U-General Philip Sheridan, ebhubhise epulazini eVirginia ngesikhathi seMpi Yombango, wabhubhisa izinkomo ze-bison zaseMelika njengendlela yokuvimbela amaMelika aseMelika ukubhuka. Impi Yezwe I yabona izwe laseYurophu libhujiswa ngamagxolo kanye negesi enobuthi. Phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, abaseNorway baqala ukuzamazama komhlaba ezigodini zabo, kuyilapho amaDutch egcwele ingxenye yesithathu yepulazi lawo, amaJalimane achitha amahlathi aseCzech, kanti abaseBrithani bashisa amahlathi eJalimane naseFrance.
Izimpi eminyakeni yamuva nje zenze izindawo ezinkulu zingahlali abantu futhi zaveza amashumi ezigidi zababaleki. Impi “imbangi yezifo ezithathelwanayo njengembangela yokugula nokufa emhlabeni wonke,” ngokusho kukaJennifer Leaning weHarvard Medical School. Ukuncika kuhlukanisa umthelela wempi kwezemvelo ezindaweni ezine: “ukukhiqizwa nokuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi, ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu asemoyeni nawasolwandle, ukusatshalaliswa nokuphikelela kwezimayini zomhlaba kanye nomyalo wokungcwatshwa, nokusetshenziswa noma ukugcinwa kwabaphathi bamasosha, ubuthi nodoti.”
Ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi okwenziwa yi-United States neSoviet Union kwabandakanya okungenani izivivinyo zasemkhathini ezingama-423 phakathi kuka-1945 no-1957 kanye no-1,400 ukuhlolwa komhlaba phakathi kuka-1957 no-1989. Umonakalo ovela kuleyo radiation awukaziwa ngokugcwele, kepha usabhebhetheka njengamanje ulwazi lwesikhathi esedlule. Ucwaningo olusha ngo-2009 lwaphakamisa ukuthi izivivinyo zenuzi zaseChina phakathi kuka-1964 no-1996 zabulala abantu abaningi ngqo kunokuhlolwa kwenuzi kwanoma yisiphi esinye isizwe. UJun Takada, isazi se-physics saseJapan, ubala ukuthi abantu abangafika ezigidini eziyi-1.48 badalulwe ukuwa futhi abayi-190,000 babo kungenzeka ukuthi babulawa yizifo ezixhumene nemisebe evela kulezo zivivinyo zaseChina. E-United States, ukuhlolwa ngawo-1950 kwaholela ezinkulungwaneni ezingenakubalwa zabantu ababulawa ngumdlavuza eNevada, e-Utah, nase-Arizona, okuyizindawo ezinomoya ophansi kakhulu kusukela ekuhlolweni.
Ngo-1955, isihlabani sebhayisikobho uJohn Wayne, owayegwema ukubamba iqhaza eMpini Yesibili Yomhlaba ngokukhetha ukwenza ama-movie adumisa impi, wanquma ukuthi kufanele adlale uGenghis Khan. UMnqobi waqoshwa e-Utah, futhi umnqobi wanqotshwa. Kubantu abangu-220 abebesebenza kule filimu, ekuqaleni kweminyaka yama-1980 abayi-91 kubo babengenwe ngumdlavuza kanti abangu-46 babulawa yiwo, kubalwa uJohn Wayne, Susan Hayward, Agnes Moorehead, nomqondisi uDick Powell. Izibalo zikhomba ukuthi abangu-30 kwabangu-220 kungenzeka ukuthi bathole umdlavuza, hhayi abangama-91. Ngo-1953 amasosha ayevivinye amabhomu e-athomu ayi-11 aseduze naseNevada, kwathi ngawo-1980 isigamu sabantu baseSt. George, Utah, lapho ifilimu yadutshulwa khona, base umdlavuza. Ungabalekela impi, kepha awukwazi ukufihla.
