UHiroshima Ungamanga

NguDavid Swanson, World BEYOND War, Agasti 5, 2021

Ngo-2015, u-Alice Sabatini wayengumdlali owayeneminyaka engu-18 ubudala emncintiswaneni kaMiss Italia e-Italy. Wabuzwa ukuthi iyiphi inkathi yesikhathi esedlule ayengathanda ukuhlala kuyo. Waphendula wathi: WWII. Incazelo yakhe yayiwukuthi izincwadi zakhe zombhalo ziyaqhubeka nokuqhubeka ngakho, ngakho-ke angathanda ukuzibona empeleni, futhi bekungafanele alwe kuzo, ngoba abesilisa kuphela abakwenza lokho. Lokhu kwaholela ekuhlekisweni okukhulu. Ingabe wayefuna ukuqhunyiswa ngamabhomu noma ukubulawa indlala noma ukuthunyelwa ekamu lokuhlushwa? Wayeyini, uyisiphukuphuku? Umuntu othile wamthwebula wamfaka esithombeni noMussolini noHitler. Othile wenze isithombe samabutho abuka ilanga ebukela ogwini.[i]

Kepha kungenzeka yini ukuthi umuntu oneminyaka engu-18 ngonyaka ka-2015 alindeleke ukuthi azi ukuthi iningi lezisulu ze-WWII kwakungabantu nje - abesilisa nabesifazane nezingane ngokufanayo? Ubani owayengamtshela lokho? Impela akuzona izincwadi zakhe zombhalo. Ngokuqinisekile hhayi ukugcwala okungapheli kwesiko lakhe ngokuzijabulisa okunama-WWII. Iyiphi impendulo umuntu abecabanga ukuthi umncintiswano onjalo angahle awunikeze umbuzo abebuzwe wona, kuneWWII? Ngokwesiko lase-US futhi, elinomthelela omkhulu e-Italiya, ukugxila okuphezulu kwedrama nenhlekelele namahlaya nobuqhawe nenganekwane yomlando yiWWII. Khetha ababukeli abalinganiselwa ku-100 be-Netflix noma i-Amazon futhi ngiyaqiniseka ukuthi amaphesenti amaningi wabo azonikeza impendulo efanayo no-Alice Sabatini, okwathi, ngasendleleni, kwathiwa ungumnqobi womncintiswano, elungele ukumela lonke elase-Italy noma yini kwenziwa nguMiss Italia.

I-WWII ivame ukubizwa ngokuthi "impi enhle," futhi kwesinye isikhathi lokhu kucatshangwa njengokuphikisana phakathi kweWWII, impi enhle, neWWI, impi embi. Kodwa-ke, bekungathandwa ukubiza i-WWII ngokuthi "impi enhle" ngesikhathi noma ngemuva nje kwokwenzeka kwayo, lapho ukuqhathanisa ne-WWI bekuzoba lula kakhulu. Izici ezahlukahlukene kungenzeka zibe nomthelela ekukhuleni kokuthandwa kwaleyo nkulumo emashumini eminyaka, kufaka phakathi ukuqonda okwengeziwe ngokuQothulwa Kwesizwe (kanye nokungaqondi kahle ubudlelwane bempi nayo),[Ii] futhi, kunjalo, iqiniso lokuthi i-United States, ngokungafani nabanye ababambiqhaza abakhulu, ayizishayanga ngamabhomu noma yahlaselwa (kodwa lokho kuyiqiniso nangezinye izimpi eziningi zase-US). Ngicabanga ukuthi into enkulu empeleni yayiyimpi yaseVietnam. Ngenkathi leyompi yaya ngokuya incipha ukuthandwa, futhi njengoba imibono yayihlukaniswa ngokujulile yigebe lesizukulwane, ngokwehlukana phakathi kwalabo abake baphila ngeWWII nalabo ababengazange, abaningi bafuna ukuhlukanisa iWWII nempi yaseVietnam. Kusetshenziswa igama elithi "okuhle," kunokuthi "kulungisisiwe," noma "kuyadingeka," kungenzeka kwenziwa kwaba lula ngebanga ngesikhathi esivela eWWII, nangezinkulumo-ze zeWWII, eziningi zazo ezazenziwe (futhi ezisadaliwe) ngemuva kwesiphetho yeWWII. Ngoba ukuphikisana nazo zonke izimpi kubhekwa njengokweqisa nokukhohlisa, abagxeki bempi yaseVietnam bangabiza i-WWII ngokuthi "impi enhle" futhi basungule ubuhlakani nokulinganisela kwabo. Kwakungo-1970 lapho isazi sempi uMichael Walzer abhala nje iphepha lakhe, "IMpi Yezwe II: Kungani Le Mpi Yehlukile?" efuna ukuvikela umbono wempi elungile ukulwa nokungathandeki kwempi yaseVietnam. Nginikela ukuphika kulelo phepha eSahlukweni 17 se Ukushiya iMpi Yezwe II Ngemuva. Sibone into efana naleyo ngonyaka we-2002 kuya ku-2010 noma kunjalo, nabagxeki abaningi bempi e-Iraq begcizelela ukwesekwa kwabo ngempi yase-Afghanistan nokuhlanekezela amaqiniso ukwenza ngcono isithombe sale "mpi enhle" entsha. Angiqiniseki ukuthi abaningi, uma bekhona, bebengabiza i-Afghanistan impi enhle ngaphandle kwempi yase-Iraq noma babize iWWII impi enhle ngaphandle kwempi yaseVietnam.

NgoJulayi 2020, uMongameli wase-US uDonald Trump - ephikisa ukuthi amasosha ezempi ase-US aqanjwe ama-Confederates akufanele ashintshwe amagama abo - wamemezela ukuthi lezi zikhungo beziyingxenye "yezimpi ezinhle zomhlaba." Uthe: “Sinqobe izimpi ezimbili zomhlaba, izimpi zomhlaba ezimbili, izimpi ezinhle zomhlaba ezazinonya futhi zimbi.”[Iii] UTrump wawuthathaphi umqondo wokuthi izimpi zomhlaba zazizinhle, nokuthi ubuhle bazo babunobubi nokwesabeka? Mhlawumbe indawo efanayo eyenziwe ngu-Alice Sabatini: IHollywood. Kwakuyifilimu Saving Private Ryan okwaholela uMickey Z ngo-1999 ukubhala incwadi yakhe, Ayikho Impi Emihle: Izinganekwane zeMpi Yezwe II, ekuqaleni ngesihloko Ukonga Amandla Azimele: Umlando Ofihliwe Wempi "Emihle."

