August

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August 31

Agasti 1. Ngalolu suku ku-1914, uHarry Hodgkin, iQuaker yaseBrithani, noFriedrich Siegmund-Schulte, umfundisi waseLuthela waseJalimane, basuka enkomfeni yokuthula eKonstanz, eJalimane. Babehlangene lapho namanye ama-150 amanye amaJurophu aseYurophu ukuhlela izenzo ezingasiza ekuguquleni impi ezayo eYurophu. Ngokudabukisayo, lelo themba lashabalaliswa ngempumelelo ezinsukwini ezine ngaphambili yizimpi zokuqala zalokho okwakuzoba iMpi Yezwe I. Nokho, ekuphumeni kwabo engqungqutheleni, uHodgkin noSiegmund-Schulte bathembisana ukuthi bazoqhubeka nokuhlwanyela “imbewu yokuthula nothando, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ikusasa lingaletha ini. ” Kwala madoda amabili, leso sibambiso sisho okungaphezu kokugwema ukubamba iqhaza empini. Kwasho ukuvuselelwa kokuthula phakathi kwezizwe zabo ezimbili, noma ngabe zithini izinqubomgomo zohulumeni babo. Ngaphambi kokuphela konyaka, la madoda ayesize ekutholeni inhlangano yezokuthula eCambridge, eNgilandi ebizwa ngeFsociation of Reconciliation. Ngo-1919, iqembu laseCambridge lase libe yingxenye ye-International Fellowship of Reconciliation (eyaziwa njenge-IFOR), ”okwathi eminyakeni eyikhulu eyalandela kwaveza amagatsha namaqembu ahlobene emazweni angaphezu kwama-50 omhlaba. Amaphrojekthi wokuthula enziwa yi-IFOR asekelwe embonweni wokuthi uthando Lomunye lunamandla okuguqula izinhlaka zepolitiki, ezenhlalo nezomnotho ezingenabulungiswa; amaphrojekthi ngakho-ke azibophezele ekusombululeni izingxabano ngokuthula, ekuphishekeleni ubulungiswa njengesisekelo esiyinhloko sokuthula, nasekuqedeni izinhlelo ezikhuthaza inzondo. Imikhankaso ye-IFOR yamazwe omhlaba iqondiswa yi-International Secretariat eNetherlands. Le nhlangano futhi isebenza ngokubambisana nezinhlangano ezingekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni ezinomqondo ofanayo futhi igcina abamele unomphela kwiZizwe Ezihlangene.

Agasti 2. Ngalolu suku ku-1931, incwadi ebhalwe ngu-Albert Einstein yafundwa enkomfeni eyayibanjwe eLyon, eFrance yi-War Resisters 'International, inethiwekhi yomhlaba wonke yamaqembu antimilitarist kanye namaqembu aphakathi kwempi asebenzisana ndawonye emhlabeni ngaphandle kwempi. Njengososayensi owayehola ngesikhathi sakhe, u-Einstein wenza umsebenzi wakhe wesayensi ngokuzinikela. Kodwa-ke, futhi wayengumshisekeli wokulwa, owalandela imbangela yokuthula komhlaba wonke impilo yakhe yonke. Encwadini ayibhalela inkomfa yaseLyon, u-Einstein wanxusa “ososayensi bomhlaba ukuthi benqabe ukubambisana ocwaningweni lokwakhiwa kwamathuluzi amasha empi.” Ebhalela izishoshovu ezazibuthene, wabhala ngqo wathi: “Abantu bamazwe angama-56 obamele banamandla amakhulu kunenkemba…. Yibona kuphela abangaletha ukungaqini izikhali kulo mhlaba. ” Ubuye waxwayisa labo abahlela ukuya engqungqutheleni yokulwa nezikhali eGeneva ngoFebhuwari olandelayo ukuthi “benqabe ukunikeza usizo olwengeziwe empini noma kumalungiselelo empi.” Ku-Einstein, la mazwi maduze azobonakala eyisiprofetho. Ingqungquthela yokulwa nokulwa nezikhali ayibanga yize - ngoba, ngokombono ka-Einstein, izethameli zehlulekile ukuthobela iseluleko sakhe sokuthi angalungisi izingqinamba ezimayelana nokulungiselela impi. "Umuntu akenzi ukuthi izimpi zingabi nokwenzeka ngokwakha imithetho yempi," umemezele esithangamini nabezindaba ngesikhathi evakashele ingqungquthela yaseGeneva. “Ngicabanga ukuthi ingqungquthela ibheke ekwenziweni okubi. Noma ngabe yisiphi isivumelwano esenziwayo mayelana nezinhlobo zezikhali ezivunyelwe empini sizophulwa ngokushesha nje lapho kuqala impi. Impi ayikwazi ukwenziwa umuntu. Kungasuswa kuphela. ”

Agasti 3. Kulolu suku ku-1882, i-United States Congress yadlulisa izwe umthetho wokuqala wokufuduka jikelele. Umthetho we-Immigration Act we-1882 wabeka inkambiso ebanzi ye-US yokufuduka komgomo ngokusungula imikhakha ehlukahlukene yabangaphandle ababhekwa "abangathandeki ukungena." Okokuqala okuqinisekisiwe nguNobhala weMgcinimafa ngokubambisana namazwe, lo Mthetho uvimbela ukungena " i-lunatic, idiot, noma yimuphi umuntu ongenakuzinakekela ngaphandle kokukhokha umphakathi. "Labo abakwazanga ukukhombisa ukuthi ikhono lezimali lokuzixhasa babuyiselwa emazweni abo. Umthetho wenza, ngaphandle kwalokho, ukwenza okungafani nakwamanye amazwe angafanelekile ngokwezezimali ezilahlwe ngamacala ezombangazwe, ekhombisa inkolelo yendabuko yase-United States yokuthi iMelika kufanele inikeze indawo yabashushiswayo. Noma kunjalo, ukuphindaphindiwe komthetho we-Immigration Act kwaqhubeka kancane kancane. Ku-1891, i-Congress yasungula ukulawula okusemthethweni kwesifundazwe mayelana nokufuduka. Ku-1903, yenze isinqumo sokuqeda inqubomgomo yokwamukela abampofu abampofu ababhekana nokuphindiselwa ekhaya ngamacala ezombangazwe; esikhundleni salokho, likuvimbela ukufuduka kwabantu "okuphikisana nohulumeni ohleliwe." Kusukela ngaleso sikhathi, umthetho wezokufuduka ungeze izizathu eziningi ezisekelwe emvelaphi kazwelonke, futhi waqhubeka nokubandlulula abantu abafudukayo bacabanga ukuthi bangaba ngamacala omphakathi. Umthetho okwamanje awukwenzeki ngempela iphupho "owesifazane onamandla onesibani" eNew York Harbour othi, "Nginike ukhathele, ompofu / Abantu bakho abathandekayo befisa ukuphefumula mahhala." Kodwa, ngokumelene "Yakha Ukudabuka "okuqhutshwa yi-Trump ekuphathweni okungaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka ngemuva kokuvezwa kwesithombe, umlayezo wakhe uhlala ungumongo we-US obonisa indlela yokubambisana kwabantu nokuthula emhlabeni.