Amasosha awazi ukuthi ukukhishwa kwenukliya kuzoba nethonya labo labo, futhi bahlolisise imiphumela, bahlanganyele ngokuphumelelayo ekuhlolweni kwabantu. Kwezinye izifundo eziningi phakathi namashumi eminyaka emva kweMpi Yezwe II, ngokuphula umthetho we-Nuremberg we-1947, amasosha kanye ne-CIA baye bafaka izigameko zezilwane, iziboshwa, abampofu, abakhubazekile ngengqondo, kanye nabanye abantu ukuzama ukuhlolwa kwabantu inhloso yokuhlola izikhali zenuzi, amakhemikhali, kanye nezidakamizwa, kanye nezidakamizwa ezifana ne-LSD, i-United States eyayihamba nayo ukuze ibeke emoyeni kanye nokudla kuwo wonke umzana waseFrance e-1951, ngemiphumela eyingozi futhi ebulalayo.
Umbiko olungiselelwe ku-1994 weKomidi leSenate lase-United States le-Veterans Affairs uqala:
"Phakathi neminyaka yokugcina ye-50, amakhulu ezinkulungwane zabasebenzi bezempi baye bahileleka ekuhlolweni kwabantu nokunye ukuvezwa okuhloswe okwenziwa nguMnyango Wezokuvikela (DOD), kaningi ngaphandle kolwazi lwe-servicemember noma imvume. Kwezinye izimo, amasosha ayevuma ukukhonza njengezifundo zabantu azithola ehlanganyela ekuvivinyeni ahluke kakhulu kulabo abachazwe ngesikhathi abazinikele. Isibonelo, izinkulungwane zezilwane zeMpi Yezwe II ezazitholela ukuhlola 'izingubo zasehlobo' ukuze zithole isikhathi esengeziwe sokuphumula, zazitholela emagumbini egesi ahlola imiphumela yegesi lwesardard ne-lewisite. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ngezinye izikhathi amasosha ayeyalwe ngokuyala izikhulu ukuba 'zivolontiya' ukuba zihlanganyele ocwaningweni noma zibhekane nemiphumela emibi. Isibonelo, izimbangi eziningana zamaPersian Gulf War ezikhulunywe ngabasebenzi beKomidi zibike ukuthi zatshelwa ukuthi zithathe imithi yokuhlola ngesikhathi se-Operation Desert Shield noma ebhekene nejele. "
Umbiko ogcwele uqukethe izikhalazo eziningi mayelana nokufihlwa kwezempi futhi uphakamisa ukuthi ukutholakala kwawo kungase kuvele kuvele ukuthi kukhona okufihlekile.
Ku-1993, uNobhala WezeMelika wase-United States wadedela amarekhodi e-US ukuhlolwa kwe-plutonium kwabangenayo abahlukunyezwa base-US ngokushesha ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II. I-Newsweek isho ngokuqinisekisayo, ngomhla kaDisemba 27, i-1993:
"Ososayensi abaye baqhuba lezo zivivinyo esikhathini eside esidlule babe nezizathu ezizwakalayo: umzabalazo weSoviet Union, ukwesaba impi yenukliya esiseduze, isidingo esiphuthumayo sokuvula zonke izimfihlo ze-athomu, ngezinjongo zombili ezempi nezokudokotela."
O, kuhle lokho-ke.
Izingosi zokukhiqiza izikhali zenuzi eWashington, eTennessee, Colorado, Georgia, nakwezinye izindawo ziye zonakalisa imvelo ezungezile kanye nabasebenzi babo, abangaphezu kuka-3,000 abanikezwa isinxephezelo ku-2000. Lapho uhambo lwami lwe-2009-2010 lwangithatha emadolobheni angaphezu kwe-50 ezweni lonke, ngamangala ukuthi amaqembu amaningi okuthula edolobheni ngemuva kwedolobha ayegxile ekuvimbeleni umonakalo okwenziwa yizimboni zendawo zezimboni kanye nezisebenzi zabo izinsizakalo ezivela ohulumeni basekhaya, ngisho nangaphezulu kokugxila kwezimpi e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan.
E-Kansas City, izakhamuzi ezisebenzayo zase zilibalekile futhi zafuna ukuvimbela ukuthutha nokukhuliswa kwemboni enkulu yezikhali. Kubonakala sengathi uMengameli uHarry Truman, owakhiphe igama lakhe ngokuphikisa imfucuza ngezikhali, wahlwanyela umshini ekhaya okwakungcolisa izwe namanzi iminyaka engaphezulu kwe-60 ngenkathi kwenziwa izinto zokukhiqiza zokufa okusetshenziswa manje yiTruman kuphela. Ifayili eyimfihlo, kodwa intela ephulwa intela izoqhubeka nokukhiqiza, kodwa ngezinga elikhulu, amaphesenti angu-XNUM wezingxenye zezikhali zenuzi.
