Emehlweni abantu abaningi emhlabeni jikelele, idiplomacy ithathe isihlalo esingemuva ekusebenzeni kwezempi kunqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US. Uhlelo lwe-drone luyisibonelo esihle.
Ibhalwe ngu-Ann Wright | Juni 2017.
Ibuyiselwe kabusha ngoJuni 9, 2017, kusukela I-Foreign Service Journal.
I-MQ-9 Reaper, ibhanoyi lokulwa, indiza.
Wikimedia Commons / Ricky Best
Ukugqugquzelwa kwezempi kwenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US ngokuqinisekile akuzange kuqale ngoMongameli uDonald J. Trump; empeleni, ibuyela emuva emashumini eminyaka ambalwa. Kodwa-ke, uma izinsuku ezingu-100 zikaTrump ehhovisi ziyizinkomba, akananhloso yokwehlisa lo mkhuba.
Phakathi nesonto elilodwa ngo-Ephreli, abaphathi bakaTrump badubula imicibisholo ye-Tomahawk engu-59 enkundleni yezindiza yaseSyria, futhi baphonsa ibhomu elikhulu kunawo wonke endaweni yezikhali zaseMelika emhubheni okusolakala ukuthi we-ISIS e-Afghanistan. Le nsimbi yomsindo wamaphawundi angu-21,600 eyayingakaze isetshenziswe empini—i-Massive Ordinance Air Blast noma i-MOAB, eyaziwa ngokuthi “Umama Wawo Wonke Amabhomu”—yasetshenziswa esifundeni sase-Achin e-Afghanistan, lapho uSergeant Wamasosha Akhethekile u-Mark De. U-Alencar wayebulewe ngesonto eledlule. (Ibhomu lahlolwa kabili kuphela, e-Elgin Air Base, eFlorida, ngo-2003.)
Ukuze kugcizelelwe ukuthanda kwabaphathi abasha ukuphoqa phezu kwezingxoxo, isinqumo sokuzama amandla okuqhuma kwebhomu elikhulu sithathwe uJenene John Nicholson, umkhuzi-jikelele wamasosha ase-US e-Afghanistan. Encoma leso sinqumo, uPres. UTrump umemezele ukuthi unikeze “igunya eliphelele” embuthweni wamasosha aseMelika ukuthi enze noma yini abayifunayo, noma kuphi emhlabeni — okusho ukuthi ngaphandle kokubonisana nekomiti lezokuphepha kuzwelonke.
Kuyasho futhi ukuthi uPress. UTrump ukhethe ojenene ezikhundleni ezimbili ezibalulekile zokuphepha kuzwelonke ngokwesiko ezigcwaliswe izakhamizi: uNobhala Wezokuvikela kanye Nomeluleki Wezokuphepha Kuzwelonke. Yize kunjalo ezinyangeni ezintathu ekuphathweni kwakhe, ushiye amakhulukhulu ezikhundla eziphezulu zikahulumeni kuHulumeni, Wezokuvikela nakwezinye izindawo.
Ukuvinjelwa Okuntengantengayo Okukhulayo
Amalungu eQembu Le-1174th Fighter Wing Maintenance Group le-New York Air National Guard abeka ushoki ku-MQ-9 Reaper ngemva kokubuya emsebenzini wokuqeqesha ebusika e-Wheeler Sack Army Airfield, Fort Drum, NY, Feb. 14, 2012.
Wikimedia Commons / Ricky Best
Ngenkathi u-Pres. UTrump akakayivezi inqubomgomo ngendaba yokubulawa kwezepolitiki, kuze kube manje akukho okukhombisa ukuthi uhlela ukuguqula umkhuba wokuthembela ekubulaweni kwama-drone okusungulwe ngabanduleli bakhe bakamuva.
Nokho, emuva ngo-1976, uMongameli uGerald Ford wabeka isibonelo esihluke kakhulu lapho ekhipha esakhe I-Order Order 11095. Lokhu kumemezele ukuthi "Asikho isisebenzi sikahulumeni wase-United States esizobandakanyeka, noma sakhe uzungu lokuhlanganyela ekubulaweni kwezombusazwe."