Ngaphambi kokubuyela emuva emshinini wesikhathi ukuze ngithole udumo lweWWII, ngincoma ukuthi kuthathwe ikhophi yencwadi kaStuds Terkel yango-1984, Impi Enhle: Umlando Womlomo weMpi Yezwe II.[Iv] Lawa ama-akhawunti wabantu bokuqala avela kuma-veteran we-WWII etshela izinkumbulo zabo eminyakeni engama-40 kamuva. Babesebasha. Babekwa ebuzalwaneni obungancintisani futhi bacelwa ukuba benze izinto ezinhle futhi babone izindawo ezinhle. Kwakumangalisa kakhulu. Kwakukhona ukubhema, nokufunga, notshwala ukuze ukwazi ukuzidubula ubhekise kubantu, nodlame olunonya ngenhloso elula yokusinda, kanye nezinqwaba zezidumbu emiseleni, nokuqapha okuhlala njalo, nokuzizwa unecala lokuziphatha okujulile, futhi ukwesaba, nokuhlukumezeka, futhi akukho mqondo wokuthi wenze isibalo sokuziphatha sokuthi ukubamba iqhaza kwakuthetheleleka - ukulalela okuyisimungulu okumhlophe okufanele kubuzwe futhi kuzisole ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Futhi kwakukhona ukuthanda izwe okuyisiphukuphuku kwabantu abangayibonanga impi yangempela. Futhi bebekhona bonke abantu abebengafuni ukubona abasindile abakhubazeke kabi kabi. "Luhlobo luni lwempi abantu abavamile abacabanga ukuthi sayilwa noma kunjalo?" kubuza umakadebona oyedwa.

Izinganekwane ezakha iningi labantu abaningi abacabanga ukuthi bazi ngeWWII azifani neqiniso, kepha zibeka engcupheni umhlaba wethu wangempela. Ngizihlola lezo zinganekwane ku Ukushiya iMpi Yezwe II Ngemuva, edalula iqiniso lokuthi i-United States nabanye ohulumeni bomhlaba benqabile ukusindisa labo abasongelwa ngokuqothulwa kohlanga ngamaNazi, ukuthi izishoshovu zazabalaza ngeze ukuze i-US ne-UK nabanye ohulumeni bathathe intshisekelo ekusindiseni izimpilo eziyizigidi; iqiniso lokuthi i-United States yangenela umjaho wezikhali nokucasula neJapan iminyaka futhi yafuna ukudala impi futhi ayimangazanga; ukuthi iNordic Race neminye imibono ye-eugenics esetshenziswe amaNazi yaqanjwa ikakhulukazi eCalifornia; ukuthi amaNazi afunda imithetho yokuhlukanisa e-United States futhi ayisebenzisa njengezibonelo; ukuthi uxhaso lwezinkampani zaseMelika kanye nempahla kwakudingeka impela emzamweni wempi wamaNazi; ukuthi ukuqothulwa kohlanga kwakuwumkhuba waseNtshonalanga wawungemusha neze; ukuthi impi ayikaze idinge ukwenzeka; ukuthi uhulumeni wase-US wayebheka iSoviet Union njengesitha esiyinhloko ngisho nalapho ihlangene nayo; ukuthi iSoviet Union yenza okukhulu kakhulu ukunqoba iJalimane; ukuthi ukungabi nodlame kwakuphumelela kakhulu kumaNazi; ukuthi kwakukhona ukumelana okuphawulekayo nempi e-United States; ukuthi ukusetshenziswa kwempi akuyona indlela engcono yokuthuthukisa umnotho; njll .; njll .; futhi akukho lutho esitshelwa ngalo ngoHiroshima oluyiqiniso.

Kunenganekwane yokuthi ngokubamba iqhaza kwi-WWII, i-United States yenzela umhlaba umusa wokuthi i-United States manje isingumnikazi womhlaba. Ngo-2013, uHillary Clinton wethula inkulumo kwababhange eGoldman Sachs lapho athi watshela iChina ukuthi ayinalungelo lokubiza iSouth China Sea ngokuthi iSouth China Sea, nokuthi i-United States empeleni ingathi ingumnikazi wayo yonke IPacific ngenxa yokuthi “wayikhulula” kwiWWII, futhi “wayithola” iJapane, futhi “wayithenga” iHawaii.[V] Angiqiniseki ukuthi ungakwenza kanjani okuhle lokho. Mhlawumbe ngingangeluleka ngibuze abanye abantu eJapan noma eHawaii ukuthi bacabangani. Kepha kubalulekile ukuthi wazi ukuthi bekungekho nhlekelele enkulu yokuhlekwa usulu kukaHillary Clinton wohlobo olutholwe ngu-Alice Sabatini. Kwakungekho ukuthukuthela komphakathi okuphawulekayo ngalesi sisho se-WWII ngenkathi kuba sesidlangalaleni ngo-2016.

Mhlawumbe izinganekwane eziyinqaba, nokho, yilezo eziphathelene nezikhali zenuzi, ikakhulukazi umqondo wokuthi ngokubulala inani elikhulu labantu abanenani elikhulu kakhulu lezimpilo, noma okungenani uhlobo olufanele lwezimpilo, kwasinda. Izinduna azisindisanga izimpilo. Bathathe izimpilo, mhlawumbe ama-200,000 abo. Babengahloselwe ukusindisa izimpilo noma ukuqeda impi. Futhi abayigqibanga impi. Ukuhlasela kweRussia kukwenzile lokho. Kepha impi yayizophela noma kunjalo, ngaphandle kwalezi zinto. I-United States Strategic Bombing Survey yaphetha ngokuthi, “… impela ngaphambi komhla zingama-31 kuZibandlela, 1945, futhi kungenzeka ukuthi ngaphambi komhla ka-1 Novemba, 1945, iJapane ngabe yazinikela noma ngabe amabhomu e-athomu ayengazange aphonswe, noma ngabe iRussia yayingazange impi, noma ngabe bekungekho ukuhlasela obekuhleliwe noma obekucatshangwa ngakho. ”[vi]

