Nakulokhu, u-Barack Obama, umholi wezempi onamandla kunawo wonke emhlabeni, uye wasakaza isimangalo esiyiphutha ngomsuka wempi.
Ibhalwe nguJohn Horgan, iScientific American
Nakulokhu, uBarack Obama, umholi wezempi onamandla kunabo bonke emhlabeni, uye wasakaza isimangalo esiyiphutha ngomsuka wempi.
Ekhuluma eHiroshima ngoMeyi 27, uMongameli uthi: “Izinto zobuciko zisitshela ukuthi ingxabano enobudlova yavela kumuntu wokuqala ngqa.” Uyanezela, iMpi Yezwe II “yaphuma esizindeni esifanayo ukukhanya ngenxa yokubusa noma ukunqoba okwakubangele izingxabano phakathi kwezizwe ezivamile.” [Omalukeke banezelwe.] Nini ukwamukela iNobel Peace Prize ngo-2009, uMongameli wenza izimangalo ezifanayo. “Impi,” esho, “ngesimo esithile noma esinye, yabonakala nomuntu wokuqala.”
U-Obama wamukele umbono odumile wokuthi impi—hhayi nje ulaka, noma ubudlova obuphakathi kwabantu, kodwa obubulalayo iqembu ukungqubuzana-kugxilile ekuziphendukeleni kwemvelo kanye nemvelo yethu. Le thesis iye yasakazwa ososayensi abavelele njengalokhu UJared Diamond, uRichard Wrangham, u-Edward Wilson futhi, ikakhulukazi, isazi sokusebenza kwengqondo uSteven Pinker.
Njengobufakazi, ama-deep-rooters ayacaphuna udlame lweqembu lezimfene, abazala bethu bofuzo, kanye "nabokuqala" abantu bezizwe ezifana namaYanomamo, abazingeli abahlala emahlathini emvula ase-Amazonia.
"Chimpicide," kubhala u-Pinker encwadini yakhe edayisa kakhulu ngo-2002 Isileyiti Esingenalutho, “iphakamisa ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi amandla okuziphendukela kwemvelo, hhayi nje izinkolelo-ze zesiko elithile, asilungiselela ubudlova.” Emsebenzini wakhe ka-2011 Izingelosi Ezingcono Zemvelo Yethu, u-Pinker ugomela ngokuthi “ukugasela nokuxabana okungapheli kubonisa ukuphila esimweni semvelo.”
In Angels, u-Pinker ugomela ngokuthi impucuko, ikakhulukazi njengoba iqukethwe yizifunda zasentshonalanga, zangemuva kokuKhanyiswa, isisiza ukuba sinqobe imvelo yethu enonya. Lokhu kubuka kwezwe kwamaHobbesian kuholela u-Pinker ekweqiseni udlame lwabantu bangaphambi komlando, abantu bezizwe kanye nokululaza udlame lwezifundazwe zesimanje, ikakhulukazi i-US.
Ubuningi bobufakazi bubonisa ukuthi impi, kunokuba ibe ukuziphatha kwasendulo, okwazalwa, yayiyintsha yamasiko—“into esunguliwe,” njengoba isazi sesayensi yabantu uMargaret Mead sakubeka-lokho okuvele kamuva nje emlandweni wethu, ngasekupheleni kwenkathi ye-Paleolithic.
Insalela endala ecacile yodlame lweqembu ithuna labantu abaningi esifundeni sase-Jebel Sahaba eSudan. Ithuna liqukethe amathambo angama-59, angama-24 awo anezimpawu zodlame, njengamaphoyinti ashunyekiwe. Amathambo alinganiselwa eminyakeni engu-13,000 ubudala.