Wasungula lesi sivimbelo ngemva kophenyo lweKomidi LeBandla (iKomidi LeSenate Elikhethiwe Lokufunda Imisebenzi Kahulumeni Ngokuhlonishwa Kwemisebenzi Yezobunhloli, eholwa nguSen. Frank Church, D-Idaho) kanye neKomidi lePike (uzakwabo weNdlu, usihlalo wayo uRep. Otis. G. Pike, DN.Y.) wayedalule izinga lemisebenzi ye-Central Intelligence Agency yokubulala abaholi bangaphandle ngeminyaka yawo-1960 kanye nawo-1970.
Ngaphandle kwezimbalwa ezimbalwa, omongameli abaningana abalandelayo bakusekela ukuvinjelwa. Kodwa ngo-1986, uMongameli uRonald Reagan wayala ukuba kuhlaselwe umuzi weqhawe laseLibya u-Muammar Gaddafi eTripoli, eziphindiselela ngokuqhunyiswa kwebhomu kwe-nightclub eBerlin kwabulala umbutho waseMelika kanye nezakhamuzi ezimbili zaseJalimane kwalimala abangu-229. Ngemizuzu engu-12 nje, izindiza zaseMelika zehla. 60 amathani amabhomu aseMelika endlini, nakuba behlulekile ukubulala uGaddafi.
Eminyakeni eyishumi nambili kamuva, ngo-1998, uMongameli uBill Clinton wayala ukuthi kuqhunyiswe imicibisholo ejikijelwayo engama-80 ezikhungweni ze-al-Qaida e-Afghanistan naseSudan, ukuziphindiselela ngokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu kwamanxusa aseMelika eKenya naseTanzania. Abaphathi bakaClinton basithethelela lesi senzo ngokugomela ngokuthi umthetho ovimbela ukubulawa awubandakanyi abantu uhulumeni wase-US owawunqume ukuthi bahlobene nobuphekula.
Ezinsukwini ngemuva kokuthi i-al-Qaida yenze ukuhlasela kwayo e-United States ngoSepthemba 11, 2001, uMongameli uGeorge W. Bush wasayina "ukuthola" kwezobunhloli okuvumela i-Central Intelligence Agency ukuthi yenze "imisebenzi yokufihla ebulalayo" ukubulala u-Osama bin Laden kanye abhubhise inethiwekhi yakhe yamaphekula. Abameli be-White House kanye ne-CIA baphikisana ngokuthi lo myalelo wawusemthethweni ngezizathu ezimbili. Okokuqala, bamukele isikhundla sokuphatha sikaClinton sokuthi i-EO 11905 ayizange ivimbele ukuthatha kwe-United States isinyathelo ngokumelene namaphekula. Ngokudabukisayo, bamemezela ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kokubulawa kwezombangazwe akuzange kusebenze ngesikhathi sempi.
Thumela ama-Drones
Ukwenqaba ngokuphelele kwabaphathi bakaBush ukuvinjelwa kokubulawa okuhlosiwe noma ukubulawa kwezombusazwe kwabuyisela emuva ikota yekhulu leminyaka yenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US ehlangene kabili. Kuphinde kwavula umnyango wokusetshenziswa kwezindiza ezingenamuntu ukuze kubulawe abantu abaqondiswe kubo (igama elibi lokubulala).
I-US Air Force ibindizisa izimoto zasemoyeni ezingenamuntu (ama-UAV), kusukela ngeminyaka yawo-1960, kodwa njengezinkundla zokugada ezingenamuntu. Ngemuva kwe-9/11, nokho, uMnyango Wezokuvikela kanye ne-Central Intelligence Agency bahlomisa “ama-drones” (njengoba abizwa kanjalo ngokushesha) ukubulala abaholi namasosha ahamba ngezinyawo e-al-Qaida kanye neTaliban.
I-United States yakha izisekelo e-Afghanistan nasePakistan ngaleyo njongo, kodwa ngemuva kochungechunge lokuhlasela kwe-drone okwabulala izakhamuzi, kuhlanganise neqembu elikhulu elalibuthene emshadweni, uhulumeni wasePakistan wayala ngo-2011 ukuthi i-drones yaseMelika kanye namasosha ase-US asuswe. kusuka ku-Shamsi Air Base yayo. Kodwa-ke, ukubulawa okuhlosiwe kwaqhubeka kwenziwa ePakistan ngama-drones angaphandle kwezwe.
