NgoDisemba 1914, ukuqubuka okumangalisayo kokuthula, noma kufushane, kwenzeka lapho amabutho amaningi ayizigidi eziyi-100,000, noma amaphesenti ayishumi, emiswe eceleni kwe-500 mile Western Front eMpini Yezwe I, ngakolunye uhlangothi, nangokuzimela, ayeka ukulwa okungenani Amahora we-24-36, Disemba 24-26. Izimo ezihlukaniseke zodwa zeziqubu zendawo zenzeka okungenani ekuqaleni kukaDisemba 11, futhi zaqhubeka ngokuqhubekayo kuze kube uSuku Lonyaka Omusha kuya ekuqaleni kukaJanuwari 1915. Okungenani izingxenye ze-115 zokulwa zazibandakanyeka phakathi kwamasosha aseBrithani, amaJalimane, amaFrance nawaseBelgian. Naphezu kwemiyalo yomqondisi jikelele yokwenqabela ngokuphelele noma yiluphi uhlobo lokuhlangana nobuntu nesitha, amaphuzu amaningi phambi kwesihlahla afakazele ngamakhandlela akhanyisiwe, amasosha aphuma emiseleni yawo kuphela i-30 eya emzileni we-40 ngaphandle kokuxhawula izandla, ukwaba ukubhema, ukudla newayini, nokucula kanye omunye komunye. Ama-Troops avela kuzo zonke izinhlangothi asebenzisa ithuba lokungcwaba abafileyo bawo ababelele kuwo wonke amabala empi, futhi kwaba nemibiko yenkonzo yokungcwaba ehlanganyelwe. Kwezinye izimo izikhulu zijoyine ubumbano olusakazekile. Kukhona nokukhulunywa lapha nalaphaya komdlalo webhola owadlalwa phakathi kwamaJalimane namaBrithani. (Bona i-SOURCES).
Njengoba kubonakaliswa umxhwele komoya womuntu njengoba lokhu bekunjalo, bekungeyona, into eyingqayizivele emlandweni wempi. Eqinisweni, kwakuwukuphinda kuvuseleleke kwesiko eselisungulwe kudala. Izixakaxaka ezingekho emthethweni nezinhlelo ezincane zasendaweni kanye nezigameko zobungani ezabiwe phakathi kwezitha zenzekile phakathi nesikhathi eside sokulwa kwezempi emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka, mhlawumbe okude.[1] Lokhu kufaka phakathi impi yaseViet Nam.[2]
Umkhuzi wamasosha osethathe umhlalaphansi uLt.Col Dave Grossman, uprofesa wesayensi yezempi, uphikise ukuthi abantu bamelana ngokujulile nokubulala okudinga ukuqeqeshwa okukhethekile ukuze banqobe.[3] Angikwazanga ukufaka i-bayonet yami ekubeni iduma ngesikhathi sokuqeqeshwa kwami kwe-ranger e-USAF ekuqaleni kwe-1969. Ukube bengiyinduna yamasosha esikhundleni sesiphathimandla Somkhosi Wezempi, futhi ngisemncane ngeminyaka embalwa, ngiyamangaza, bekungaba lula yini ukubulala ngokuyalile? Umkhuzi wami ngokusobala wayengajabule neze lapho ngenqaba ukusebenzisa i-bayonet yami, ngoba amasosha azi kahle ukuthi amadoda angenziwa kuphela ukuba abulale ngokuphoqa. Ubushiqela obudingeka ukwenza ibutho lisebenze kakhulu. Iyazi ukuthi ayikwazi ukuvumela ukuxoxisana mayelana nomsebenzi wayo futhi kufanele isheshe ibambe noma ikuphi ukuqhekeka ohlelweni lokulalela olungaboni. Ngabekwa ngokushesha esikhungweni esaziwa ngokuthi yi- “Officer Control Roster” futhi ngabhekana nokuklolodelwa ngemuva kweminyango evaliwe lapho ngangisongelwa khona ngamacala asemkhosini, ngaphoxeka kaninginingi futhi ngamangalelwa ukuthi ngiyigwala futhi ngiyimbuka. Ngatshelwa ukuthi ukwenqaba kwami ukubamba iqhaza kwi-bayonet drill, ngatshelwa ukuthi, kudala izinkinga zokuziphatha ezazisongela ukuphazamisa umsebenzi wethu.
