke izinhlangothi kwakulungile. Kodwa ababhali banikezela uhlangothi olulodwa, kuncishiswa kancane kuphela ngombhalo waphansi.

Sitshelwa ukuthi umsebenzi kufanele ube owesikhashana, yize kunamathuba okuthi ababhali bangalokotha baqinisekise lokho eKabul. Amasosha ase-US manje unakho cishe amasosha angama-8,000 ase-US e-Afghanistan, kanye namanye amabutho e-NATO angama-6,000, amasosha angama-1,000 26,000, kanye nabanye osonkontileka abangama-8,000 (abangaba ngu-XNUMX abavela e-United States). Yilokho 41,000 abantu babamba iqhaza kwelinye izwe ngokuthatha iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-15 ngemuva kokufezeka kwemishini ababeyishilo yokuketula uhulumeni waseTaliban. UMnyango Wezokuvikela wazise i-US Congress ukuthi maduze uzokhipha elinye futhi uhlelo “lokuwina” e-Afghanistan. Azikho izinhlelo zokuqeda lo msebenzi obekuvele zikhona noma ziceliwe. Lapho ukuhlasela kwe-Iraq e-US “kwaphela,” kwasala amasosha namasosha. Ukuthi baphinde bamenywa nguhulumeni wase-Iraq akunazaba ngezenzo zabo, kufaka phakathi ukubhujiswa kweMosul kuleli hlobo eledlule.

Usongo olulodwa olukhulu lokuthula emhlabeni olwasungulwa ngo-1928 kuvela ukuthi, ngokusho kukaHathaway noShapiro, ivoti lika-2014 labantu baseCrimea lokujoyina kabusha iRussia - isenzo esasibandakanya ukubulawa kwabantu zero futhi akukaze kuphindwe ngoba ukuvota ngemuva kovivinyo kukhombisa abantu bejabule ngevoti labo. Ababhali abakhiqizi isitatimende esibhaliwe noma somlomo esivela eRussia esisongela impi noma udlame. Uma ngabe usongo belucacile, kusasele inkinga yokungakwazi ukuthola abantu baseCrimea abathi bazizwa besongelwa. (Noma ngike ngabona imibiko yokubandlululwa kwamaTartar phakathi neminyaka emithathu edlule.) Uma ivoti lithonywe usongo olusobala, kusasele inkinga yokuthi abavoti bathola umphumela ofanayo. Vele omunye wama-coups amaningi asekelwa yi-US angabonwanga yilencwadi ubesanda kwenzeka eKiev, okusho ukuthi iCrimea ibivotela ukuphuma kuhulumeni wobumbano. Izwe laseMelika lalisekele ukwehlukana kweKosovo kusuka eSerbia ngeminyaka yama-3s yize kwakuphikiswa iSerbia. Lapho iSlovakia ihlukana neCzechoslovakia, i-US ayizange inxuse noma ngabe ngubani ophikisayo. I-US (neHathaway neShapiro) bayalisekela ilungelo leSouth Sudan lokuthi bahlukane neSudan, yize kwakubusa udlame nezinxushunxushu. Abezombusazwe baseMelika abanjengoJoe Biden noJane Harman baze baphakamisa nokuthi kuhlukaniswe izicucu i-Iraq, njengoba abanye bephakamisele iSyria. Kepha ake sinikeze ngenxa yokuphikisana ukuthi ivoti laseCrimea lalinenkinga, lalisabeka futhi libugebengu. Ukuchazwa kwayo kule ncwadi njengokuyisongelo esisodwa esikhulu sokuthula emhlabeni kusazobamangalisa. Qhathanisa namadola ayizigidigidi ngonyaka ekusetshenzisweni kwamasosha aseMelika, imicibisholo emisha eRomania nasePoland, ukuqhuma okukhulu kwamabhomu e-Iraq naseSyria, ukubhujiswa kwe-Iraq neLibya, impi engapheli e-Afghanistan nasePakistan, ukubhujiswa kwe-US-Saudi kweYemen kanye ukwakhiwa kwendlala nezifo eziwumshayabhuqe, noma izinsongo ezicacile zokuhlasela i-Iran. Nginesiqiniseko sokuthi umMelika wakho ojwayelekile angathanda ukuvakashela "iMosul ekhululiwe" kunokuthi "kutholwe iCrimea," kepha ngabe kufanele sibhekane namaqiniso noma iziqubulo?