Agasti 4. Ngalolu suku ku-1912, ibutho elinamandla lama-2,700 wase-US lahlasela iNicaragua, lifika emachwebeni kuwo wonke amahlangothi ayo asePacific naseCaribbean. Ebhekene nezinxushunxushu ezweni lapho ebelilandela khona amasu namasu ezentengiselwano, i-US ihlose ukusungula nokugcina uhulumeni waseNicaragua othembele kuye. Ngonyaka owedlule, i-US ibisemukele uhulumeni wobumbano eNicaragua oholwa ngumongameli osadla ngoludala uJose Estrada. Labo baphathi babevumele i-US ukuthi ilandele inqubomgomo neNicaragua ebizwa ngokuthi "amadola ezinhlamvu." Enye yezinhloso zayo bekuwukucekela phansi amandla ezezimali aseYurophu esifundeni, angasetshenziselwa ukuqhudelana nezintshisekelo zaseMelika zokuhweba. Okunye bekuwukuvula umnyango wokuthi amabhange aseMelika aboleke imali kuhulumeni waseNicaragua, aqinisekise ukuthi iMelika ilawula izimali zezwe. Ukungezwani kwezepolitiki kumfelandawonye wase-Estrada kuvele ngokushesha. UGeneral Luis Mena, owayenguNgqongqoshe Wezempi esehlakulele imizwa enamandla yobuzwe, waphoqa u-Estrada ukuthi ashiye phansi isikhundla, waphakamisela iphini lakhe likamongameli, u-Adolfo Diaz owayedla ngoludala. Ngenkathi uMena evukela uhulumeni waseDiaz, esola umengameli ngokuthi "uthengisela isizwe kubabhange baseNew York," uDiaz wacela usizo e-US okwaholela ekuhlaselweni kuka-Agasti 4 nokwadala ukuthi uMena abaleke ezweni. Ngemuva kokuthi uDiaz ephinde wakhethwa okhethweni olwaluphethwe yi-US ngo-1913 lapho abenkululeko benqaba khona ukubamba iqhaza, i-US yagcina amaqembu amancane olwandle eNicaragua cishe njalo kwaze kwaba ngo-1933. Kubantu baseNicaragua ababefuna inkululeko, amaMarines asebenza njengesikhumbuzo esiqhubekayo sokuthi i-US wayezimisele ukusebenzisa amandla ukugcina ohulumeni abathobela i-US bephethe.

Agasti 5. Kulolu suku ku-1963, i-US, i-USSR, ne-Great Britain isayine isivumelwano sokuvimbela ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi emkhathini. UMongameli uJohn F. Kennedy ugijimela ehhovisi ukufaka isicelo sokuqeda ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi. Izindleko zemisakazo ezitholakalayo ezitshalweni nobisi eNyakatho United States byososayensi kwi-1950s zabakhokelela ukulahla umyalezo we-WWII wemikhakha yezikhali ezinamandla njengobuthi obunqunyiwe bemvelo. Ikhomishana Yezokulwa Nezizwe Ezihlangene ifuna ukuphela kokuphela kwazo zonke izivivinyo zenuzi, ukuqala ukuhlaselwa okwesikhashana phakathi kwe-US kanye namaSoviet kusuka ku-1958-61. UKennedy uzame ukuvimbela ukuhlolwa okuqhubekayo komhlaba ngokuhlangana noSoviet Premier Khrushchev ku-1961. Ukusongelwa kokuhlolwa ukuqinisekisa ukuvinjelwa kwaholela ekwesabeni ukuhlola, kanti ukuhlolwa kweSoviet kwaqhubeka kwaze kwaba yilapho iSikhuhlane Sama-Missile Crisis senza izwe lithinte impi yenuzi. Zombili izinhlangothi zavuma ukukhulumisana okuqondile, futhi kwakhiwa isiteshi se-Moscow-Washington. Izingxoxo zanciphisa ukuhlukumezeka futhi zaholela enkingeni engakaze yenzeke kuKrushchev "hhayi emncintiswaneni wezingalo, kodwa emncintiswaneni wokuthula." Izinkulumo zabo ezalandela zaholela kokubili ukuqeda izikhali ezivela kwamanye amazwe, kanye ne-Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty evumela ukuhlolwa komhlaba "isikhathi eside njengoba kungabi khona imfucumfucu evulekile ngaphandle kweminye imingcele yesizwe eqhuba ukuhlolwa. "I-United Nations yagcina igudluza i-Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty e-1996 evimbela konke, ngisho nokuzama komhlaba, ukuhlolwa kwezinto zenuzi. Izizwe ezingamashumi ayisikhombisa, eziningi ngaphandle kwalezi zikhali, zavuma ukuthi impi yenuzi ngeke izuze muntu. UMongameli uBill Clinton wasayina isivumelwano esiphezulu. I-Senate yase-United States, Nokho, ngokuvota kwe-48-51, ikhethe ukuqhubeka nomncintiswano wezikhali zenuzi.