Isazi sokusebenza kwengqondo saseYale University uStanley Milgram e1961, izinyanga ezintathu kuphela ngemuva kokuqulwa kwecala lika-Adolph Eichmann eJerusalema ngeqhaza lakhe ekuxhumaniseni ukuQothulwa Kwesizwe, waqala uchungechunge lokuhlola ukuqonda kangcono uhlobo lokulalela igunya. Imiphumela yathusa. UMagrafu wazihlola ngokucophelela izikhonzi zakhe ukuze zimelele abantu baseMelika abajwayelekile. Becashunwe ekubalulekeni kwama-oda alandelayo, ababambiqhaza bayalelwe ukuthi bacindezele i-lever befaka lokho abakholelwa ukuthi kuluchungechunge lokushaqeka, kancane kancane kukhuphuka kuma-volt e-volt ayishumi nanhlanu, ngaso sonke isikhathi lapho uMfundi (umlingisi) oseduzane enza iphutha emsebenzini ofanisa amagama . Ngenkathi abaFundi beqala ukukhwaza ezinhlungwini, i-Experimenter (igunya lesiphathamandla) yaphikelela ngokuthula yathi isivivinyo kumele siqhubeke. Amaphesenti ama-65 asabekayo abahlanganyeli bakwaMilgramu aphathe ugesi ophakeme kunawo wonke — i-jolt ebulalayo engase ibulale othile empeleni ethola ukushaqeka. Ucwaningo olwengeziwe olwenziwe eminyakeni edlule kwamanye amanyuvesi e-United States, kanye nakwamanye amazwe ayisishiyagalolunye eYurophu, e-Afrika nase-Asia, luveze amazinga aphezulu okulandela igunya. Ucwaningo lwe-2008 lwenzelwe ukuphinda kabili izilingo zokulalela zeMilgramu ngenkathi kugwenywa izici zalo eziningi eziphikisanayo, zithole imiphumela efanayo.[4]
UMilgraph umemezele isifundo esibaluleke kakhulu sesifundo:
Abantu abajwayelekile, abenza nje imisebenzi yabo, futhi bengenabo ubutha obuthile kubo, bangaba amanxusa enkambweni ebhubhisayo esabekayo. . . Ukulungiswa okuvame kakhulu komcabango esihlokweni esilalelayo ukuthi yena (yena) azibone engenacala ngezenzo zakhe. . . Uzibona (yena) hhayi njengomuntu ophethe ngendlela yokuziphatha kodwa njenge-ejenti yeziphathimandla zangaphandle, "owenza umsebenzi wakhe" obezwakala kaninginingi ezitatimendeni zokuzivikela zalabo abasolwa eNuremberg. . . . Emphakathini oyinkimbinkimbi kulula ngokwengqondo ukungawunaki umthwalo wemfanelo lapho umuntu eyisixhumanisi esiphakathi kochungechunge lwezenzo ezimbi kepha ukude nemiphumela yokugcina. . . . Ngakho-ke kukhona ukwahlukana kwesenzo somuntu esiphelele; akekho owesilisa (owesifazane) onquma ukwenza isenzo esibi futhi abhekane nemiphumela yaso.[5]
UMagrafu usikhumbuze ukuthi ukuhlolwa okubucayi komlando wethu kuveza "inkululeko yentando yeningi" yeziphathimandla ezifakiwe ezingekho ngaphansi kobushiqela, kuchuma ngesibalo sabathobelayo abathengi abangakwazi ukuxhomekeka ekusatshisweni kwabanye, besho ukubhujiswa kwezakhamizi zaseNdiya zakuqala, ukuthembela ebugqilini izigidi, ukuqeqeshwa kwabantu baseMelika baseJapan, nokusetshenziswa kwe-napalm ngokumelene nezakhamizi zaseVietnam.[6]
Njengoba abakwaMilgramu babika, “ukunqunywa komuntu oyedwa, inqobo nje uma kungatholakala, akunamphumela omncane. Izongena esikhundleni sendoda elandelayo emgqeni. Ukuphela kwengozi ekusebenzeni kwamasosha kuhlala kungenzeka ukuthi isazi esisodwa sizovusa abanye. ”[7]
Ku-1961 isazi sefilosofi nesazi sezombusazwe uHanna Arendt, ongumJuda, sabona ukuqulwa kwecala kuka-Adolf Eichmann. Wamangala ukuthola ukuthi 'wayengahlanhleki futhi engenamahloni.' Esikhundleni salokho, u-Eichmann nabanye abaningi njengaye "babekhona, futhi basajwayelekile, futhi kujwayelekile."[8] U-Arendt uchaze isilinganiso sabantu abavamile bokwenza ububi obungejwayelekile ngenxa yengcindezi yomphakathi noma esimweni esithile senhlalo, ngokuthi "ukunqunyelwa kobubi." Ukusuka ekuhlolweni kukaMilgraph, siyazi ukuthi "ukunqunyelwa kobubi" akuhlukile kule AmaNazi.