Umuntu ophikisayo owayeveze lo mbono ofanayo kuNobhala Wezempi futhi, nge-akhawunti yakhe, kuMongameli uTruman, ngaphambi kokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu kwakunguGeneral Dwight Eisenhower.[vii] Ngaphansi kukaNobhala weNavy Ralph Bard, ngaphambi kwamabhomu, wanxusa ukuthi iJapan inikezwe isexwayiso.[viii] U-Lewis Strauss, uMeluleki kaNobhala Wezasolwandle, naye ngaphambi kwamabhomu, uncoma ukuthi kuqhunyiswe ihlathi kunedolobha.[ix] Ngokuvamile uGeneral George Marshall wavumelana nalowo mbono.[X] Usosayensi we-athomu uLeo Szilard wahlela ososayensi ukuba banxuse umongameli ukuthi angalisebenzisi ibhomu.[xi] Usosayensi we-athomu uJames Franck wahlela ososayensi ababekhuthaza ukuphatha izikhali ze-athomu njengenkambiso yenqubomgomo yomphakathi, hhayi nje isinqumo samasosha.[xii] Omunye usosayensi, uJoseph Rotblat, wafuna iphele iManhattan Project, wasula lapho ingakapheli.[xiii] Inhlolovo yososayensi baseMelika ababesungule la mabhomu, eyathathwa ngaphambi kokuba bayisebenzise, ​​yathola ukuthi ama-83% ayefuna ibhomu lenuzi elikhonjiswe esidlangalaleni ngaphambi kokulahla elinye eJapan. Amasosha aseMelika ayigcina leyo mfihlo ye-poll.[xiv] UGeneral Douglas MacArthur wabamba isithangami nabezindaba ngo-Agasti 6, 1945, ngaphambi kokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu eHiroshima, ukumemezela ukuthi iJapan isishayiwe.[xv]

Usihlalo we-Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral uWilliam D. Leahy wathukuthela ngo-1949 wathi uTruman wayemqinisekisa ukuthi izisulu zamasosha kuphela ezizokwenqatshelwa, hhayi izakhamizi. “Ukusetshenziswa kwalesi sikhali esinonya eHiroshima naseNagasaki akusizanga ngalutho empini yethu neJapan. AmaJapan asevele enqotshiwe futhi esekulungele ukuzinikela, ”kusho uLeahy.[xvi] Izikhulu eziphezulu zamasosha ezathi ngemuva nje kwempi ukuthi amaJapan ngabe azinikele ngokushesha ngaphandle kwamabhomu enuzi afaka uGeneral Douglas MacArthur, uGeneral Henry “Hap” Arnold, uGeneral Curtis LeMay, uGeneral Carl “Tooey” Spaatz, u-Admiral Ernest King, u-Admiral Chester Nimitz , U-Admiral William “Bull” Halsey, noBrigadier General Carter Clarke. Njengoba u-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick bafingqa, izikhulu eziyisikhombisa kwezingu-1945 zase-United States ezazithola inkanyezi yazo yokugcina eMpini Yezwe II noma ngemuva nje - oGeneral MacArthur, u-Eisenhower no-Arnold, ne-Admirals Leahy, King, Nimitz, noHalsey - ngo-XNUMX wawunqaba umqondo wokuthi kwakudingeka amabhomu e-athomu ukuqeda impi. "Kuyadabukisa nokho ukuthi kuncane ubufakazi bokuthi balucindezela udaba lwabo noTruman ngaphambi kweqiniso."[xvii]

Ngo-Agasti 6, 1945, uMongameli uTruman waqamba amanga emsakazweni wathi ibhomu lenuzi lafakwa esikhungweni samasosha, hhayi edolobheni. Futhi wakuthethelela, hhayi njengokusheshisa ukuphela kwempi, kepha njengokuziphindisela emacaleni aseJapan. “Mnu. UTruman ubejabule, ”kubhala uDorothy Day. Emasontweni ambalwa ngaphambi kokuphonswa kwebhomu lokuqala, ngoJulayi 13, 1945, iJapan yayithumele yocingo eSoviet Union izwakalisa isifiso sayo sokunikela nokuqeda impi. I-United States yayiphule amakhodi aseJapan futhi yafunda le ngcingo. Encwadini yakhe yezenzakalo zansuku zonke uTruman wabhekisela “kuthelegramu evela kuJap Emperor ecela ukuthula.” UMongameli uTruman waziswa ngeziteshi zaseSwitzerland nezasePutukezi ngezivumelwano zokuthula zaseJapan ezinyangeni ezintathu ngaphambi kweHiroshima. IJapan yakwenqaba nje ukuzinikela ngaphandle kwemibandela nokunikela umbusi wayo, kepha iMelika yaphikelela kuleyo migomo kwaze kwaba ngemuva kokuwa kwamabhomu, lapho yavumela khona iJapane ukuthi igcine umbusi wayo. Ngakho-ke, isifiso sokulahla amabhomu kungenzeka ukuthi sayandisa impi. Amabhomu awazange ayifinyeze impi.[xviii]

Umeluleki kaMongameli uJames Byrnes wayetshele uTruman ukuthi ukulahla amabhomu kuzovumela i-United States ukuthi "inqume imigomo yokuqeda impi." UNobhala weNavy James Forrestal wabhala encwadini yakhe yezenzakalo zansuku zonke ukuthi uByrnes “wayekhathazeke kakhulu ngokuqeda izindaba zaseJapan ngaphambi kokuba abaseRussia bangene.” UTruman wabhala encwadini yakhe yezenzakalo zansuku zonke ukuthi abaseSoviet babelungiselela ukumasha beyohlasela iJapan kanye no “Fini Japs uma lokho kwenzeka.” Ukuhlasela kweSoviet kuhlelwe ngaphambi kwamabhomu, kunganqunywa yibo. Izwe laseMelika belingenazo izinhlelo zokuhlasela izinyanga, futhi alikho icebo esikalini lokubeka engcupheni inani lempilo othisha bezikole zaseMelika abazokutshela ukuthi usindisiwe.[xix] Umbono wokuthi ukuhlasela okukhulu kwe-US bekusondele futhi okuwukuphela kwendlela eya emadolobheni okuncisha, ukuze amadolobha okhukhulelangoqo asindise izimpilo ezinkulu zaseMelika, kuyinganekwane. Izazi-mlando ziyakwazi lokhu, njengoba bazi nje ukuthi uGeorge Washington wayengenamazinyo ngokhuni noma ehlale ekhuluma iqiniso, kanti noPaul Revere akazange agibele yedwa, futhi inkulumo kaPatrick Henry ephathelene nezigqila ngenkululeko yabhalwa emashumini eminyaka ngemuva kokufa kwakhe, noMolly I-Pitcher yayingekho.[xx] Kepha izinganekwane zinamandla azo. Ukuphila, ngasendleleni, akuyona impahla eyingqayizivele yamasosha ase-US. Abantu baseJapan nabo babenezimpilo.