Agasti 6. Ngalolu suku ku-1945 ibhomu laseMelika u-Enola Gay wawisa ibhomu le-athomu elingamathani amahlanu - elilingana namathani ayi-15,000 we-TNT - edolobheni laseJapan iHiroshima. Ibhomu libhubhise amakhilogremu amane edolobheni labulala abantu abangu-80,000. Emasontweni alandelayo, izinkulungwane zezinkulungwane zafa ngamanxeba nokushiswa komuthi. UMengameli uHarry Truman, owayesebenze esikhundleni esingakapheli izinyanga ezine ngaphambi kwalokho, wathi wenze isinqumo sokushiya ibhomu ngemuva kokutshelwa ngabeluleki bakhe ukuthi ukuyeka ibhomu kuzoqeda impi ngokushesha futhi kuzogwema isidingo sokuhlasela eJapane, kubangelwa ukushona kwamasosha aseMelika ayizigidi. Le nguqulo yomlando ayibambeli ukuhlola. Ezinyangeni ezimbalwa ngaphambili, uGeneral Douglas MacArthur, uMkhulu oPhezulu wezinhlangano ze-Allied Forces eNingizimu-mpumalanga Pacific Area, uthumele umyalezo we-40 kuMongameli Roosevelt owafingqa izinhlinzeko eziyisihlanu zokuzinikela ezikhulwini zaseJapan eziphezulu. Kodwa-ke, i-USA, yazi ukuthi amaRashiya aye enze ukuthuthuka okuphawulekayo empumalanga futhi kuzo zonke izimo ezaziyoba seJapane ngoSeptemba, ngaphambi kokuba i-US ingene ukuhlasela. Uma lokhu kudlulile, iJapane yayizozinikela eRussia, hhayi i-US Lokhu kwakungamukeleki e-US, eyayisivele iqalile uhlelo lokuthuma ngemuva kwempi ye-hegemony yezomnotho neye-geo-politics. Ngakho-ke, naphezu kokuphikiswa okuqinile kwabaholi bezempi nezombusazwe kanye nokuzimisela kweJapane ukuzinikela, ibhomu lahla. Abaningi baye bathi lesi yisenzo sokuqala seMpi Yomshoshaphansi. U-Dwight D. Eisenhower uthe eminyakeni eminingi kamuva, "IJapan lase lihluliwe kakade. . . ukulahla ibhomu kwakungadingekile. "

Agasti 7. Lo mlando ubonisa ukuzalwa ku-1904 kaRalph Bunche, ososayensi wezepolitiki wase-Afrika waseMelika, uprofesa nodokotela owamiswa waba isikhulu esiphezulu se-United States e-United Nations. Umsebenzi omkhulu kaBunche waqala nge-scholarship yokuthola iziqu emsebenzini eHarvard University, lapho e-1934 wathola i-Ph.D. kuhulumeni nobudlelwano bamazwe ngamazwe. Ukuqotshwa kwakhe kwezobuchwepheshe ekolonialism e-Afrika kwaqeda iminyaka emibili encwadini yakhe yakudala ngale ndaba, Umbono Wezwe Womhlanga. Ku-1946, iBunche yamiswa egatsheni eliphethe - noma i-Secretariat - yeZizwe Ezihlangene, lapho yayinomthwalo wokuqondisa ukuphathwa kwamakholomu ayengaphansi kwe-UN nokuqapha intuthuko yabo ekuziphatheni kombuso kanye nokuzimela. Ukufeza okuphawulekayo kukaBunche, kodwa kulandela ukuqokwa kwakhe njengenhloko ye-UN engxoxweni enkulumweni ekuhloswe ngayo ukuqeda iMpi yokuqala ye-Arab-Israel. Elandela izinyanga ezinhlanu zokunciphisa okungenalutho futhi enzima, wakwazi ukufeza ukuzivikela ngoJuni 1949 ngokusekelwe kwezivumelwano phakathi kuka-Israyeli namazwe amane ase-Arab. Ngenxa yalolu daba lomlando wamazwe ngamazwe, uBunche wanikezwa umklomelo wokuthula we-1950 Nobel, waba ngumuntu wokuqala we-Afrika waseMelika ukuba ahlonishwe kakhulu. Eminyakeni eyalandela, uBunche waqhubeka nokudlala ngokuphawulekayo ukugcinwa kokuthula nokusebenza phakathi kwezimpikiswano ezibandakanya izizwe eziphuthumayo. Ekupheleni kokuphila kwakhe e-1971, wayesungule ifa e-UN okungukuthi mhlawumbe echazwe kahle ngesihloko sokuhlonipha ozakwabo abamnike sona. Ngenxa yokuthi uBunche wayekhulelwe, futhi wasebenzisa, amasu amaningi namasu asetshenziselwa ukugcinwa kokuthula emhlabeni wonke, wayebhekwa kabanzi ngokuthi "uYise Wokulondoloza Ukuthula."

August 8. Ngalolu suku ku-1883, uMengameli uChester A. Arthur wahlangana noMphathi Washakie wesizwe saseMpumalanga Shoshone noMqondisi omnyama weNyakatho ye-Northern Arapaho e-Wind River Reservation e-Wyoming, ngaleyo ndlela waba umongameli wokuqala wase-US ukuvakashela ngokusemthethweni ukubhuka kwamaMelika aseMelika . Ukumiswa kuka-Arthur e-Wind River kwakungenxa yecala eliyinhloko lomzila wakhe wesitimela omude ohambela entshonalanga, okwakuzovakashela i-Yellowstone National Park futhi uzimisele ukudoba emifuleni yawo. I-drop-in yokubhuka yamvumela ukuba ahlole ukusebenza kwepulani ayekuphakamisile ngesikhathi esethula uMyalezo Wonyaka we-1881 kuya eNkongweni yokuxazulula lokho akubiza ngokuthi "izinkinga ze-Indiya" zaseMelika. Lolu hlelo, olubekwe kamuva kuDawes Amaningana Umthetho we-1887, wabiza "isabelo eziningana," kulawo maNdiya njengoba ayekufisa, "ngokulingana komhlaba [wezolimo, okwakuzogcinwa kuwo] ngelungelo lobunikazi, futhi ... okwenziwe okungenakulinganiswa namashumi amabili namashumi amabili iminyaka emithathu. "Akumangazi ukuthi bobabili abaholi bezinhlanga babenqaba ngokuqinile lolu hlelo, ngoba bekuyobe kunqotshwa ubunikazi bomhlaba bomphakathi bendabuko kanye nendlela yokuphila ephakathi kokuzimela kwabantu babo. Noma kunjalo, ukuhluleka kukaMongameli eWill River kubonakala sengathi kunika isifundo esibalulekile ekupheleni kweminyaka yezimboni. Ukuze kutholakale ukuthula okuhlala njalo, izizwe ezinamandla kumele zihloniphe ilungelo lezizwe ezikhulayo nezathuthukayo ukuze zenze umnotho wazo kanye nokuhleleka komphakathi, futhi zizimisele ukusebenzisana nabo ukusiza izidingo zabantu basekhaya. Umlando usuvele ukhombisile ukuthi izindlela zokucindezela ziveza kuphela ukuthukuthela, ukuvuthwa, nokuvame ukulwa.