UHathaway noShapiro banikeza u-SO Levinson nabaphula umthetho bama-1920 ilungelo labo ngalokho abakufezile, kepha ababhali babheka umhlaba njengabathengi be-CNN baka-2017. Bathanda izimpi “zokuzivikela”. Basola uTrump ngokusikisela ukuthi iNATO isuswe. Bahlala bethule ngokwanda okunolaka kwe-NATO, kanye nasezikhungweni zamasosha ase-US ezikhalela umhlaba. Eqinisweni benza le nkulumo engamanga esobala: “I-United States, i-United Kingdom, neFrance. . . akazange athathe ndawo entsha ngemuva kwempi. ”

Phakathi neMpi Yezwe II iNavy Navy yase-US yambamba isiqhingi esincane saseHawaii saseKoho'alawe ngenhla yokuhlola izikhali futhi yayala izakhamuzi zayo ukuba zihambe. Lesi siqhingi siye saba khona echithekile. E-1942, i-US Navy yahlakaza i-Aleutian Islanders. Leyo mikhuba ayizange iphelele ku-1928 noma kwi-1945. UMongameli Harry Truman wenza umbono wakhe wokuthi abahlali bomdabu base170 baseBikini Atoll babengenalo ilungelo lokuya esiqhingini sabo e1946. Ubakhiphe ngoFebhuwari nangoMashi we-1946, waphinde wabaleka njengabaleki kwezinye iziqhingi ngaphandle kwezindlela zokusekelwa noma indawo yokuhlala. Eminyakeni ezayo, i-United States izosusa abantu be147 e-Enewetak Atoll nabo bonke abantu baseLib Island. Ukuhlolwa kwamabhomu e-athomu ne-hydrogen e-US kwenza iziqhingi ezahlukahlukene ezihlala abantu nezinabantu namanje zingahlali muntu, okwaholela ekuqhubekeni kwezinye izindawo. Kuze kube ngama-1960s, amasosha ase-US asusa amakhulu abantu abavela Kwajalein Atoll. Kwenziwe i-ghetto enabantu abaningi kakhulu e-Ebeye.

On Vieques, ePuerto Rico, i-US Navy yashiya izinkulungwane zezakhamuzi phakathi kwe-1941 ne-1947, yamemezela izinhlelo zokuxosha i-8,000 esele ku-1961, kodwa yaphoqeleka ukuba ibuye futhi-ku-2003 - ukuyeka ukuqhuma ibhomu. E-Culebra eseduze, i-Navy yashiya izinkulungwane phakathi kwe-1948 no-1950 futhi izama ukususa labo abasele nge-1970s. I-Navy ikhona manje ibheka isiqhingi I-pagan njengokuthi kungenzeka ukuthi i-Vieques ingasetshenziswa, isizwe esivele sisusiwe ukuqhuma kwentaba-mlilo. Yiqiniso, noma yikuphi ukubuyisela kuyobe kunciphise kakhulu.

Kusukela ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe II kodwa eqhubeka ngokuqhubeka nama-1950s, amasosha ase-US ahambela izigidi ezingama-Okinawans, noma ingxenye yesigamu, esuka ezweni lawo, ephoqelela abantu ukuba baye emakamu ababaleki kanye nezinkulungwane zokuthutha eBolivia - lapho kwakhiwe khona umhlaba nemali kodwa ayihambiswanga.

Ku-1953, i-United States yenza isivumelwano neDenmark ukususa abantu be-150 Inughuit kusuka eThule, eGreenland, bebanika izinsuku ezine ukuba baphume noma babhekane nezibhamu. Babenqatshelwe ilungelo lokubuyela.

Phakathi kwe-1968 ne-1973, i-United States ne-Great Britain yaxosha wonke ama-1,500 kuya ku-2,000 izakhamuzi zaseG Diego Garcia, eqongelela abantu futhi ebaphoqa emanzini ngenkathi ebulala izinja zabo ekamelweni legesi bese ethatha ifa lawo lonke izwe ukuze lisetshenziswe US amasosha.

Uhulumeni waseNingizimu Korea, owaxosha abantu ukuthuthukiswa kwe-US ezweni elise-2006, usekuqaleni kwe-US Navy, eminyakeni edlule ibhubhisa idolobha, ogwini lwayo, kanye namahektha angu-130 epulazini e-Jeju Island ukuze unikeze i-United States ngesinye isizinda esikhulu sempi.