UTruman wayalela ukuthi kuqhume amabhomu, elinye laya eHiroshima ngo-Agasti 6 nolunye uhlobo lwebhomu, ibhomu le-plutonium, amasosha nawo ayefuna ukulivivinya futhi alikhombise, eNagasaki ngo-Agasti 9th. Ibhomu laseNagasaki lisuswe lisuka kwabangu-11^th kuya ku-9^th ukunciphisa amathuba okuthi iJapan izinikele kuqala.[xxi] Futhi ngo-Agasti 9th, abaseSoviet bahlasela amaJapan. Emasontweni amabili alandelayo, abaseSoviet babulala amaJapan angama-84,000 ngenkathi belahlekelwa amasosha abo ayi-12,000, kwathi i-United States yaqhubeka nokuqhumisa iJapan ngezikhali ezingezona ezenuzi - zishisa amadolobha aseJapan, njengoba yayenzile kakhulu eJapan ngaphambi kuka-Agasti 6.^th ukuthi, lapho kufika isikhathi sokukhetha amadolobha amabili ukuba abe yi-nuke, bekungakabibikho abaningi abasele ukukhetha. Khona-ke amaJapane azinikela.

Ukuthi kunesizathu sokusebenzisa izikhali zenuzi kuyinganekwane. Ukuthi kungabuye kube nesizathu sokusebenzisa izikhali zenuzi kuyinganekwane. Ukuthi singasinda ekusebenziseni okukhulu kwezikhali zenuzi kuyinganekwane. Ukuthi kunesizathu sokukhiqiza izikhali zenuzi yize ungeke uzisebenzise kuyisiphukuphuku kakhulu ukuthi kungaba yinganekwane. Futhi ukuthi singasinda unaphakade futhi sibe nezikhali zenuzi ngaphandle kothile ozisebenzisile ngamabomu noma ngephutha kungumsangano omsulwa.[xxii]

Kungani othisha bezomlando base-US ezikoleni zamabanga aphansi zase-US namuhla - ngo-2021! - Tshela izingane ukuthi amabhomu enuzi ahlaselwa eJapan ukusindisa izimpilo - noma kunalokho "ibhomu" (ubunye) ukugwema ukukhuluma ngeNagasaki? Abaphenyi nosolwazi bathulule phezu kobufakazi iminyaka engama-75. Bayazi ukuthi uTruman wayazi ukuthi impi isiphelile, ukuthi iJapan ifuna ukuzinikela, nokuthi iSoviet Union isizongena. Babhale phansi konke ukumelana nokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu embuthweni wezempi wase-US kanye nohulumeni kanye nomphakathi wesayensi, kanye nesikhuthazo sokuhlola amabhomu okwenziwe umsebenzi omningi kangaka nezindleko, kanye nogqozi lokwesabisa umhlaba futhi ikakhulukazi abaseSoviet, kanye nokubeka okuvulekile nokungabi namahloni kwenani le-zero ezimpilweni zaseJapan. Kwenziwa kanjani izinganekwane ezinamandla kangaka ukuthi amaqiniso aphathwa njengamanyela epikinikini?

Encwadini kaGreg Mitchell ka-2020, Isiqalo noma Isiphetho: Indlela iHollywood - neMelika - Efunde ngayo ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhomu, sine-akhawunti yokwenziwa kwefilimu ye-MGM ka-1947, Ukuqala noma ukuphela, eyayakhiwe ngokucophelela nguhulumeni wase-US ukuthuthukisa amanga.[xxiii] Ifilimu yaqhuma ibhomu. Yalahlekelwa yimali. Umbono welungu lomphakathi wase-US ngokusobala bekungafanele ubuke umbhalo-mbumbulu omubi futhi oyisicefe nabalingisi abadlala ososayensi nabashushumbisi ababekhiqize uhlobo olusha lokubulawa kwabantu abaningi. Isenzo esikahle bekuwukugwema noma yimuphi umcabango walolu daba. Kepha labo abangakwazanga ukukugwema banikezwa inganekwane ecwebezelayo yesikrini esikhulu. Ungayibuka ku-inthanethi mahhala, futhi njengoba uMark Twain ayengasho, kufanelekile yonke imali.[xxiv]

Ifilimu ivula ngalokho uMitchell akuchaza njengokunikeza udumo e-UK naseCanada ngezindima zabo ekukhiqizeni umshini wokufa - okucatshangwa ukuthi kuyindida uma izindlela ezingezona zokunxenxa imakethe enkulu ye-movie. Kepha kubonakala sengathi kusola ngaphezu kokufaka imali. Lo ngumzamo wokusabalalisa icala. Ifilimu yeqa ngokushesha isola iJalimane ngokusongela okuseduze kokuqothula umhlaba uma i-United States ingazange iqale ngayo. (Ngempela ungaba nobunzima namuhla ukwenza abantu abasha bakholelwe ukuthi iJalimane izinikele ngaphambi kukaHiroshima, noma ukuthi uhulumeni wase-US wayazi ngo-1944 ukuthi iJalimane yayilahlile ucwaningo lwebhomu le-athomu ngo-1942.[xxv]Ngemuva kwalokho umlingisi owenza umbono omubi ka-Einstein usola uhlu olude lososayensi abavela kuwo wonke umhlaba. Ngemuva kwalokho omunye umuntu uphakamisa ukuthi abafana abalungile bayahlulwa empini futhi kungcono basheshe basungule amabhomu amasha uma befuna ukuwunqoba.

Ngokuphindaphindiwe sitshelwa ukuthi amabhomu amakhulu azoletha ukuthula futhi aqede impi. Umuntu ozenza ongeyena uFranklin Roosevelt uze enze isenzo sikaWoodrow Wilson, ethi ibhomu le-athomu lingaqeda zonke izimpi (into eyisimanga abantu abakholelwa ukuthi iyenzile, noma ngabe sekudlule iminyaka engu-75 yezimpi, abanye osolwazi baseMelika abayichaza njenge Ukuthula Okukhulu). Sitshelwa futhi siboniswa umbhedo owenziwe ngokuphelele, njengokuthi i-US ilahle amapheshana eHiroshima ukuxwayisa abantu (nangezinsuku eziyi-10 - "Lokho kuyizexwayiso zezinsuku eziyi-10 ukwedlula abasinikeze ePearl Harbor," isimemezelo somlingiswa) nokuthi AmaJapan adubule indiza njengoba isondela enhlosweni yayo. Eqinisweni, i-US ayikaze ilahle ipheshana elilodwa kuHiroshima kodwa - ngendlela enhle yeSNAFU - ilahle amathani amapheshana eNagasaki ngosuku olulandelayo ngemuva kokuqhunyiswa ngebhomu yiNagasaki. Futhi, iqhawe lebhayisikobho libulawa yingozi ngenkathi libambana nebhomu ukuze lilungele ukusetshenziswa - ukuzidela okunesibindi esenzela abantu egameni lezisulu zangempela zempi - amalungu amasosha aseMelika. Le filimu iphinde ithi abantu abaqhunyiswe ngamabhomu “ngeke bazi ukuthi babashayeleni,” yize abenzi bamafilimu bebazi ngokuhlupheka okubuhlungu kwalabo abafa kancane.