Agasti 9. Ngalolu suku ku-1945, ibhomu le-US B-29 lilahle ibhomu le nyukliya eNagasaki, eJapane, labulala amanye amadoda e-39,000, abesifazane nabantwana ngosuku lokuqhuma kwamabhomu kanye ne-80,000 ecatshangwa ngasekupheleni konyaka. Ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu eNagasaki kwenzeke ezinsukwini ezintathu nje kuphela kusetshenziswe isikhali senuzi empini, ukuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu eHiroshima okwathi ekupheleni konyaka kwathatha izimpilo zabantu abalinganiselwa ku-150,000. Emasontweni adlule, iJapan yayithumele itelegram eSoviet Union izwakalisa isifiso sayo sokuzinikela nokuqeda impi. I-United States yayiphule amakhodi aseJapan futhi yafunda le ngcingo. Encwadini yakhe yezenzakalo zakudala uMongameli uHarry Truman ubhekise “kuthelegramu evela kuJap Emperor ecela ukuthula.” IJapane yakwenqaba nje ukuzinikela ngaphandle kwemibandela nokunikela umbusi wayo, kepha iMelika yaphikelela kuleyo migomo kwaze kwaba yilapho amabhomu ewile. Futhi ngo-Agasti 9th abaseSoviet bangena empini yokulwa neJapan eManchuria. I-United States Strategic Bombing Survey yaphetha ngokuthi, “… impela ngaphambi komhla zingama-31 kuZibandlela, 1945, futhi kungenzeka ukuthi ngaphambi komhlaka-1 Novemba, 1945, iJapane ngabe yazinikela noma ngabe amabhomu e-athomu ayengazange aphonswe, noma ngabe iRussia yayingazange impi, noma ngabe bekungekho ukuhlasela obekuhleliwe noma obekucatshangwa ngakho. ” Umuntu ophikisayo owayekhulume lo mbono ofanayo kuNobhala Wezempi ngaphambi kwamabhomu kwakunguGeneral Dwight Eisenhower. Usihlalo we-Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral uWilliam D. Leahy uvumile, wathi, "Ukusetshenziswa kwalesi sikhali esinonya eHiroshima naseNagasaki akusizanga ngalutho empini yethu neJapan."

Agasti 10. Ngalolu suku ku-1964, uMongameli wase-US uLyndon Johnson wasayina umthetho iGulf of Tonkin Resolution, okwavula indlela yokubandakanyeka ngokugcwele e-US War Vietnam. Ngokushesha ngaphambi kwamabili ebusuku ngo-Agasti 4, umengameli wayehlezi ohlelweni lwe-TV evamile ukuze amemezele ukuthi imikhumbi emibili yase-US isishiswe emanzini angaphandle aseGulf Tonkin ogwini olusenyakatho yeVietnam. Ngempendulo, wayala ukuba imimoya yenzeke ngokumelene "nezindawo eNyakatho Vietnam eziye zasetshenzwa kulezi zenzo ezimbi" - phakathi kwazo i-depot yamafutha, imayini yamalahle, nengxenye ebalulekile yeNavy North navy. Ezinsukwini ezintathu kamuva, iCongress yadlulisa isinqumo esivumelanisiwe esivumela umengameli ukuba "athathe zonke izinyathelo ezidingekayo ukuze ahlasele noma yikuphi ukuhlaselwa okuhlomile ngokumelene nempi yase-US nokuvimbela ukuqhubeka nokuhlukunyezwa." Leso sinqumo, esayinwe ngumongameli ngo-Agasti 10, 1964, izoholela ekupheleni kwempi ku-1975 ekufeni okubulalayo kwe-3.8 million yaseVietnam kanye namakhulu ezinkulungwane zamaLaotians namaCambodians namalungu e-58,000 e-US. Kuzophinde kuphinde kubonise ukuthi "Impi ingamanga" - esekelwe kuleli cala cishe emadokhumenti e-200 nemibhalo eqoshiwe ephathelene neGulf of Tonkin isigameko esakhishwa eminyakeni engaphezu kwe-40 eminyakeni edlule. Isazi-mlando se-National Security Agency isazi-mlando uRobert Hanyok siphetha ngokuthi ama-air strikes ase-United States kanye nesicelo sokugunyazwa kwe-Congressional empeleni sisekelwe emibonisweni engalungile eyayizibonakaliswe ngumongameli kanye noNobhala wezokuthi uMnuz Robert McNamara " "Ngokuhlaselwa okungakaze kwenzeke.

Agasti 11.  Kulolu suku ku-1965, kuqhume izihluku endaweni yaseWatts yaseLos Angles ngemuva kwesigameko esilandelayo lapho iphoyisa laseCalifornia eProvense Highway lidonsela emotweni futhi lizama ukubopha umshayeli walo omnyama nowesabisa ngemuva kokuhluleka ukuhlolwa okunamandla. Emaminithini, ubufakazi bokuqala bokumiswa kwezimoto bajoyina isixuku esikhulu kanye namaphoyisa ase-back-up, okwakubangela ukuqhuma okukhulu. Izimpikiswano zaphuma ngokushesha ku-Watts, zihlala izinsuku eziyisithupha, zibandakanya abantu base-34,000, futhi zaholela ekuboshweni kwe-4,000 nokufa kwe-34. Lapho ephendula, amaphoyisa aseLos Angeles asebenzisa amaqhinga "asemapilini" anqunywe yiNhloko yabo, uWilliam Parker, owaqhathanisa nokuhlukunyezwa kweVang Cong eVietnam. U-Parker naye wabiza nge-2,300 National Guard Guardsman futhi wabeka inqubomgomo yokuboshwa kwabantu abaningi kanye namabhuloki. Ngokuziphindiselela, abahlukumezi baphonsa izitini ku-Guardsmen namaphoyisa, futhi basebenzisa abanye ukuba bashone izimoto zabo. Nakuba ukuvukela kwakuvame ukukhishwa ngo-Agasti 15, kwaphumelela ukukhumbuza umhlaba weqiniso elibalulekile. Uma noma yikuphi umphakathi omncane emphakathini ocebile kakhulu olahlwe izimo zokuphila eziphansi, izikole ezingekho kahle, cishe azikho amathuba okuzithuthukisa, kanye nokusebenzisana okuqhubekayo namaphoyisa, kungenzeka ukuthi zihlubuke ngokuzenzekelayo, zinikezwe intukuthelo efanele. Umholi wezombusazwe uBayard Rustin wachaza ukuthi lokhu kungasetshenziswa kanjani ukuvimbela kuWatts: "... Intsha engasebenzi-engasebenzi, ayikho ithemba-ayizizwa ingengxenye yomphakathi waseMelika .... [Sinayo ... ukuzithola zisebenza, izindlu ezihloniphekile, imfundo, ukuqeqesha, ngakho bangazizwa beyingxenye yesakhiwo. Abantu abazizwa beyingxenye yesakhiwo abayikuhlasela. "