Ngajoyina izishoshovu eziningana zendawo endaweni yokumemezela ngaphandle kwamasango efektri, afana nemibhikisho engangingxenye yezindawo eziseNebraska naseTennessee, futhi ukusekelwa kwabantu abaqhubayo kwakuyinkimbinkimbi: ukusabela okuningi okunamandla kunokuba kungalungile. Omunye umuntu owayeka imoto yakhe ekukhanyeni wasitshela ukuthi ugogo wakhe ushonele umdlavuza ngemuva kokushaya amabhomu ku-1960s. UMaurice Copeland, owayeyingxenye yombhikisho wethu, wangitshela ukuthi uzosebenza kule ndawo iminyaka engu-32. Ngesikhathi imoto iphuma emasangweni aqukethe intombazane enomfana nentombazane ehlaba umxhwele, uCopeland wathi izinto ezinobuthi zisezindwangu zendoda nokuthi kungenzeka ukuthi wambamba intombazanyana futhi mhlawumbe wambulala. Angikwazi ukuqinisekisa ukuthi yini, uma ngabe kukhona, ezingubo zendoda, kodwa uCopeland wathi lezi zenzakalo zabe seziyingxenye yesitshalo seKansas City amashumi eminyaka, kungekho uhulumeni, noma umnikazi wangasese (u-Honeywell), noma i-union union (i-International Association of Machinists) ekwazisa kahle abasebenzi noma umphakathi.
Ngokushintshwa kukaMongameli Bush noMongameli Obama ku-2010, abaphikisana nomsebenzi wokukhulisa izitshalo bathemba ushintsho, kodwa ukuphathwa kuka-Obama kwanikeza lo msebenzi usizo olugcwele. Uhulumeni wedolobha ukhuthaze umzamo njengomthombo wemisebenzi kanye nezimali zentela. Njengoba sizobona esigabeni esilandelayo saleli sahluko, kwakungekho.
Ukukhiqizwa kwezikhali kuncane kakhulu. Amabhomu angekho enuzi eMpini Yezwe II aqothula amadolobha, amapulazi nezinhlelo zokunisela, akhiqiza ababaleki abayizigidi ezingama-50 nabantu abadingisiwe. Ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu e-US eVietnam, eLaos, naseCambodia kukhiqize ababaleki abayizigidi eziyi-17, kwathi ngasekupheleni kuka-2008 kwase kunezigidi ezingama-13.5 zababaleki nabafuna ukukhoseliswa emhlabeni jikelele. Impi yombango ende eSudan yaholela endlaleni lapho ngo-1988. Impi yombango yaseRwanda yaphoqelela abantu ezindaweni ezihlala izilwane ezisengozini yokuqothulwa, kuhlanganise nama-gorilla. Ukufuduka kwabantu emhlabeni wonke baye ezindaweni ezingakheki kangako kulimaze kakhulu imvelo.
Izimpi zishiya okuningi ngemuva. Phakathi kwe-1944 ne-1970 isosha lase-US lalahla izikhali eziningi zamakhemikhali emanzini ase-Atlantic nasePacific. E-1943 amabhomu aseJalimane ayesebenze umkhumbi wase-US e-Bari, e-Italy, okwakwenza ngasese amakhilogremu ayisishiyagalombili kagesi lwesinaphi. Abaningi basolwandle base-United States bafa ngenxa yobuthi, okwakuthiwa yi-United States ngokungathembeki ukuthi beyisebenzisa "njengesivimbela," naphezu kokuyigcina imfihlo. Umkhumbi kulindeleke ukuthi uqhubeke ususa igesi olwandle amakhulu eminyaka. Phakathi naleso sikhathi i-United States neJapane bashiya imikhumbi ye-1,000 phansi ePacific, kuhlanganise namanqamu aphethiloli. Ku-2001, omunye umkhumbi onjalo, i-USS Mississinewa itholakala njengamafutha avuzayo. Ku-2003 amasosha asuswe ukuthi yikuphi amafutha angawashiya.