Ukuxhumana okukodwa okwenziwa ngabenzi bamabhayisikobho kuya kumxhumanisi wabo nakumhleli wabo, uGeneral Leslie Groves, kwafaka lawa magama: "Noma yikuphi okushiwo okwenza uMbutho ubukeke kuwubulima kuzosuswa."[xxvi]

Isizathu esiyisisekelo sokuthi le movie iyisicefe ebulalayo, ngicabanga ukuthi, ukuthi ama-movie awakaze ukulandelana kwezenzo zawo njalo ngonyaka iminyaka engama-75, afaka umbala, futhi aqamba zonke izinhlobo zamadivayisi okushaqisa, kodwa ukuthi isizathu sokuthi noma ngubani kufanele acabange ibhomu lelo izinhlamvu okukhulunywa ngazo kubo bonke ubude befilimu kuyindaba enkulu esele. Asiboni ukuthi kwenziwani, hhayi emhlabeni, kuphela kuvela esibhakabhakeni.

Incwadi kaMitchell ifana nokubuka isoseji eyenziwe, kepha futhi ifana nokufunda okubhaliwe okuvela ekomidini elihlanganisa ingxenye ethile yeBhayibheli. Lokhu kuyinsumansumane yemvelaphi yePhoyisa Lomhlaba jikelele ekwenzeni. Futhi kubi. Kubuhlungu impela. Umbono wale filimu uqhamuke kusosayensi owayefuna abantu baqonde ubungozi, hhayi ukudumisa imbubhiso. Lo sosayensi wabhalela uDonna Reed, le ntokazi enhle eshada noJimmy Stewart ku Kuyinto Life Amazing, Wathola ibhola ligingqika. Ngemuva kwalokho yagingqika yazonda isilonda esisheshayo izinyanga eziyi-15 kwathi i-voilà, kwavela i-cinematic turd.

Kwakungakaze kube khona umbuzo wokukhuluma iqiniso. Yi-movie. Uyazakha izinto. Futhi konke wakwenza ngendlela eyodwa. Umbhalo wale movie uqukethe ngezinye izikhathi zonke izinhlobo zombhedo ezingapheli, njengamaNazi anikeza amaJapane ibhomu le-athomu - kanye namaJapane akha ilabhorethri yososayensi bamaNazi, njengasemuva emhlabeni wangempela kulokhu isikhathi lapho amasosha ase-US ayesungula ama-laboratories ososayensi bamaNazi (ingasaphathwa eyokusebenzisa ososayensi baseJapan). Akukho kulokhu okuhlekisa ngaphezu kwe- Indoda Esigodlweni Esiphezulu, ukuthatha isibonelo sakamuva seminyaka engama-75 yalezi zinto, kepha lokhu bekusekuqaleni, lokhu bekuwusuku lokuqala. Umbhedo ongangenanga kule filimu, wonke umuntu akagcinanga ngokukholwa nokufundisa abafundi amashumi eminyaka, kepha ubengaba nakho kalula. Abenzi bamabhayisikobho banikeze ukulawula kokugcina emasosheni ase-US kanye naseWhite House, hhayi ososayensi ababenamahloni. Ama-bits amaningi amahle kanye nezinsimbi ezihlanyayo zazikhona okwesikhashana kuskripthi, kepha zakhishwa ngenxa yenkulumo-ze efanelekile.

Uma kukhona induduzo, bekungahle kube kubi kakhulu. UParamount ubesemncintiswaneni wamafilimu wezikhali zenuzi ne-MGM futhi waqasha u-Ayn Rand ukuthi aqambe umbhalo wongxiwankulu ongachemile. Umugqa wakhe wokuvala wawuthi "Umuntu angakwazi ukuhlanganisa indawo yonke - kodwa akekho ongabopha umuntu." Ngenhlanhla ngathi sonke, akuzange kuphumelele. Ngeshwa, yize kaJohn Hersey I-Bell ka-Adano ukuba yi-movie engcono kune Ukuqala noma ukuphela, incwadi yakhe ethengiswa kakhulu kwiHiroshima ayikhanga kunoma yiziphi iziteshi njengendaba enhle yokukhiqizwa kwama-movie. Ngeshwa, UDkt. Strangelove yayingeke ivele kuze kube ngo-1964, okuyisikhathi lapho abaningi babekulungele ukungabaza ukusetshenziswa “kwebhomu” esikhathini esizayo kodwa hhayi ukusetshenziswa kwangaphambilini, okwenza yonke imibuzo yokusetshenziswa kwesikhathi esizayo ibe buthakathaka. Lobu budlelwano nezikhali zenuzi buyafana nobezimpi jikelele. Umphakathi wase-US ungabuza zonke izimpi ezizayo, futhi ngisho nalezo zimpi kuzwakala ngazo eminyakeni engama-75 edlule, kepha hhayi iWWII, okwenza yonke imibuzo yezimpi zesikhathi esizayo ibe buthakathaka. Eqinisweni, ukuvota kwamuva kuthola ukuzimisela okwesabekayo ukuxhasa impi yenuzi yesikhathi esizayo ngumphakathi wase-US.

Ngaleso sikhathi Ukuqala noma ukuphela bekubhalwa futhi kufakwa isithombe, uhulumeni wase-US uthatha futhi ecasha yonke indawo okwakungatholakala kuyo imibhalo uqobo yezithombe noma yefilimu yezindawo zamabhomu. UHenry Stimson wayenomzuzu wakhe weColin Powell, eqhutshelwa phambili ukuthi enze leli cala ngokubhala phansi ngokuthi wehlise amabhomu. Amabhomu amaningi ayakhiwa ngokushesha futhi athuthukiswa, futhi bonke abantu baxoshwa emizini yabo yeziqhingi, baqamba amanga, futhi basebenza njengezimpawu zezindaba lapho bekhonjiswa khona njengababambiqhaza abajabule ekubhujisweni kwabo.