Ezinye izimpawu zodlame lwe iyiphi uhlobo olusukela eminyakeni engaphezu kuka-10,000 luyivelakancane. In 2013, izazi ze-anthropologists u-Jonathan Haas no-Matthew Piscitelli benza ukubuyekezwa kwe-hominid kuhlala kuneminyaka eyi-10,000 ubudala, kuhlanganise namathambo angaphezu kuka-2,900 avela ezindaweni ezingaphezu kuka-400 ezihlukahlukene. I-Haas ne-Piscitelli itholwe kuphela ezine amathambo anezimpawu zodlame
Uma sibala i-Jebel Sahaba, lokho kufika ezingeni lokufa ngobudlova elingaphansi kwephesenti elilodwa. Pinker, ngo Izingelosi ezingcono, ilinganisela izinga lokufa okunobudlova phakathi kwabantu bangaphambi komlando at 15 amaphesenti, ephakeme kakhulu kunamazinga obudlova omhlaba wonke ngisho nangesikhathi sokuchitheka kwegazi okungama-20th Ikhulu leminyaka.
Isilinganiso sikaPinker siphinde siphikiswe ngu ucwaningo lwakamuva olwenziwe eJapane. Izazi eziyisithupha ezaziholwa uHisashi Nakao zahlola izinsalela zabazingeli abangabaqoqi abangu-2,582 12,000 ababephila eminyakeni engu-2,800 23 kuya kwezingu-XNUMX XNUMX edlule, phakathi nesikhathi esibizwa ngokuthi i-Jomon Period. Abacwaningi bathole izingebhezi ezingene ngaphakathi namanye amamaki ahambisana nokufa okunodlame emathanjeni angama-XNUMX, izinga lokufa elingaphansi kwephesenti elilodwa.
Ngisho nalesi silinganiso singase sibe phezulu, abacwaningi bayaphawula, ngoba okunye ukulimala kungenzeka kubangelwe izilwane ezinkulu noma izingozi. Ngokuphawulekayo, ithimba alitholanga zimpawu zodlame kumathambo kusukela esikhathini esibizwa ngokuthi i-Initial Jomon Period, eyadonsa kusukela eminyakeni eyi-12,000 kuya kweziyi-7,000 edlule.
"Siphikisa ngokuthi impi yayingajwayelekile kubazingeli besikhathi sikaJomon," Kusho uNakao nozakwabo. Banezela, ukuhlola kwabo kuphikisana nenkolelo yokuthi “impi itholakala emvelweni yomuntu.”
Ngisho nangemva kokuba abantu bezishiyile izindlela zabo zokuzulazula eJapane nakwezinye izindawo, impi yavela kancane kancane futhi ngezikhathi ezithile, ngokusho kwesazi se-anthropologist uBrian Ferguson. Abazingeli-abaqoqi baqala ukuzinza eSouthern Levant eminyakeni eyi-15,000 edlule, futhi inani labantu lakhula ngemuva kokuvela kwezolimo eminyakeni eyi-11,000 edlule.
Kepha abukho ubufakazi obubalulekile bezimpi eSouthern Levant kuze kube cishe eminyakeni eyi-5,500 edlule, amanothi kaFerguson. Leli phethini, futhi,iphikisana nenkolelo yokuthi impi yayigcwele abantu bokuqala.
Kanjalo nocwaningo lwemiphakathi elula yabazingeli eqhubekile yaze yafika esikhathini samanje. Izigameko ezingachazwa njengodlame lweqembu (“ngeqembu” elichazwa ngokuthi abantu ababili noma ngaphezulu) zenzeke emiphakathini eyisithupha kuphela kwengama-21, ngokusho kwezazi ze-anthropologists uDouglas Fry noPatrik Soderberg. Lokhu okutholakele “kuyangqubuzana nokugomela kwamuva kokuthi [abazingeli nabaqoqi] bahlanganyela njalo empini yomfelandawonye namanye amaqembu.”
U-Pinker uyagcizelela—kamuva nje ukuqhuma kimi nakwabanye abagxeki bethiyori yezimpande ezijulile-ukuthi ngoba impi izalwa akusho ukuthi ayinakugwenywa. Enkulumweni yakhe ka-Hiroshima, u-Obama naye ubonakala, ngokukha phezulu, ephika i-genetic determinism. Uthi: “Asiboshiwe ngofuzo ukuba siphinde amaphutha esikhathi esidlule. “Singafunda. Singakhetha.”