Ngo-2009, uMongameli uBarack Obama waqala lapho owamanduleli wakhe ayeshiye khona. Njengoba ukukhathazeka komphakathi kanye nengqungquthela kwanda mayelana nokusetshenziswa kwezindiza ezilawulwa yi-CIA kanye nabaqhubi bezempi ezitholakala ku-10,000 miles kude nabantu ababeyalelwe ukuba babulale, i-White House yaphoqeleka ukuba ivume ngokusemthethweni uhlelo lokubulala okuhlosiwe futhi ichaze ukuthi abantu baba kanjani izinhloso zokubulala. uhlelo.
Esikhundleni sokubuyisela uhlelo emuva, nokho-ke, abaphathi baka-Obama bahle kabili. Empeleni iqoke bonke abesilisa abaneminyaka yobudala yezempi endaweni yesiteleka sangaphandle njengabalwi, ngakho-ke izinhloso ezingaba khona zalokho elikubiza ngokuthi “iziteleka zokusayina.” Okuphazamisa nakakhulu, yamemezela ukuthi iziteleka ezihloselwe amaphekula athile, amanani aphezulu, ezaziwa ngokuthi "iziteleka zabantu," zingabandakanya izakhamuzi zaseMelika.
Ngokushesha lokho kungase kucatshangelwe kwaba yiqiniso elibuhlungu. Ngo-April 2010, u-Pres. U-Obama ugunyaze i-CIA ukuthi "iqondise" u-Anwar al-Awlaki, isakhamuzi saseMelika kanye nowayeyi-imam endaweni yamaSulumane yaseVirginia, ukuze abulawe. Ngaphansi kweshumi leminyaka ngaphambili, iHhovisi likaNobhala Wezempi lalimeme i-imam ukuthi ibambe iqhaza enkonzweni yokuhlanganisa izinkolo ezilandela u-9/11. Kepha u-al-Awlaki ngokuhamba kwesikhathi waba ngumgxeki ogqamayo “ngempi yobushokobezi,” wathuthela ezweni likayise e-Yemen, wasiza i-al-Qaida ukuqasha amalungu.
Ukwenqaba ngokuphelele kwabaphathi bakaBush ukuvinjelwa kokubulawa okuhlosiwe kwavula umnyango wokusetshenziswa kwezindiza ezingenamuntu ukuze kubulawe abantu ababehlosiwe.
NgoSepthemba 30, 2011, isiteleka se-drone sabulala u-al-Awlaki nomunye waseMelika, uSamir Khan—owayehamba naye eYemen. Izindiza zezindiza zaseMelika zabulala indodana ka-al-Awlaki eneminyaka engu-16 ubudala, u-Abdulrahman al- Awlaki, isakhamuzi saseMelika, ezinsukwini eziyishumi kamuva ekuhlaselweni kweqembu lezinsizwa eduzane nomlilo. Abaphathi baka-Obama abakaze bakubeke kwacaca ukuthi le ndodana eneminyaka engu-10 ubudala yayiqondiswe umuntu ngamunye ngenxa yokuthi yayiyindodana ka-al-Awlaki noma yayiyisisulu sesiteleka “esisayinwe,” esifanela incazelo yowesilisa osemncane wezempi. Kodwa-ke, ngesikhathi kunesithangami sabezindaba eWhite House, intatheli ibuze umkhulumeli ka-Obama uRobert Gibbs ukuthi angakuvikela kanjani ukubulawa kwabantu, futhi ikakhulukazi ukushona kwengane eyisakhamuzi saseMelika "eyayiqondiswe ngaphandle kwenqubo efanele, ngaphandle kwecala."
Impendulo kaGibbs ayenzanga lutho ukusiza isithombe sase-US ezweni lamaSulumane: “Ngingaphakamisa ukuthi bekufanele ube nobaba onomthwalo wemfanelo uma beyikhathalela ngempela inhlalakahle yezingane zabo. Angicabangi ukuthi ukuba yiphekula le-al-Qaida jihadist kuyindlela engcono kakhulu yokwenza ibhizinisi lakho. "
Ngomhla zingama-29 kuJan. 2017, indodakazi ka-al-Awlaki eneminyaka engu-8 ubudala, uNawar al-Awlaki, yabulawa ekuhlaselweni komyali wase-US eYemen eyalelwa owalandela u-Obama, uDonald Trump.