Izazi ze-Eco-psychologists kanye nesayensi yezamasiko ziphikise ukuthi i-archetypes yabantu isekelwe ekuhlonipheni, ekuzwisaneni nasekubambisaneni kubalulekile ukuthi izidalwa zethu zifinyelele kuleli gatsha lethu lokuzivelela kwezinto. Kodwa-ke, eminyakeni eyi-5,500 eyedlule, ezungeze i-3,500 BCE, amadolobhana amancane amaNeolithic aqala ukuguqukela “empucukweni” enkulu yasemadolobheni. Ngokuthi "impucuko," kwavela umbono omusha wenhlangano-lokho isazi-mlando esingokwesiko uLewis Mumford akubiza ngokuthi “megamachine,” okwakuhlanganisa nomuntu “ izingxenye ”aphoqwa ukusebenza ndawonye ukwenza imisebenzi ngezinga elikhulu elingakaze licabange. Impucuko yabona kudalwa izikhungo eziqondisa amandla ziqondiswa yinkimbinkimbi yamandla egunya (inkosi) enababhali nezithunywa, ehlela imishini yabasebenzi (inqwaba yabasebenzi) ukwakha amaphiramidi, amasistimu okunisela, nezinhlelo ezinkulu zokugcina okusanhlamvu phakathi kwezinye izinhlaka, kugcizelelwa impi. Izici zalo kwakuyizimfihlo zamandla, ukwahlukaniswa kwabantu ngezigaba, ukwahlukaniswa kwempilo yabasebenzi ngenkani nobugqila, ukungalingani okuningana kwengcebo nelungelo, namandla ezempi nempi.[9] Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, impucuko, esifundiswe ukuthi siyicabange njengeyinzuzo kakhulu ngesimo somuntu, ifakazele kabuhlungu kithina imvelo yethu, ingasaphathwa eyezinye izinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo kanye nemvelo yomhlaba. Njengamalungu anamuhla ezinhlobo zethu (ngaphandle kwemiphakathi enenhlanhla yabomdabu ngandlela-thile eyephunyuka ekuthatheni) sesibekelwe izizukulwane ezingamakhulu amathathu ngemodeli edinga ukulalela okukhulu kuzakhiwo ezinkulu zamandla mpo.