UMitchell ubhala ukuthi esinye sezizathu esenza iHollywood ihlehliselwe umbutho wezempi kwakuwukusebenzisa izindiza zayo, njll., Ekukhiqizeni, kanye nokusebenzisa amagama angempela abalingiswa abasendabeni. Ngikuthola kunzima kakhulu ukukholelwa ukuthi lezi zinto zazibaluleke kabi. Ngesabelomali esingenamkhawulo ibilahla le nto - kufaka phakathi ukukhokhela abantu ebibanika amandla okuvota - i-MGM ibingazenzela izixhumanisi zayo ezingathandeki neze ifu layo lamakhowe. Kumnandi ukucabanga ukuthi ngelinye ilanga labo abaphikisana nokubulawa kwabantu abaningi bangathatha into efana nesakhiwo esiyingqayizivele se-US Institute of “Peace” futhi badinge ukuthi iHollywood ihlangabezane nezindinganiso zokunyakaza ukuze iqophe lapho. Kepha-ke inhlangano yokuthula ayinayo imali, iHollywood ayinayo inzalo, futhi noma yisiphi isakhiwo singalingiswa kwenye indawo. IHiroshima ibingalingiswa kwenye indawo, futhi ku-movie ayiboniswanga nhlobo. Inkinga enkulu lapha kwakuyimibono nemikhuba yokuzithoba.

Kwakunezizathu zokwesaba uhulumeni. I-FBI ibihlola abantu abathintekayo, kufaka phakathi ososayensi abanesifiso esifana nesikaJ. Robert Oppenheimer abelokhu bebonisana ngale filimu, bekhala ngokubi kwayo, kepha bengalokothi baphikisane nayo. I-Red Scare entsha ibikhahlela nje. Abanamandla bebesebenzisa amandla abo ngezindlela ezejwayelekile ezijwayelekile.

Njengoba kukhiqizwa Ukuqala noma ukuphela imimoya eya ngasekuqedeni, yakha umfutho ofanayo owenziwe yibhomu. Ngemuva kwemibhalo eminingi kanye nezikweletu kanye nokubuyekezwa, nomsebenzi omningi nokuqabula izimbongolo, bekungekho ndlela isitudiyo ebesingeke sikwazi ukuyikhulula. Ekugcineni lapho iphuma, izethameli zazincane futhi izibuyekezo zaxubeka. New York nsuku zonke PM ngithole ifilimu ukuthi “iyangivuselela,” engicabanga ukuthi yiphuzu eliyisisekelo. Inhloso ifeziwe.

Isiphetho sikaMitchell ngukuthi ibhomu laseHiroshima "laliyisiteleka sokuqala," nokuthi iMelika kumele iqede inqubomgomo yayo yesiteleka sokuqala. Kepha-ke kwakungeyona into enjalo. Bekuyisiteleka kuphela, isiteleka sokuqala nesokugcina. Awekho amanye amabhomu enuzi abezobuya endiza "njengesiteleka sesibili." Manje, namuhla, ingozi ingeyokusetshenziswa ngengozi njengokusebenzisa ngamabomu, kungaba okokuqala, okwesibili, noma okwesithathu, futhi isidingo sokuthi ekugcineni sijoyine iningi lohulumeni bomhlaba abafuna ukuqeda izikhali zenuzi ndawonye - okuthi, Impela, kuzwakala kuhlanya kunoma ngubani oye wafaka ngaphakathi izinganekwane zeWWII.

Kunemisebenzi yobuciko engcono kakhulu kune Ukuqala noma ukuphela esingaphendukela kuyo ukuze siqhamuke nenganekwane. Ngokwesibonelo, I-Golden Age, inoveli eyashicilelwa nguGore Vidal ngo-2000 enezincomo ezikhazimulayo ngu Washington Post, futhi Ukubuyekezwa Kwezincwadi zeNew York Times, ayikaze yenziwe i-movie, kepha ixoxa indaba esondele kakhulu eqinisweni.[xxvii] In I-Golden Age, silandela ngemuva kwayo yonke iminyango evaliwe, njengoba iBrithani icindezela ukubandakanyeka kwe-US eMpini Yesibili Yomhlaba, njengoba uMongameli Roosevelt enza ukuzibophezela kuNdunankulu uChurchill, njengoba abashisekeli besebenzisa ingqungquthela yeRiphabhulikhi ukuze baqinisekise ukuthi zombili izinhlangothi zikhetha abazongenela ukhetho ngo-1940 ukukhankasela ukuthula ngenkathi uhlela impi, njengoba uRoosevelt efisa ukusebenzela ihlandla lesithathu elingakaze libonwe njengomongameli ngesikhathi sempi kepha kumele azenelise ngokuqala ukubhala nokukhankasela ukuba ngumongameli wesikhathi sokubhalwa ngesikhathi esengozini kazwelonke, futhi njengoba uRoosevelt esebenza ukucasula IJapan ihlasele esimisweni sayo esifunayo.

Bese kuba khona isazi-mlando kanye nencwadi endala yomlobi weWWII uHoward Zinn's 2010, Ibhomu.[xxviii] UZinn uchaza ezempi zase-US ezisebenzisa okokuqala i-napalm ngokuyilahla kulo lonke idolobha laseFrance, ashise noma ngubani nanoma yini ethintekayo. UZinn ubekwenye yezindiza, ebambe iqhaza kuleli cala elinyantisayo. Maphakathi no-Ephreli 1945, impi yaseYurophu yayisiphelile. Wonke umuntu wayazi ukuthi kuyaphela. Kwakungekho sizathu sempi (uma leso singesona i-oxymoron) sokuhlasela amaJalimane ayemi ngaseRoyan, eFrance, ingasaphathwa eyokushisa abesilisa, abesifazane nezingane baseFrance edolobheni. AbaseBrithani base bevele sebelibhubhisile leli dolobha ngoJanuwari, ngokufanayo baliqhumisa ngamabhomu ngenxa yokuthi liseduze namasosha aseJalimane, kulokho okwakubizwa kabanzi ngokuthi iphutha elibi. Leli phutha elibuhlungu lalinganiswa njengengxenye engenakugwenywa yempi, njengoba nje nokuqhuma komlilo okwethusayo okwafinyelela ngempumelelo izinhloso zaseJalimane, njengoba kwaba njalo ngokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu kamuva kukaRoyan nge-napalm. UZinn usola i-Supreme Allied Command ngokufuna ukwengeza "ukunqoba" emasontweni okugcina empi esivele iwine. Usola izifiso zabaphathi bamasosha bendawo. Usola isifiso seAmerican Air Force sokuhlola isikhali esisha. Futhi usola wonke umuntu obandakanyekayo - okumele azifake yena - “ngezisusa ezinamandla ukwedlula zonke: umkhuba wokulalela, imfundiso yendawo yonke yamasiko onke, ukungaphumi emgqeni, ngisho nokucabanga ngalokho okungakaze ababelwe ukuba bacabange ngakho, isisusa esibi sokungabi nasizathu noma intando yokulamula. ”