Agasti 12. Kulolu suku ku-1995, phakathi kwe-3,500 nababonisi be-6,000 e-Philadelphia abahlanganyela eminye yemibuthano emikhulu ngokumelene nesigwebo sokufa emlandweni wase-US. Ababhikishi bafuna icala elisha likaMumia Abu-Jamal, isishoshovu sase-Afrika kanye nomlobi wezombusazwe owabe esecaleni e-1982 ekubulaweni kwe-1981 yophiko lasePhiladelphia futhi wagwetshwa u-Death in the Greene State Correctional Institution. U-Abu-Jamal ubevele enecala lokudubula, okwenzeka ngesikhathi yena nomfowabo bekhishwa endaweni yesehlakalo, kanti amaphoyisa ashaya lo mzalwane ngesikhanyane. Kodwa-ke, abaningi emphakathini wase-Afrika-waseMelika babebaza ukuthi u-Abu-Jamal wayenze ngempela ukubulala noma ukuthi ubulungiswa bekungasetshenziswa ngokumenza. Ubufakazi bokuxoshwa kwemoto babunikeziwe ngesikhathi evivinywa, futhi kwakukhona ukusola okubanzi ukuthi kokubili ukukholelwa kwakhe nokugwetshwa kwakungcoliswa ukucwaswa ngokohlanga. Nge-1982, u-Abu-Jamal wayaziwa kakhulu ePhiladelphia njengomkhulumeli we-Black Panther Party owayengummeli kanye nokugxeka ngamagama amaphoyisa asePhiladelphia. Ejele, waba umkhulumeli womsakazo we-National Public Radio, ecaphuna izimo ezimbi emajele ase-US kanye nokuboshwa okungaqondakali nokubulawa kwabamnyama baseMelika. Udumo oludumile luka-Abu-Jamal lunikeze inhlangano yamazwe ngamazwe ebizwa nge "Free Mumia" eyagcina izithelo. Icala lokufa kwakhe lahlehliswa ku-2011 futhi lidluliselwa ejele eFrackville State Correctional Institution. Futhi uma ijaji libuyisela amalungelo akhe okudlulisa icala ngoDisemba 2018, wanikezwa ukuthi ummeli wabiza ngokuthi "ithuba elingcono kakhulu esiluthole ngokukhululeka kukaMumia emashumini eminyaka."

Agasti 13. Ngalolu suku ku-1964, isigwebo sokufa senziwa okokugcina e-Great Britain, lapho amadoda amabili angasebenzi, uGwynne Evans, 24, noPeter Allen, 21, bebethelwe emajele ahlukene ekubulaweni kwe-53- umshayeli omdala owayeseshayela ekhaya lakhe eCumbria. Abahlaseli babenqume ukuphanga isisulu, omunye wabo owaziyo, kodwa ekugcineni wambulala. Kwabahlukumezi, isikhathi sezenzo sabonakala singenangqondo. Kwaphela izinyanga ezimbili kuphela emva kokubulawa, iBraith Labor Party yaseBrithani yaqala ukubusa eNdlu yeMinyango yaseMelika futhi yaqinisa ukusekela lokho okwaba yi-1965 Homicide Act. Umthetho omusha unqunywe isijeziso senhloko yaseBrithani iminyaka emihlanu, ubeka esikhundleni sakhe isigwebo esiyimpoqo sokuboshwa ejele. Lapho uMthetho weza ukuvotela, wathola ukwesekwa okukhulu kakhulu eMinyangweni naseNdlu yeNkosi. Izinga elifanayo lokusekelwa likhonjiswe ku-1969, uma amavoti ethathwa ukuze enze uMthetho unomphela. E-1973, iNorthern Ireland nayo yaqeda isigwebo sokufa sokubulala, ngaleyo ndlela iphetha umkhuba wayo kulo lonke elase-United Kingdom. Ekutholeni i-50^th Umkhosi we-Homicide Act ku-2015, umqondisi wezindaba ze-Amnesty International, u-Audrey Gaughran, uthe abantu base-UK bangaziqhenya ngokuhlala ezweni eliye lalisusa isikhathi eside. Ekusebenzelaneni ngobuqotho nemiphumela yangempela yesigwebo esiyinhloko, ikakhulukazi ukungapheli kwayo, kunokubiza ukuthi ukubuyiselwa kwayo kube "ukulungiswa okusheshayo, ikakhulukazi ezungeze izikhathi zokukhethwa," kusho u-UK uye wakusiza ukugqugquzela ukuqhubekela phambili okuqhubekayo ngenani lokubulawa emhlabeni jikelele.

Agasti 14. Ngalolu suku ku-1947, ngasekuqaleni kwe-11: 00 pm, izinkulungwane zamaNdiya zihlangane eduze nezakhiwo zikahulumeni eDelhi ukuzwa ikheli likaJawaharlal Nehru, obengumongameli wokuqala wezwe labo. "Eminyakeni edlule senze i-tryst ngekusasa," kumemezela uNehru. "Ekushoneni kwehora phakathi kwamabili, lapho umhlaba ulele, iNdiya izophaphama iphile futhi ikhululeke." Lapho kufika ihora, ekhombisa ngokusemthethweni ukukhululwa kwe-India embusweni waseBrithani, izinkulungwane ezazibuthene zaqala ukuhalalisela ukujabula koSuku lweNkululeko lokuqala lwesizwe, manje olugcinwa minyaka yonke ngo-Agasti 15. Nokho, okuphawuleka ukuthi wayengekho kulo mcimbi, kwakuyindoda esinye isikhulumi, iBrithani U-Lord Mountbatten, wayedumise “njengomakhi wezakhiwo zase-India ngokungabi nodlame.” Lokhu kwakunguMohandas Gandhi, okwathi, kusukela ngo-1919, wahola inhlangano yenkululeko yamaNdiya eyayingenabudlova eyakhulula kancane kancane ukubusa kweBrithani. UMountbatten waqokwa njenge-viceroy yaseNdiya futhi wabekwa amacala okuhweba ngenkululeko yakhe. Ngemuva kokwehluleka ukuxoxisana ngesivumelwano sokwabelana amandla phakathi kwabaholi bamaHindu nabamaSulumane, nokho, ube esenqume ukuthi isisombululo kuphela ukuhlukanisa izwekazi laseNdiya ukuze kuhlaliswe amaHindu India kanye namaSulumane ePakistan – lawa azitholela umbuso kusuku oludlule. Yilesi sigaba esidale ukuthi uGandhi aphuthelwe wumcimbi waseDelhi. Ngokubona kwakhe, yize ukwahlukaniswa kwezwekazi laseNingizimu Afrika kungaba yintengo yenkululeko yamaNdiya, bekuphinde kube namandla okubekezelela inkolo kanye nokuhlasela imbangela yokuthula. Ngenkathi amanye amaNdiya egubha ukufezekiswa kwenhloso ebikade ifuna, uGandhi wazila ukudla ngethemba lokuheha ukwesekwa okudumile kokuqeda udlame phakathi kwamaHindu namaSulumane.