Khonamanjalo, abezindaba baqhubekile nokubika izigameko zokubulawa kwezakhamuzi ezitelekeni zama-drone esifundeni sonke, ezivame ukubhekisa amaphathi emishado nemingcwabo. Izakhamizi eziningi zesifunda esisemngceleni we-Afghan-Pakistan zizwe umsindo wama-drones ezungeza indawo yazo ubusuku nemini, okubangela ukuhlukumezeka kwengqondo kubo bonke abahlala kuleyo ndawo, ikakhulukazi izingane.
Abaphathi baka-Obama bagxekwa kakhulu ngeqhinga elithi “double-tap”—ukushaya ikhaya eliqondiwe noma imoto ngomcibisholo we-Hellfire, bese bedubula umcibisholo wesibili eqenjini elasiza labo ababelimele ekuqaleni. ukuhlasela. Izikhathi eziningi, labo ababegijima bayosiza abantu ababevaleleke ngaphakathi kwezakhiwo ezibhidlikile noma ezimotweni ezivutha amalangabi kwakuyizakhamuzi zendawo, hhayi izidlamlilo.
Iqhinga Elingakhiqizi Ngokukhula
Isizathu esijwayelekile esinikezwa ukusebenzisa ama-drones ukuthi aqeda isidingo "samabhuzu phansi" - noma ngabe amalungu ahlomile noma izisebenzi ze-CIA - ezindaweni eziyingozi, ngaleyo ndlela kuvimbele ukulahlekelwa kwezimpilo zase-US. Izikhulu zase-US ziphinde zithi ama-UAV obuhlakani aqoqana ngokugadwa isikhathi eside enza iziteleka zawo zibe nembayo kakhudlwana, zehlise isibalo sabantu abalimalayo. (Kungashiwongo, kodwa cishe esinye isikhuthazo esinamandla, iqiniso lokuthi ukusetshenziswa kwama-drones kusho ukuthi abekho abasolwa abangamasosha abangathathwa bephila, ngaleyo ndlela kugwenywe izinkinga zezepolitiki nezinye zokuboshwa.)
Noma ngabe lezi zimangalo ziyiqiniso, nokho, azikhulumi ngomthelela weqhinga kunqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US. Okukhathaza kakhulu ukuthi ama-drones avumela omongameli ukuthi baphendule imibuzo yempi nokuthula ngokukhetha inketho ebonakala inikeza inkambo ephakathi, kodwa empeleni inemiphumela ehlukahlukene yesikhathi eside yenqubomgomo yase-US, kanye nasemiphakathini. ekugcineni kokwamukela.
Ngokususa ubungozi bokulahlekelwa ngabasebenzi base-US, abenzi benqubomgomo base-Washington bangase balingeke ukuba basebenzise amandla ukuze baxazulule inkinga yezokuphepha kunokuxoxisana nabathintekayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngokobunjalo bawo, ama-UAV angase akwazi ukuziphindiselela eMelika kunezinhlelo zezikhali ezivamile. Kwabaningi baseMpumalanga Ephakathi naseNingizimu Asia, ama-drones amelela ubuthakathaka bukahulumeni wase-US kanye nezempi yakhe, hhayi amandla. Akufanele yini amaqhawe anesibindi alwe phansi, ayabuza, esikhundleni sokucasha ngemva kwendiza engenabuso esibhakabhakeni, eqhutshwa umuntu osemusha esihlalweni esiqhele ngezinkulungwane zamakhilomitha?
Ama-drones avumela omongameli ukuthi baphendule imibuzo yempi nokuthula ngokukhetha inketho ebonakala inikeza inkambo ephakathi, kodwa empeleni inemiphumela ehlukahlukene yesikhathi eside yenqubomgomo yase-US.