Mhlawumbe izikhali ezibulalayo kakhulu ezishiywe ngemuva kwezimpi zingamabhomu omhlaba kanye namabhomu eqoqo. Amashumi ezinkulungwane zazo kulinganiselwa ukuthi alele emhlabeni wonke, engazi ukuthi yiziphi izimemezelo zokuthi ukuthula kuye kwabikwa. Iningi lalabo abahlukunyezwa yizizwe, ingxenye enkulu yabantwana. I-1993 US State State Report ibike ngokuthi izimayini zomhlaba "ukuhlambalaza okunobuthi kakhulu nokusabalalisa okubhekene nesintu." Izimayini zomhlaba zilimaza imvelo ngezindlela ezine, kubhala uJennifer Leaning:
"Ukwesaba kwezimayini kunqabe ukutholakala kwemithombo eningi yemvelo kanye nomhlaba ovulekile; abantu bayaphoqeleka ukuba bathathe izindawo ezihamba phambili ezindaweni zangasese nezibuthakathaka ukuze bagweme amabhomu emigodi; lokhu ukusheshisa ukuhamba kwezinto eziphilayo; kanye nokuqhuma kwamabhomu e-land ukuphazamisa izinqubo ezibalulekile zenhlabathi namanzi. "
Isilinganiso sombuso womhlaba sithintekile akuyona into encane. Izigidi zamahektha eYurophu, eNyakatho ye-Afrika nase-Asia zingaphansi kokuvinjelwa. Ingxenye eyodwa kwezintathu zezwe eLibiya ifihla imayini yezemayini kanye nemikhawulo yezwe yeMpi Yezwe II engakaziwa. Izizwe eziningi zezwe ziye zavuma ukuvimbela amabhomu omhlaba namabhomu eqoqo. I-United States ayikho.
Kusukela ngo-1965 kuya ku-1971, i-United States yathuthukisa izindlela ezintsha zokucekela phansi impilo yezitshalo nezilwane (kubandakanya neyabantu); ifafaze ama-14% amahlathi aseNingizimu ye-Vietnam ngemithi yokubulala ukhula, yashisa umhlaba wasepulazini, yadubula nemfuyo. Esinye sezibulala-khemikhali ezibulala amakhemikhali ezimbi kakhulu, i-Agent Orange, sisasongela impilo yabantu baseVietnam futhi sibangele ukukhubazeka okuzalwa okuyingxenye yesigidi. Ngesikhathi seGulf War, i-Iraq yakhipha amalitha ayizigidi eziyi-10 kawoyela ePersian Gulf yashisa nemithombo ka-732 yomlilo, yadala umonakalo omkhulu ezilwaneni zasendle futhi yafaka ushevu emanzini aphansi ngokuchitheka kukawoyela. Ezimpini zayo eYugoslavia nase-Iraq, i-United States ishiye i-uranium eseyinciphile. Ucwaningo loMnyango Wezilwane ZaseMelika olwenziwa ngo-1994 ngamagagasi aseGulf War eMississippi lathola amaphesenti angama-67 ezingane zabo ezikhulelwe kusukela impi inezifo ezinzima noma ukukhubazeka kokuzalwa. Izimpi e-Angola zaqeda amaphesenti angama-90 ezilwane zasendle phakathi kuka-1975 no-1991. Impi yombango eSri Lanka yawisa izihlahla eziyizigidi ezinhlanu.
Umsebenzi waseSoviet nase-US we-Afghanistan usuqede noma wabhidliza izinkulungwane zamadolobhana nemithombo yamanzi. I-Taliban idayise ngamatshe ngokungemthetho ePakistan, okuholela ekukhungweni kwemithi ebalulekile. Amabhomu ase-US kanye nababaleki abadinga izinkuni bangeze emonakalweni. Amahlathi ase-Afghanistan aseduze. Eziningi zezinyoni ezifudukayo ezazivame ukudlula e-Afghanistan azikwenzi njalo. Umoya wakhe namanzi baye babuthiwa yiziqhumane nama-rocket propellants.