Agasti 15. Ngalolu suku ku-1973, njengoba kudingeke umthetho we-Congressional, i-United States yeka ukuphonsa amabhomu eCambodia, iqede ukubandakanyeka kwayo kwezempi eVietnam naseNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia eyayibulale nokulimala izigidi, ikakhulukazi abalimi abangahlomile. Nge-1973, impi yayisiphikisana kakhulu e-US Congress. Isivumelwano Sokuthula SaseParis esasayinwa ngoJanuwari sasifune ukuphela komlilo eNingizimu neVietnam kanye nokuhoxiswa kwazo zonke amabutho nabeluleki base-US ezinsukwini ezingamashumi ayisithupha. UCongress ukhathazekile ukuthi lokhu ngeke kuvimbele uMengameli uNixon ekuvuseleleni amabutho ase-United States uma kwenzeka kube khona ukuxabana phakathi kweNyakatho neNingizimu Vietnam. AmaSenenja uClifford Case noFrank Church base befaka umthethosivivinywa ngasekupheleni kukaJanuwari 1973 abavimbela ukusetshenziswa kwanoma yikuphi ukusetshenziswa kwamandla e-US eVietnam, eLosos naseCambodia. Umthethosivivinywa uvunyelwe yiSenate ngoJuni 14, kodwa wahlukunyezwa lapho uMengameli uNixon evotela umthetho ohlukile owawuzophela ukuqhubeka nokuqhuma kwamabhomu e-Khmer Rouge eCambodia. I-Bill modified Case-Church bill yabe isedluliselwa emthethweni, isayinwe ngumongameli ngoJulayi 1. Kwavumela ukuqhuma kwamabhomu eCambodia ukuthi kuqhubeke kuze kufike ngo-Agasti 15, kodwa kungavunyelwe ukusetshenziswa konke kwamandla ase-US eSouth-mpumalanga Asia emva kwalolo suku ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa kusengaphambili kwiCongress. Kamuva, kwavezwa ukuthi uNixon wayethembise ngasese umengameli waseNingizimu Vietnam Nguyen Van Thieu ukuthi i-US izoqala ukuqhuma amabhomu eNyakatho naseNingizimu Vietnam uma kudingekile ukuphoqelela ukuhlala ngokuthula. Ngakho-ke isenzo se-Congressional singavimbela ukuhlupheka nokuhlupheka okunye kubantu baseVietnam kunokuba impi yase-US engaqondakali isivele isilethele.

Agasti 16. Ngalolu suku ku-1980, abasebenzi abashaya eminyangweni yase-Gdansk ePoland bajoyina ezinye izinyunyana zabasebenzi basePoland ukuphishekela imbangela eyayizodlala indima enkulu ekupheleni kokubusa kweSoviet eCentral naseMpumalanga Yurophu. Ukuzibophezela ngokuhlanganyela bekukhuthazwe yisinqumo esizimele sabaphathi bamagceke emikhumbi sokuxosha isisebenzi sesifazane emsebenzini wezinyunyana ezinyangeni ezinhlanu ngaphambi kokuthatha umhlalaphansi okuhleliwe. Ezinyunyaneni zabasebenzi zasePoland, leso sinqumo besikhiqize umqondo omusha wokuthunywa, sisiphakamisile kusuka ekulameni okulawulwa nguhulumeni kwezinkinga ezincane zesinkwa nebhotela kuya ekuzameni ngokuhlanganyela ngokuzimela kwamalungelo abantu abanzi. Ngosuku olulandelayo eGdansk, amakomidi wesiteleka ahlanganisiwe afaka izimfuno ezingama-21, kufaka phakathi ukwakhiwa kwezinyunyana zabasebenzi ezizimele nelungelo lokuteleka, okwamukelwa kakhulu uhulumeni wobukhomanisi. Ngo-Agasti 31, ukunyakaza kweGdansk kwavunywa uqobo lwayo, ngemuva kwalokho izinyunyana ezingamashumi amabili zahlangana ngaphansi kobuholi bukaLech Walesa baba yinhlangano eyodwa kazwelonke ebizwa ngeSolidarity. Ngawo-1980, iSolidarity yasebenzisa izindlela zokumelana nomphakathi ukuthuthukisa amalungelo abasebenzi kanye noshintsho kwezenhlalo. Ephendula, uhulumeni wazama ukuyichitha le nyunyana, okokuqala ngokumisa umthetho wamasosha wase esebenzisa ingcindezelo yezepolitiki. Ekugcineni, nokho, izingxoxo ezintsha phakathi kukahulumeni kanye nabaphikisi bakhe bezinyunyana zaholela okhethweni olungakhululekile ngo-1989. Kwakhiwa uhulumeni wobumbano oholwa yiSolidarity, kwathi, ngoDisemba 1990, uLech Walesa wakhethwa njengomongameli wasePoland okhethweni olukhululekile. Lokho kwasusa imibhikisho enokuthula elwa namakhomanisi kulo lonke elaseCentral naseMpumalanga Yurophu, kwathi, ngoKhisimusi, ngo-1991, iSoviet Union uqobo lwayo lwase lungasekho futhi zonke izindawo ezazingaphansi kwayo zase ziphinde zaba amazwe azimele.