Lapho uZinn ebuya empini eYurophu, wayelindele ukuthi uzothunyelwa empini ePacific, aze abone futhi ajabule lapho ebona izindaba zebhomu le-athomu liwela eHiroshima. Ngemuva kweminyaka kuphela lapho uZinn eqonda khona ubugebengu obungenakuthethelelwa bokulingana okukhulu okwakukhona ukwehla kwamabhomu enuzi eJapan, izenzo ezifanayo nangezindlela ezithile zokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu okokugcina kukaRoyan. Impi neJapan ibisivele iphelile, amaJapan efuna ukuthula futhi ezimisele ngokuzinikela. IJapan yacela kuphela ukuthi ivunyelwe ukugcina umbusi wayo, isicelo esanikezwa kamuva. Kepha, njenge-napalm, amabhomu enuzi kwakuyizikhali ezazidinga ukuhlolwa.

UZinn naye ubuyela emuva ukuqaqa izizathu ezinganekwane ezenziwa i-United States empini ekuqaleni. I-United States, iNgilandi neFrance kwakungamandla ombuso ayesekela ukuhlukunyezana komunye nomunye ezindaweni ezinjengePhilippines. Bamelene ngokufanayo neJalimane neJapan, kepha hhayi ubudlova uqobo. Iningi le-tin nenjoloba yaseMelika yavela eSouthwest Pacific. Izwe laseMelika likucacisile iminyaka eminingi ukungakhathali kwamaJuda ahlaselwa eJalimane. Iphinde yakhombisa ukungabibikho kwayo kokuphikisana nokucwasa ngokobuhlanga ngokwelashwa kwayo ngabantu base-Afrika baseMelika nabaseJapan baseMelika. UFranklin Roosevelt uchaze imikhankaso yokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu ngamafasistiya ezindaweni zomphakathi "njengesihluku esingenabuntu" kodwa waphinde wenza okufanayo ngezinga elikhulu emadolobheni aseJalimane, okwalandelwa ukubhujiswa ngezinga elingakaze libonwe eHiroshima naseNagasaki - izenzo ezafika ngemuva kweminyaka ukwehlisa isithunzi samaJapane. Ngokwazi ukuthi impi ingaphela ngaphandle kokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu, futhi azi ukuthi iziboshwa zempi zase-US zizobulawa yibhomu eliwele eNagasaki, amasosha ase-US aqhubeka aphonsa amabhomu.

Ukuhlanganisa nokuqinisa zonke izinganekwane ze-WWII kuyinsumansumane ethi uTed Grimsrud, elandela uWalter Wink, ayibize “ngenganekwane yodlame lokuhlenga,” noma “inkolelo eyinkohliso yokuthi singathola 'insindiso' ngodlame.” Njengomphumela wale nsumansumane, kubhala uGrimsrud, “Abantu emhlabeni wanamuhla (njengasendulo), futhi hhayi abantu baseMelika, babeka ukholo olukhulu ezintweni zodlame ukuhlinzeka ukuphepha kanye nethuba lokunqoba phezu kwezitha zabo. Inani labantu abathenjwayo abafaka izinsimbi ezinjalo lingabonakala ngokucacile enanini lezinsizakusebenza abazinikela ekulungiseleleni impi. ”[xxix]

Abantu abakhethi ngokukholelwa ukukholelwa ezinganekwaneni zeWWII nodlame. UGrimsrud uyachaza: “Ingxenye yokuphumelela kwale nkolelo-ze kubangelwa ukungabonakali kwayo njengenganekwane. Sivame ukucabanga ukuthi udlame luyingxenye yesimo sezinto; sibona ukwamukelwa kodlame kuyiqiniso, hhayi ngokususelwa enkolelweni. Ngakho-ke asizazi ngobukhulu bokholo lokwamukela kwethu udlame. Sicabanga thina ukwazi njengeqiniso elilula lokuthi udlame luyasebenza, ukuthi udlame luyadingeka, ukuthi ubudlova abunakugwemeka. Asazi ukuthi esikhundleni salokho sisebenza endaweni yenkolelo, yezinganekwane, yezenkolo, maqondana nokwamukelwa kodlame. ”[xxx]

Kuthatha umzamo ukubalekela inganekwane yodlame lokuhlenga, ngoba belukhona kusukela ebuntwaneni: “Izingane zizwa indaba elula emakhathuni, emidlalweni yevidiyo, kumamuvi, nasezincwadini: silungile, izitha zethu zimbi, ukuphela kwendlela yokubhekana ngobubi ukuyinqoba ngodlame, ake siqhubeke.

Inganekwane yodlame lokuhlenga ixhumanisa ngqo nobukhulu bezwe lesizwe. Inhlalakahle yesizwe, njengoba ichazwa ngabaholi bayo, imi njengenani eliphakeme kakhulu lokuphila lapha emhlabeni. Akunakubakho onkulunkulu ngaphambi kwesizwe. Le nganekwane ayizange nje isungule inkolo yokushisekela izwe enhliziyweni yombuso, kepha futhi inikeza isigwebo saphezulu sokweyisa imperialistic. . . . Impi Yomhlaba Yesibili kanye nemiphumela yayo eqondile yasheshisa kakhulu ukuvela kwe-United States yaba umphakathi wezempi futhi. . . lempi ithembele enganekwaneni yodlame lokuhlenga ngokuzondla kwayo. AbaseMelika bayaqhubeka nokwamukela inganekwane yodlame lokuhlenga noma ngabe babhekene nobufakazi obandayo bokuthi impi yayo eyaba nomphumela yonakalise intando yeningi yaseMelika futhi icekela phansi umnotho wezwe kanye nemvelo engokomzimba. . . . Muva nje ngasekupheleni kwawo-1930, ukusetshenziswa kwezempi kwamasosha aseMelika kwakuncane futhi kunamandla amakhulu kwezepolitiki aphikisana nokubandakanyeka 'ekuthandweni kwamanye amazwe'. ”[xxxi]