Akukho kulokhu okukhulunywa ngakho encwadini kaHathaway noShapiro, noma kunjalo ku-database ebizwa ngeCorrelates of War abathathe imininingwane kuyo. Indima yaseMelika njengombutho wamasosha ovelele emhlabeni imane ilahlekile. Ukuhweba ngezikhali lapho i-US ihola khona indlela kanye nengxenye yamazwe ayishumi nambili alawula ukuhlonyiswa kwezikhali zomhlaba akuveli. Kepha imizamo yaseChina yokufuna iziqhingi eziseSouth China Sea isongela ababhali njengakuHillary Clinton emcimbini weGoldman Sachs, uma kungenjalo.

UShapiro noHathaway bangaphikisana nokuthi “ukuxoshwa okuphoqelelwe” kungumkhiqizo wemingcele eqinile, ewumkhiqizo wempi engekho emthethweni. UTony Judt wabhala: “Ekupheleni kwempi yezwe yokuqala kwaba yimingcele eyasungulwa futhi yashintshwa, kuyilapho abantu babengakwesobunxele bonke endaweni. Ngemuva kuka-1945 okwenzekile bekungokuphambene nalokho: ngaphandle kokukodwa okukhulu, imingcele ihlala iqinile futhi abantu bathuthelwa esikhundleni. ” Kepha lokhu akukho okunye engikubonile kuyisimangalo esibucayi noma ubufakazi bokuthi ukuxoshwa okuphoqelelwe kwakuncane noma kwakungekho ngaphambi kuka-1928. Kuthiwani ngokuxoshwa okuphoqelelwe kwamaMelika Omdabu amaningi kangaka? Kepha, kukhuphukile noma kwehlisiwe noma kuqhubeka ngejubane elingaguquguquki, lobu bugebengu, lezi zenzo zempi, lokhu kunqotshwa kwendawo, akungeni encwadini. Esikhundleni salokho sitshelwa ngamanga ukuthi i-United States ayithathi ndawo entsha. Tshela lokho kubahlali baseVicenza, e-Italy, noma kunoma yimaphi amadolobha amaningi emhlabeni wonke lapho izisekelo zamasosha ase-US zikhuliswa ngenkani ngokumelene nentando yabantu abahlala lapho.

Njengomphumela wombono wababhali owahlukile emhlabeni, futhi mhlawumbe ukugxila emthethweni obhaliwe, uHathaway noShapiro bathola ukushiyeka ku-Kellogg-Briand Pact ngokubheka amagama ayo kunokubheka ukwehluleka kwethu ukuhambisana nawo. Bakholelwa ukuthi iPact ishiya ivulekile (ayinikezi imvume kepha ihluleka ukubhekana) nenketho yokulwa izimpi zezindawo, kanye nenketho yabalingisi abangawona uhulumeni bokwenza impi. Owokuqala uncike emcabangweni wokuthi iPact yayivimbela kuphela impi enobudlova, kunayo yonke impi - ngokunqunyiwe hhayi lokho okwakuhloswe yi-Outlawrists. Bona - abasunguli bezenzo ezingekho emthethweni - behlose ukuvimbela impi ngokuphelele, ngaphandle kwesizathu esivamile sezingxabano zendawo. Lokhu okwedlule, ikhono labalingisi abangahulumeni abalwa impi, kuncike ekwesabeni okungenangqondo ukuzungeza izitha, ezinjenge-ISIS, okwenziwe ngokwephula umthetho okungakhiqizi, ukukhiqiza ibhuloho, ukwephula umthetho kweSivumelwano okwenziwa yisizwe sika-SO Levinson, umethuli omkhulu kunabo bonke udlame emhlabeni.

Ngokombono kaHathaway noShapiro, ngimane nginephutha nje ngalokho okwakushiwo Abaphula umthetho, nezimpi zokuzivikela zazinganqatshwa. Kepha engikushoyo akukhona ukuphawula ngokuthi amanye amaseneta akuhumusha kanjani lokho ababekuvuma, kepha kunalokho ukukhumbula ukucabanga okuthuthuke kangcono kwabasunguli nabagqugquzeli bomqondo wokunqabela impi. Ngicaphune uLevinson ku Lapho Umhlaba Ususa Impi:

“Ake sithi lo mehluko ofanayo unxusiwe ngesikhathi isikhungo sokudiliza [sic] sichithiwe. . . . Ake sithi ngabe ngaleso sikhathi bekunconywe ukuthi kuphela yi-'dueling enobudlova' okumele ikhishwe futhi 'i-dueling evikela' ishiywe ingasebenzi. . . . Umbono onjalo ophathelene ne-dueling bekungaba ubuwula, kepha ukufanekisa kuzwakala kahle. Esikwenzile nje wukucekelwa phansi isikhungo sokudiliza, okuyindlela eyaqashelwa ngumthetho yokuxazululwa kwezimpikiswano zalowo okuthiwa ukuhlonishwa. ”