Agasti 17. Ngalolu suku ku-1862, amaDhindi aseMadota ahlukumezekile ahlasela indawo emhlophe eMfuleni i-Minnesota, eqala i-Dakota War eyingozi. AmaNdiya aseMadota aseMigota ahlanganisa amaqembu amane azinhlanga ezahlala endaweni yokubhuka eningizimu-ntshonalanga ye-Minnesota Territory, lapho befudluliselwa khona ngesivumelwano e-1851. Ephendula ukukhuphuka okukhulayo kwabahlali abamhlophe beya endaweni, uhulumeni wase-US wayenqobe amaDadotas ukuba akhiphe ama-acre angu-24-million emazweni aso asebenzayo eningizimu-ntshonalanga yeMinnesota ngamadola amathathu ayizigidi zamali kanye nonyaka. Ngasekupheleni kwe-1850s, noma kunjalo, izinkokhelo zokukhokhwa kwezimali ziye zaqhubeka zithembekile, okwenza abahwebi bagcine benqabe isikweletu kumaDakotas ngokuthenga okubalulekile. Ehlobo lika-1862, lapho ama-cutworms ebhubhisa okuningi kwezitshalo ze-Dakotas, imindeni eminingi yabhekana nendlala. Isixwayiso somfundisi waseMinnesota esithi "Isizwe esitshala ukuphanga sizovuna isivuno segazi" maduzane sasizofakazela isiprofetho. Ngomhla ka-Agasti 17th, umzamo wamaqhawe amane aseD Dakota ukuwaba amaqanda emndenini omhlophe uphazamisa ubudlova futhi waholela ekufeni kwamalungu omndeni amahlanu. Ebona ukuthi lesi sigameko singenza impi ne-US engenakugwemeka, abaholi baseDadota babamba lesi sinyathelo futhi bahlasela izinhlaka zikahulumeni zendawo kanye nokuhlala okumhlophe kwe-New Ulm. Ukuhlaselwa kwabulawa abahlali base-500 abamhlophe futhi kwasungula ukungenelela kwe-US Army. Ezinyangeni ezine ezilandelayo, ezinye ze-2,000 Dakotas zazingqwabelana futhi izikhulu ze-300 zagwetshwa ukufa. Impi yasheshe yaphela ngoDisemba 26, 1862, lapho amadoda e-38 Dakota ehlonywe ekubulaweni okukhulu kunazo zonke emlandweni wase-US.

Agasti 18. Kulolu suku ku-1941, cishe izinyanga ezingu-4 ngaphambi kokuhlasela kweJapane IPearl Harbor, uWinston Churchill wahlangana nekhabhinethi yakhe e-10 Downing Street. Izitatimende ezibhaliswe nguNdunankulu zibonisa ngokucacile ukuthi uMongameli Roosevelt wayezimisele ukuthatha izinyathelo ezivusa amadlingozi ngokumelene neJapane okuzokwenza i-US ibe yimpi yezwe yesibili iningi labantu baseMelika elifisa ukuzigwema. Emazwi kaChurchill, uMongameli wayemtshele ukuthi "konke kwakuzokwenziwa ukuphoqa isenzakalo." Ngempela uChurchill wayekade enethemba lokuthi iJapan lizohlasela i-United States. Ukubambisana kwezempi yase-Europe eYurophu kwakubaluleke kakhulu ekunqobeni amaNazi, kodwa kwakungenakwenzeka ukuthi amaNazi awakhulise amasosha aseMelika. Ngokuphambene, ukuhlasela kwaseJapan esitelekeni sezempi sase-US kwakungenza uRoosvelt amemezele impi eJapane futhi, isandiso, i-Axis ally yayo, eJalimane. Ngokuvumelana nalokhu kuphele, uRoosevelt wayekhiphe isinqumo esiphezulu ngoJuni izimpahla zaseJapane eziqabulayo, futhi bobabili abase-United States naseBrithani babenqume amafutha namafutha eJapane. Lokhu kwakushukunyiswa ngokucacile ukuthi izikhulu zase-United States zazi ukuthi zizophoqelela impendulo yezempi yaseJapane. UNobhala weMpi uHenry Stimson, lo mbuzo "wukuthi kufanele sibahambise kanjani isikhundla sokudubula ukudubula kokuqala ngaphandle kokuvumela ingozi enkulu kithi." Impendulo yayiyizinkolelo, kodwa kulula. Njengoba amakhodi aphukile aveze ukuhlasela kwe-Japan ePearl Harbor ngasekuqaleni kukaDisemba, iNavy yayizogcina imoto yayo isendaweni futhi abagibeli bayo bebumnyama ngesiteleka esilindelekile. Kwafika ngoDisemba 7, futhi ngosuku olulandelayo iCongress yavota ngokuvotela impi.

Agasti 19. Ngalolu suku ku-1953, i-US Central Intelligence Agency (i-CIA) yenze i-coup d'etat eyayisuse uhulumeni okhethwe ngentando yeningi wase-Iran. Imbewu yokubambisana isetshenziswe ku-1951, lapho uNdunankulu uMohamed Mossadegh evuselela imboni yamafutha e-Iran, elawulwa yi-Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. UMosadeade ukholelwa ukuthi abantu base-Iranian banelungelo lokuzuza emaqenjini amafutha amakhulu ezweni lakubo. Kodwa iBrithani yayinqume ukubuyisela utshalomali lwayo lwangaphandle lwangaphandle. Kusukela ku-1953, i-CIA yasebenza no-Intelligence yaseBrithani ukuze ihlukumeze uhulumeni kaMosseade ngezenzo zokufumbathisa, ukuhlambalaza nokuhlukumezeka. Ephendula, uNdunankulu ucele abalandeli bakhe ukuba bathathe emigwaqweni ngokubhikisha, becela u-Shah ukuba ashiye izwe. Ngenkathi ukuhlakanipha kweBrithani kuhambelana nokuhlukunyezwa, i-CIA yasebenza yodwa ngamabutho ase-Shah kanye namabutho ase-Iranian ukuba ahlele ukulwa noMossadegh. Abanye abantu abangu-300 bashonele emigwaqeni yaseTehran, futhi unqununu wanqotshwa wagwetshwa iminyaka emithathu ejele. U-Shah wabe eshesha ukubuyela ukuze athathe amandla, asayine amaphesenti angu-40 amazwe ka-oli ka-Iran ezinkampanini zase-US. Ekhuliswa ngamadola ase-US kanye nezingalo, waqhubeka ebusa ukubusa iminyaka engaphezu kwamashumi amabili. Ku-1979, noma kunjalo, u-Shah waphoqelelwa amandla futhi wasuswa esikhundleni seRiphabhuliki yaseMbusweni. Kamuva ngonyaka ofanayo, izikhali ezithukuthele zathatha i-ambassade yase-United States eTehran futhi zabamba abasebenzi baseMelika kuze kube nguJanuwari 1981.Lezi ziyizinto zokuqala ezazingezansi ngemuva kokuphazamiseka kukahulumeni waseRussia wokuqala wokubusa ngentando yeningi owawuzophazamisa uMbindi WaseMpumalanga futhi ube nokuhlala njalo izimpendulo.