Kulezi zibonelo zezinhlobo zokulimala kwemvelo ezenziwe yimpi kumele zeneze amaqiniso amabili abalulekile mayelana nokuthi izimpi zethu zilwa kanjani nokuthi kungani. Njengoba sibonile esahlukweni sesithupha, izimpi zivame ukulwa nezinsiza, ikakhulukazi amafutha. Amafutha angafakwa noma ashunwe, njengaseGulf War, kodwa ikakhulukazi asetshenziselwa ukungcola umkhathi womhlaba, asibeka sonke engozini. Amafutha kanye nabathandi bempi bahlobanisa ukusetshenziswa kwamafutha ngenkazimulo kanye nobuqhawe bempi, ngakho amandla angaphinda avuseleleke engabhubhisani nengozi yomhlaba ibhekwa njengendlela yokwesaba nokungahambisani nemimoya yokushisa imishini yethu.
I-interplay yempi ngamafutha ihamba ngaphezu kwalokho, noma kunjalo. Izimpi ngokwazo, noma zilwelwa ngamafutha, zidla kakhulu. Umthengi wezwe ophezulu wamafutha, eqinisweni, uyisosha laseMelika. Hhayi nje kuphela ukuthi silwa nezimpi ezindaweni zomhlaba ezenzeka zicebile ngamafutha; sishisa amafutha amaningi ukulwa nalezo zimpi kunokuba senze noma yimuphi omunye umsebenzi. Umbhali nomdwebi wezithombe uTed Rall uyabhala:
"UMnyango Wezempi wase-United States ungumngcolisi womhlaba ongcono kunawo wonke, ukugcoba, ukulahlwa, nokuchitha ezinye izibulala-zinambuzane, ama-defoliants, ama-solvents, i-petroleum, i-lead, i-mercury, kanye ne-uranium esebenzile kunamakhomikhali ayisihlanu amakhulu aseMelika ahlangene. Ngokusho kukaSteve Kretzmann, umqondisi we-Oil Change International, amaphesenti angu-60 we-carbon dioxide emhlabeni aphuma phakathi kwe-2003 ne-2007 avela e-Iraq ehlala e-Iraq, ngenxa yezinga elikhulu lamafutha negesi okudingeka ligcine amakhulu ezinkulungwane zamabutho aseMelika kanye izonkontileka ezizimele, ingasaphathwa ngama-toxins akhishwe yi-fighter jets, izindiza ze-drone, nemicibisholo kanye nezinye izidakamizwa ezishaya e-Iraq. "
Singcolisa umoya ngenqubo yokufaka ushevu emhlabeni ngazo zonke izinhlobo zezikhali. Amasosha aseMelika asha cishe imiphongolo ka-oyela engama-340,000 usuku ngalunye. Ukube iPentagon bekuyizwe, belizobekwa endaweni yama-38 ekusetshenzisweni kukawoyela. Uma ususe iPentagon ekusetshenzisweni kukawoyela okuphelele yi-United States, i-United States ibizolokhu ibeka isikhundla sokuqala kungekho omunye umuntu oseduze. Kepha ngabe uvikele umkhathi ekushisweni kukawoyela omningi kunamazwe amaningi awudlayo, futhi ngabe usindise iplanethi konke okubi okwenziwa amasosha ethu ukuphemba ngawo. Asikho esinye isikhungo e-United States esisebenzisa cishe uwoyela omningi njengowezempi.
Ngomhla ka-Okthoba 2010, i-Pentagon yamemezela izinhlelo zokuzama ukuhamba kancane ekuqondeni kwamandla avuselelekayo. Ukukhathazeka kwezempi kwakungabonakali ukuqhubeka nokuphila emhlabeni noma izindleko zezimali, kodwa kunalokho ukuthi abantu baqhubeka beqhuma amathangi abo ePakistan nase-Afghanistan ngaphambi kokuba bakwazi ukufinyelela ezindaweni zabo.
Kwenzeka kanjani ukuthi abahlali bezemvelo bangabaluleki izimpi zokuphela? Ingabe bayakholelwa ukuthi impi ikhona, noma ingabe bayesaba ukubhekana nabo? Unyaka ngamunye, i-US Environmental Protection Agency isebenzisa u-$ 622 million ukuzama ukuthola ukuthi singayikhiqiza kanjani amandla ngaphandle kwamafutha, kuyilapho amasosha echitha amakhulu ezinkulungwane ezivutha amafutha empi alwe ukulawula imishini. Amadola ayizigidi ezilondolozwe ukugcina isosha ngalinye kwelinye izwe ngonyaka lingenza imisebenzi ye-20 green energy ku-$ 50,000 ngayinye. Ingabe lokhu kuyinkinga enzima?