Kodwa funda kahle inkulumo ka-Obama. Unethemba hhayi lokuqedwa kwempi kodwa lezikhali zenuzi kuphela, futhi mhlawumbe hhayi “esikhathini sokuphila kwami.” Akalisho elakhe icebo ukulungisa kabusha i-arsenal yase-US.
Naphezu kwayo yonke inkulumo yakhe eyakhayo, u-Obama ukuphindaphinda lokho akusho ngo-2009: “Kufanele siqale ngokuvuma iqiniso eliqinile: Ngeke sikuqede ukungqubuzana okunodlame ekuphileni kwethu. Kuyoba nezikhathi lapho izizwe—ezisebenza ngazodwana noma ekhonsathini—ziyothola ukusetshenziswa kwamandla kungadingeki nje kuphela kodwa kufanele ngokokuziphatha.”
Yingakho ithiyori ye-deep-roots inobuqili. Akukhona nje kuphela ukuthi ayinakho ukwesekwa ngokwamandla. Kwenza futhi abantu bangabi nathemba ngokuthula. Kusukela ngo-2003, ngibuze izinkulungwane zabantu ukuthi impi iyoke iphele yini, futhi cishe wonke umuntu uthi cha. Ama-pessimists avame ukuvikela umbono wabo ngenye inguqulo yesimangalo se-deep-roots.
Cabangela lezi zingcaphuno ezivela kuzikhulu zezempi zase-US ezisezikhundleni eziphezulu. OwayenguNobhala Wezokuvikela uDonald Rumsfeld uthi encwadini ka-Errol Morris ka-2013 Akwaziwa Uyaziwa: “Njengoba injalo imvelo yomuntu, ngiyesaba ukuthi kuzofanele siqhubeke nokucela izinsizwa nezintombi ukuthi zize zizokhonza izwe lethu.”
UGeneral James Mattis, owayeyinhloko ye-US Central Command, uthe emhlanganweni Ngafunda ngo-2010: “Imvelo yomuntu ayikashintshi, ngeshwa. Futhi ngeke kushintshe noma kunini maduze, angicabangi. Ngakho-ke kuzofanele silungele ukulwa, kulo lonke uhla lwezempi, noma yini isitha esikhetha ukuyenza. ”
Kamuva ingxoxo noJeffrey Goldberg ku I-Atlantic, u-Obama ukhombisa ubuhlakani, ukucabangela kanye nesizotha okuholele ukuthi mina nabanye abavoti abaningi sibe nethemba elikhulu ngobumongameli bakhe. Kodwa futhi ukhombisa ukuthambekela okukhathazayo, njengo-Pinker, ukusola impi "ngobuzwe" nokunganaki indima yezempi yase-US.
U-Obama usengaba umholi omkhulu wokuthula. Njengesinyathelo sokuqala, kufanele acabangele ezinye izindlela esikhundleni sethiyori ejulile yempi. Angase ahloleUmlando Wezimpi nguJohn Keegan, ngokungangabazeki isazi-mlando sempi sesimanje esikhulu kunazo zonke. U-Keegan uthi imbangela eyinhloko yempi akuyona "imvelo yomuntu" noma ukuncintisana kwezinsiza kodwa "isikhungo sempi ngokwaso. "
Like owamandulele uJimmy Carter, u-Obama angase futhi acabange ukuthi kungenzeka ukuthi impi yase-US yenza umonakalo omkhulu kunokuhle. Angase aphakamise nezindlela i-US engawuhlehlisa ngayo lowo mkhuba, mhlawumbe ngokunqamula isabelomali sayo sezempi esikhukhumele, imise ukubulawa kwabantu ngama-drone kanye nokumisa ucwaningo mayelana nokudayiswa kwezikhali.
Okubaluleke kakhulu, njengoJohn F. Kennedy, u-Obama kufanele amemezele ukuthi ukuthula kungenzeka-hhayi esikhathini esizayo esikude kodwa maduze. Isinyathelo sokuqala sokuqeda impi ukukholelwa ukuthi singayenza.