UM Mumford ukubeka kucace ukuthi ucashunwe emaqenjini amancane enezingqimba luyindawo yabantu eseyacindezelwa ekulaleleni ubuchwepheshe kanye nokuziphatha okuhle. Ukudalwa kwempucuko yabantu yasemadolobheni kulethe izindlela zodlame oluhlelekile kanye nempi eyayingaziwa ngaphambili,[10] lokho u-Andrew Schmookler akubiza ngokuthi "isono sokuqala" sempucuko,[11] neMumford, "ubuhlakani obuhlangene nokukhohlisa kobuzwe ngobuzwe."[12]
"Impucuko" idinga umphakathi omkhulu ukulalela ukunika amandla izinhlaka zeziphathimandla mpo ukuba zinqobe. Futhi ayikaze yaziwe ukuthi lawo mandla okumelana naphezulu atholakala kanjani, noma ngabe ngokulandelana kwezwe, omashiqela, noma ukukhetha kokubandlululwa ngentando yeningi, isebenza ngokungaguquki ngezindlela ezahlukahlukene zobushiqela. Inkululeko yokuzimela abantu ababeyithokozela emaqenjini ezizwe zangaphambi kwempucuko manje sehla ukukholelwa ezinhlakeni zeziphathamandla nemibono yabo yokulawula, eye yachazwa njenge "hierarchies ecindezelayo" lapho impahla yangasese kanye nokungena kwabesifazane kunamandla khona, ngenkani uma kunesidingo.[13]
Ukuvela kwezinhlaka zeziphathimandla ezibheke phezulu, ukubusa kwamakhosi nezicukuthwane, kwasusa abantu emaphethini omlando wokuphila emaqenjini amancane ezizwe. Kanye nokushintshana ngokuphoxeka, ukwahlukaniswa kwabantu ekuxhumaneni kwabo nokusondelana nomhlaba kwaveza ukungavikeleki okujulile, ukwesaba, kanye nokuhlukumezeka ku-psyche. Izazi ze-ecopyschologists ziphakamisa ukuthi ukuhlukaniswa okunjalo kwaholela emvelweni unuyazi.[14]
Ngakho-ke, abantu badinga kakhulu ukuthola kabusha futhi bondle izibonelo zokungalaleli ezinhlelweni zegunya lezepolitiki ezidale izimpi ze-14,600 selokhu kwaqala impucuko eminyakeni ethile ye-5,500 edlule. Eminyakeni eyedlule ye-3,500 sekube nezivumelwano ezicishe zibe yi-8,500 ezisayiniwe emizamweni yokuqeda impi, azange zisatholakali ngoba izinhlaka zamandla zihlala zingenamandla okufuna ukulalela emizameni yazo yokwandisa indawo, amandla noma insiza. Ikusasa lezinhlobo, kanye nezimpilo zezinye izinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo, kusengozini, njengoba silinde abantu ukuba beze emqondweni wethu ofanele, bobabili ngokuhlangene.
I-1914 Christmas Truck yeminyaka eyikhulu edlule yayiyisibonelo esiyingqayizivele sendlela izimpi zingaqhubeka kuphela uma amasosha evuma ukulwa. Udinga ukuhlonishwa futhi kugujwe, noma ngabe kwakuwukukhanya komzuzwana nje ngesikhathi. Limelela amandla wokungalaleli komuntu ezinqubweni zobuhlanya. Njengoba kushiwo imbongi yaseJalimane nomdlali wokudlala uBertolt Brecht, Ngokujwayelekile, ithangi lakho liyimoto enamandla. Ishaya amahlathi, futhi iphahlaze amadoda aMakhulu. Kepha sinesici esisodwa: sidinga umshayeli.[15] Uma abavamile benqaba ukushayela ithangi lempi, abaholi babezosala balwa izimpi zabo. Kungaba ngamafuphi.
KUPHELA
[1] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/197627.stm, imininingwane ethathwe kuMalcolm Brown noShirley Seaton, Iloli likaKhisimusi: I-Western Front, i-1914 (New York: Izincwadi zeHippocrene, i-1984.
[2] Richard Boyle, Izimbali Zedrako: Ukwephulwa Kwempi Yase-US eVietnam (ISan Francisco: Ramparts Press, 1973), 235-236; Richard Moser, Amasosha Amasha Wobusika, I-New Brunswick, NJ: i-Rutgers University Press, i-1996), i-132; UTom Wells, Impi Engaphakathi (ENew York: UHenry Holt noCo, 1994), 525-26.
[3] UDave Grossman, Ekubulaweni: Izindleko Zengqondo Zokufunda Ukubulala Empi naseNhlanganweni (IBoston: Encane, iBrown, i-1995).
[4] Lisa Lisa Krieger, "Isethulo Esishaqisayo: USolwazi waseSanta Clara uSolwazi Mirning Torture Study," Izindaba zeSan Jose Mercury, Disemba 20, 2008.