Ngokwehluleka ukugxila kokufunwa ngabaphula umthetho, kunalokho ohulumeni bakwenza ngokudalwa kwabo, ababhali baphetha ngokuthi ngo-1928 akekho umuntu owayecabangele ukuthi yini ezothatha indawo yempi, nokuthi angaxazulula kanjani izingxabano ngaphandle kwezimpi. Baphinde baphethe ngokuthi i-UN Charter yenza lesi Sivumelwano “saba ngokoqobo,” kunokuba sisenze buthaka. Kepha abaningi babesazi kahle isidingo sezinhlobo ezintsha zokujeziswa okungenabudlova, izinkantolo zomhlaba wonke, amathuluzi okuziphatha nawomnotho, okwehliswa kwezikhali, kanye nezinguquko zamasiko ezisacashile. U-Levinson wabhala umthetho wokusebenzisa ukuze enze ummeli wempi ube yisigebengu. Izikhala ze-UN Charter zezimpi “zokuzivikela” kanye “nokugunyazwa” zenze i-UN - enebutho lamakhosi lesibili ngobukhulu manje elisetshenzisiwe emhlabeni - ithuluzi lokufudumala, kunokuba kube nokuthula.

Ababhali basola i-Pact yokuvikela amazwe abuthaka ekuhlaselweni, okuwavumela ukuba abe yizifundazwe ezihlulekile, kudaleke impi. Kepha kudinga okungaphezu kokuvikelwa ekuhlaseleni ukuze kulimaze izwe. Imvamisa idinga ukusebenzelana ngezikhali, ukuqoqwa kobushiqela, kanye nokuxhashazwa kwabantu nemithombo yangaphandle. Impela ukuqeda lobu bumbi obuqhubekayo bekungaba ngcono ukubuyisa ububi bokunqoba.

Lapho incwadi kaHathaway noShapiro icwebezela khona, naphezu kwakho konke okubomvu, okumhlophe, kanye ne-bluism, ekuhlaziyweni kwayo kokushintshwa kwempi ngezinye izindlela zokuphepha, into engiyisebenzisile futhi wabheka. Baphakamisa, ikakhulukazi, ukuqashelwa nokwandiswa kwalokho abakubiza ngokuthi ukukhishwa. Leli gama lisuselwa enkambisweni yasendulo e-Iceland yokujezisa umuntu owephula umthetho ngokubenza balahlwe emphakathini. "Umthetho ubusebenza kahle," kubhala uHathaway noShapiro, "yize bezingekho izikhungo zomphakathi zokuphoqelela umthetho, ngoba umthetho konke Abantu base-Iceland babe abaphoqeleli bomthetho. ” Ngokususelwa kule modeli, ababhali bachaza indlela izikhungo ezinjengalezo eziphatha iposi lamazwe omhlaba noma ezohwebo ezakha ukuhambisana namazinga ngokusongela kokudingiswa.

Vele ukunweba amandla ezinhlangano ezihweba ngezinkampani ukuvumela abameli babo ukubhala kabusha imithetho yasekhaya yezizwe akuyona into efiselekayo noma edingekayo. Futhi ukukhipha ithuluzi elilodwa kuphela esifubeni samathuluzi wohlelo olungeyona impi. Kepha kuthiwani uma iZizwe Ezihlangene zithathelwa isikhundla noma zaguqulwa zaba iklabhu yentando yeningi engenabudlova yabenzi bokuthula, isebenzisa abasebenza ngokuthula abangahlomile, nokugcina usongo lokuxoshwa ezinhlwini zayo? Kuthiwani uma umhlaba ubunenkantolo ezimele esikhundleni se-ICC, abathi ababhali bangashushisa “ubudlova,” kodwa empeleni okungeke kwenzeke lokho ngaphandle kwemvume yoMkhandlu Wezokuphepha we-UN?

Okubaluleke kakhulu, kuthiwani uma besine isiko lomhlaba jikelele lokho kwasivumela ukuthi sibhekane nobubi bempi ngaphandle kokucwasa ngokombuso? Kuthiwani uma sithathe ukufezeka kweKellogg-Briand Pact njengokushukumisela ukubona umbono wabadali bayo kuze kube sekupheleni: ukuqedwa kwazo zonke izimpi namabutho ezempi?