Ngaphambi kweWWII, uGrimsrud uyaphawula, “lapho iMelika yayihileleka empini yezempi. . . ekupheleni kwengxabano isizwe sehliswa isithunzi. . . . Kusukela ngeMpi Yesibili Yomhlaba, akukaze kube nokuncishiswa okuphelele ngoba sisuke ngqo eMpini Yezwe II saya eMpini Yomshoshaphansi saya eMpini Yezobuphekula. Okusho ukuthi, sesingene esimeni lapho 'zonke izikhathi zikhona ngezikhathi zempi.' . . . Kungani abantu abangewona ama-elite, abathwala izindleko ezimbi ngokuhlala emphakathini wezimpi unomphela, bethobela leli lungiselelo, noma ezimeni eziningi benikela ngokusekelwa okukhulu? . . . Impendulo ilula: isithembiso sensindiso. ”[xxxii]

[i] USabatini ugcine ephethwe yingcindezelo, ukwethuka, nempilo engeyinhle. Bona uLuana Rosato, Iphephandaba, “UMiss Italia, u-Alice Sabatini: 'Dopo la vittoria sono caduta in depressione',” Januwari 30, 2020, https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/miss-italia-alice-sabatini-vittoria-depressione-1818934 .html

[Ii] UGeoffrey Wheatcroft, I-Guardian, "Inganekwane Yempi Elungile," ngoDisemba 9, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2014/dec/09/-sp-myth-of-the-good-war

[Iii] I-Raw Story, i-YouTube.com, "UTrump uhlekisa ngokuqamba kabusha izisekelo ze-Confederate ngokusikisela ukuthi ziqanjwe ngo-Al Sharpton," ngoJulayi 19, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D7Qer5K3pw4&feature=emb_logo

[Iv] Izikole zaseTelkel, Impi Ehle: Umlando Wezwi Elimlomo WeMpi Yezwe II (I-New Press, i-1997).

[V] I-WikiLeaks, “Izinkulumo Ezikhokhelwayo ze-HRC,” https://wikileaks.org/podesta-emails/emailid/927

[vi] Ucwaningo Lwamabhomu AseMelika: Impi YaseJapan Yokuqeda Impi, ngoJulayi 1, 1946, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/united-states-strategic-bombing-survey-japans-struggle-end- war? documentid = NA & pagenumber = 50

[vii] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 164.

[viii] Imemorandamu yeBard, ngoJuni 27, 1945, http://www.dannen.com/decision/bardmemo.html

[ix] UChristian Kriticos, The Millions, "Isimemo Sokuzindela: UJohn Hersey's 'Hiroshima' at 70,” Agasti 31, 2016, https://themillions.com/2016/08/invitation-hesitate-john-herseys-hiroshima.html

[X] UChristian Kriticos, The Millions, "Isimemo Sokuzindela: UJohn Hersey's 'Hiroshima' at 70,” Agasti 31, 2016, https://themillions.com/2016/08/invitation-hesitate-john-herseys-hiroshima.html

[xi] Isicelo sikaLeo Szilard kuMongameli, https://www.atomicarchive.com/resource/documents/manhattan-project/szilard-petition.html

[xii] Umbiko weKomidi Lezinkinga Zezepolitiki Nezenhlalo, https://www.atomicarchive.com/resource/documents/manhattan-project/franck-report.html

[xiii] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 144.

[xiv] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 161.

[xv] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 166.

[xvi] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 176.

[xvii] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), amakhasi 176-177. Incwadi ithi isithupha kwabayisikhombisa, kunokuba sithi ayisikhombisa kwabayisishiyagalombili. UKuznick ungitshela ukuthi ekuqaleni akazange afake uHalsey ngoba wathola inkanyezi yakhe ngemuva kokuphela kwempi.

[xviii] Ngethuba lokushintsha imigomo yokuzinikela nokuqeda impi ngaphambi kwamabhomu enuzi, bheka u-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), amakhasi 146-149.

[xix] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 145.

[xx] URay Raphael, Ukusungula Izinganekwane: Izindaba Ezifihla Umlando Wethu Wobuzwe (I-New Press, i-2014).

[xxi] UGreg Mitchell, Isiqalo noma Isiphetho: Indlela iHollywood - neMelika - Efunde ngayo ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhomu (I-New Press, i-2020).

[xxii] U-Eric Schlosser, I-Command and Control: I-Nuclear Weapons, i-Danger yaseDamaseku, ne-Illusion of Safety (Izincwadi zePenguin, 2014).

[xxiii] UGreg Mitchell, Isiqalo noma Isiphetho: Indlela iHollywood - neMelika - Efunde ngayo ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhomu (I-New Press, i-2020).

[xxiv] "Isiqalo Noma Ukuphela = Ifilimu Elijwayelekile," https://archive.org/details/TheBeginningOrTheEndClassicFilm

[xxv] U-Oliver Stone noPeter Kuznick, Umlando Ongaziwa we-United States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 144.

[xxvi] UGreg Mitchell, Isiqalo noma Isiphetho: Indlela iHollywood - neMelika - Efunde ngayo ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhomu (I-New Press, i-2020).

[xxvii] UGore Vidal, IGolden Age: Inoveli (Umvini, 2001).

[xxviii] UHoward Zinn, Ibhomu (Izincwadi zeCity Lights, 2010).

[xxix] UTed Grimsrud, Impi Enhle Ebingeyona nokuthi Kungani Ibalulekile: Ifa Lokuziphatha Lempi Yezwe II (Izincwadi zeCascade, 2014), amakhasi 12-17.

[xxx] UTed Grimsrud, Impi Enhle Ebingeyona nokuthi Kungani Ibalulekile: Ifa Lokuziphatha Lempi Yezwe II (Izincwadi zeCascade, 2014).

[xxxi] UTed Grimsrud, Impi Enhle Ebingeyona nokuthi Kungani Ibalulekile: Ifa Lokuziphatha Lempi Yezwe II (Izincwadi zeCascade, 2014).

[xxxii] UTed Grimsrud, Impi Enhle Ebingeyona nokuthi Kungani Ibalulekile: Ifa Lokuziphatha Lempi Yezwe II (Izincwadi zeCascade, 2014).