[5] IStanley Milgraph, "Izingozi Zokulalela," KaHarper, UDisemba 1973, 62-66, 75-77; I-Stanley Milram, Ukulalela Isiphathimandla: Ukubuka Kokuhlola (I-1974; INew York: I-Perennial Classics, 2004), 6-8, 11.
[6] Umlingo, 179.
[7] Umlingo, 182.
[8] [Hannah Arendt, Eichmann eJerusalema: Umbiko mayelana nokuvinjwa kobubi (I-1963; New York: I-Penguin Books, i-1994), i-276].
[9] Lewis Mumford, Inganekwane Yomshini: Ubuchwepheshe kanye Nokuthuthukiswa Kwabantu (ENew York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1967), 186.
[10] Ashley Montagu, Uhlobo Lokulumbana Komuntu (I-Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 43-53, 59-60; Ashley Montagu, ed., Ukufunda Okungahambisani: Isipiliyoni Somphakathi Ongafundile (I-Oxford: i-Oxford University Press, 1978); UJean Guilaine noJean Zammit, Umsuka Wempi: Udlame e-Prehistory, trans. UMelanie Hersey (2001; Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005).
[11] U-Andrew B. Schmookler, Ngaphandle Kobuthakathaka: Ukuphulukisa Amanxeba Esigijimisa Empini (ENew York: I-Bantam Books, 1988), 303.
[12] Mumford, 204.
[13] I-Etienne de la Boetie, Izombusazwe Zokulalela: Inkulumo Yokuzithandela Ngokuzithandela, trans. UHarry Kurz (ca. 1553; Montreal: Izincwadi ze-Black Rose, 1997), 46, 58-60; URiane Eisler, I-Chalice neBala (ENew York: Harper & Row, 1987), 45-58, 104-6.
[14] UTheodore Roszak, uMary E. Gomes, no-Allen D. Kanner, abahleli., I-Ecopsychology: Ukubuyisela Umhlaba Ukupholisa Umqondo (ISan Francisco: Izincwadi zeSierra Club, i-1995). I-ecopsychology iphetha ngokuthi akunakubakhona ukwelashwa komuntu ngaphandle kokupholisa umhlaba, futhi ukuthi kubuyiselwe ubudlelwano bethu obungcwele nayo, okungukuthi, ukusondelana kwethu obusondelene nomhlaba, kubaluleke kakhulu ekwelapheni komuntu nomuntu nasekuhlonipheni komhlaba.
[15] “Okujwayelekile, Ithangi Lakho Liyimoto Enamandla”, eshicilelwe ku Kusuka Kwempi Yempi yaseJalimane, ingxenye ye Izinkondlo ze-Svendborg (1939); njengoba ihunyushwe nguLee Baxandall ku Izinkondlo, 1913-1956, 289.
I-SOURCES 1914 Truck Christmas
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/197627.stm.
UBrown, uDavid. "Ukukhumbula Ukunqoba Komusa Womuntu - I-WWI's Puzzle emangalisayo, Iloli Likakhisimusi Elimnandi," The Washington Post, Disemba 25, 2004.
UBrown, uMalcolm noShirley Seaton. Iloli likaKhisimusi: I-Western Front, i-1914. ENew York: IHippocrene, i-1984.
Cleaver, Alan kanye Lesley Park. "I-Christmas Truck: Ukubuka Okujwayelekile," christmastruce.co.uk/article.html, efinyelele ngoNovemba 30, 2014.
UGilbert, uMartin. Impi Yezwe Yokuqala: Umlando Ophelele. ENew York: UHenry Holt noCo, 1994, 117-19.
UHochschild, u-Adamu. Ukuqeda Zonke Izimpi: Indaba Yobuqotho nokuvukela, 1914-1918. ENew York: Izincwadi Zama-Mariners, i-2012, i-130-32.
UVinciguerra, uThomas. "I-Truck of Christmas, 1914", I-New York Times, Disemba 25, 2005.
I-Weintraub, uStanley. Ubusuku Obu buthule: Indaba Yomlobi Wempi Yomhlaba wonke kaKhisimusi. ENew York: I-Free Press, i-2001.
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S. Brian Willson, brianwillson.com, Disemba 2, 2014, ilungu lama-Veterans For Peace Isahluko 72, ePortland, e-Oregon