Kusukela ngo-2007, okungenani izisebenzi ze-150 ze-NATO ziye zaba yizisulu "zokuhlaselwa ngaphakathi" ngamalungu ebutho lezempi lase-Afghan kanye namaphoyisa kazwelonke aqeqeshwa ngumfelandawonye. Iningi labantu base-Afghan abenza lezi zigameko zokubulala “okuluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka” kwabasebenzi baseMelika, abagqoke umfaniswano kanye nabangekho emthethweni, bavela ezifundeni zezizwe ezisemngceleni we-Afghanistan nePakistan lapho kugxilwe khona iziteleka ze-drone zase-US. Baziphindiselela ngokufa kwemindeni yabo nabangane ngokubulala abaqeqeshi babo bezempi baseMelika.
Intukuthelo ngokumelene ne-drones ibonakale nase-United States. NgoMeyi 1, 2010, uFaisal Shahzad waseMelika wasePakistan wazama ukuqhumisa ibhomu e-Times Square. Ekuvumeni kwakhe icala, u-Shahzad ukuthethelele ukukhomba izakhamuzi ngokuthi atshele ijaji, “Lapho indiza ezindizayo ishaya e-Afghanistan nase-Iraq, aziboni izingane, aziboni muntu. Babulala abesifazane, izingane; babulala wonke umuntu. Babulala wonke amaSulumane.”
Kusukela ngo-2012 i-US Air Force yayiqasha abashayeli bezindiza abaningi kunabashayeli bezindiza zendabuko-phakathi kuka-2012 no-2014, bahlele ukwengeza abashayeli bezindiza be-2,500 futhi basekele abantu ohlelweni lwe-drone. Lokho kucishe kuphindwe kabili inani lezikhulu eziqashwa nguMnyango Wezwe esikhathini esiyiminyaka emibili.
Ukukhathazeka kweCongress kanye labezindaba ngalolu hlelo kuholele ekutheni abaphathi baka-Obama bavume imihlangano ejwayelekile yangoLwesibili eholwa ngumongameli ukuhlonza okuhloswe ngakho ohlwini lokubulawa kwabantu. Kwabezindaba zamazwe ngamazwe, "I-Terror Tuesdays" ibe inkomba yenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US.
Akukephuzi Kakhulu
Kwabaningi emhlabeni jikelele, inqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US ibibuswa iminyaka engu-16 edlule ngezenzo zezempi eMpumalanga Ephakathi naseNingizimu Asia, kanye nezivivinyo ezinkulu zezwe nezolwandle eNyakatho-mpumalanga ye-Asia. Emhlabeni jikelele, imizamo yaseMelika kwezomnotho, ezohwebo, izindaba zamasiko kanye namalungelo abantu ibonakala ibuyisela emuva ekulweni kwezimpi eziqhubekayo.
Ukuqhubeka nokusetshenziswa kwezimpi ze-drone ukuze kubulawe abantu kuzokwandisa ukungathembeki kwangaphandle kwezinhloso zaseMelika kanye nokwethembeka. Ngaleyo ndlela idlala ezandleni zabona kanye izimbangi esizama ukuzinqoba.
Emkhankasweni wakhe, uDonald Trump wathembisa ukuthi uzohlale ebeka i-"America First," futhi wathi ufuna ukuphuma ebhizinisini lokushintsha umbuso. Akukephuzi kakhulu ukuthi agcine leso sithembiso ngokufunda emaphutheni abandulele futhi ahlehlise ukuqhubeka kwempi yenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US.
U-Ann Wright uchithe iminyaka engama-29 eButhweni Lezempi Lase-US kanye Nezinqolobane Zezempi, ethatha umhlalaphansi njengoColonel. Usebenze iminyaka engu-16 kuMnyango Wezangaphandle eNicaragua, eGrenada, eSomalia, e-Uzbekistan, eKyrgyzstan, eSierra Leone, eMicronesia naseMongolia, futhi wahola ithimba elincane elavula kabusha ihhovisi lenxusa laseMelika eKabul ngo-December 2001. Wasula ngo-March 2003 ngokuphikisana nesinqumo sakhe. Impi yase-Iraq, futhi ungumbhali-ndawonye wencwadi ethi Disent: Voices of Conscience (Koa, 2008). Ukhuluma emhlabeni wonke mayelana nempi yenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yase-US futhi ungumhlanganyeli okhuthele embuthweni waseMelika wokulwa nempi.
Imibono evezwe kulesi sihloko ngeyombhali ngokwakhe futhi ayibonisi umbono woMnyango Wezwe, uMnyango Wezokuvikela noma uhulumeni wase-US.