Agasti 20. Ngobusuku balolo suku ku-1968, amasosha we-200,000 Warsaw kanye namathangi e-5,000 ahlasela iCzechoslovakia ukuze aqede isikhathi esifushane sokukhulula ezweni lamaKommunist elibizwa ngokuthi "i-Prague Spring." Iholwa ngoshintsho u-Alexander Dubcek, kwathi ngenyanga yakhe yesishiyagalombili njengoNobhala Wokuqala weKomidi Elikhulu leqembu lamakhomanisi, inhlangano yenkululeko yaphokophela ukhetho lwentando yeningi, ukuqedwa kokuvinjelwa, inkululeko yokukhuluma nenkolo, kanye nokuphela kwemikhawulo ekuhambeni. Ukwesekwa komphakathi ngalokho uDubcek akubiza ngokuthi “ubusoshiyali obunobuso bomuntu” kwakusekelwe kakhulu kangangoba iSoviet Union neziphuphutheki zayo bakubona kuyisongo ekubuseni kwabo eMpumalanga Yurophu. Ukulwa nosongo, amasosha eWarsaw Pact abizelwa ukuba angene eCzechoslovakia futhi awulethe esithendeni. Ngokungalindelekile, amasosha ahlangatshezwa yonke indawo ngezenzo zokuzenzekelayo zokumelana nokungabi nodlame okuwavimba ekutholeni amandla. Ngo-Ephreli 1969, noma kunjalo, ingcindezi engapheli yezepolitiki yaseSoviet yaphumelela ekuphoqeleleni uDubcek emandleni. Izinguquko zakhe zaguqulwa ngokushesha futhi iCzechoslovakia yaphinde yaba yilungu lokubambisana leWarsaw Pact. Noma kunjalo, iPrague Spring ekugcineni yadlala okungenani indima ekhuthazayo ekubuyiseleni intando yeningi eCzechoslovakia. Emibhikishweni ezenzekelayo yomgwaqo eqala ngo-Agasti 21, 1988, isikhulu esingu-20^th umkhosi wokuhlasela kwabantu baseSoviet, abahwebi bahlabelela igama likaDubcek futhi bacela inkululeko. Ngonyaka olandelayo, i-Czech playwright kanye nomlobi wezincwadi u-Vaclav Havel bahola inhlangano ehleliwe engahleliwe ebizwa ngokuthi "iVelvet Revolution" ekugcineni yaphoqelela ukuphela kokubusa kweSoviet kuleli zwe. NgoNovemba 28, i-1989, iqembu lamaKhomanisi laseCzechoslovakia umemezele ukuthi lizoyeka amandla nokuqeda umbuso weqembu elilodwa.

Agasti 21. Kulolu suku ku-1983, uFinigno (Ninoy) u-Aquino waseFilipino, uhlaselwe ekhanda e-Manila International Airport ngemuva kokuphuma endizeni eyamlethela ekhaya kusukela eminyakeni emithathu yokudingiswa e-United States. Ngo-1972, u-Aquino, uSenator we-Liberal Party kanye nomgxeki ophikisayo wokubusa kukaMengameli uFerdinand Marcos, bebeziwa kakhulu futhi bewuthanda kakhulu ukunqoba uMarcos okhetho luka-1973. UMarcos, kodwa, wamemezela umthetho wezempi ngoSeptemba 1972, ongagcini nje kuphela ukukhulula inkululeko yomthethosisekelo kodwa wenza u-Aquino abe yisigodlo sezombusazwe. Lapho u-Aquino ehlushwa isifo senhliziyo ejele e-1980, wavunyelwa ukuba aye e-United States ngokuhlinzwa. Kodwa, ngemuva kokukhulisa ukuhlala kwakhe emibuthanweni yezemfundo yase-US, wazizwa isidingo sika 1983 ukuba abuyele ePhilippines futhi akhuthaze uMongameli Marcos ukuthi abuyisele intando yeningi ngokusebenzisa izindlela zokuthula. Inhlamvu yesikhumulo sezindiza yaqeda leyo mishini, kodwa ngesikhathi sokungabikho kwe-Aquino, umnotho okhulayo ePhilippines wayesele ubangele ukuqhuma komphakathi. Ngasekuqaleni kwe-1986, uMarcos wayecindezelekile ukuba abize ukhetho lomongameli we-snap lapho egijima khona nomkakhe ka-Aquino, uCorazon. Lesi sizwe sisekela kakhulu "uCory," kodwa ukukhohlisa nokukhwabanisa okwenziwe kabanzi kwenze imiphumela yokukhethwa kwamakhetho. Njengoba bengenakho okunye okukhethwa kukho, ezinye izigidi ezimbili zaseFilippines, ezihlabelela "uCory, Cory, Cory," zaziphendulela izinguquko zabo ezingenanjongo eDowntown Manila. Ngomhla kaFebhuwari 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino yasungulwa uMongameli futhi yavuselela intando yeningi ePhilippines. Noma kunjalo, amaPhilippines futhi agubha njalo ngonyaka indoda eyanikeza inhlansi ukuguqulwa kwayo. Kwabaningi, uNinoy Aquino uhlala "engumongameli omkhulu esingakaze sibe nawo."

Agasti 22. Ngalolu suku ku-1934, umhlalaphansi waseMarine Corps uMnuz General Smedley Butler wanconywa ngumthengisi wezinkampani ze-Wall Street ngemali yokuhola a coup d'état ngokumelene noMongameli Roosevelt kanye nohulumeni wase-US. Amalungiselelo okubambisana ayenziwe ngabakwazimali baseWall Street abathintekayo ngokushiya ukuxoshwa kukaMengameli we-Gold Standard, ababekholelwa ukuthi bekuzokwehlisa phansi kokubili ukuphathwa komuntu siqu kanye nebhizinisi futhi kuholele ekufeni kwezwe. Ukugwema leyo nhlekelele, umthumeli waseWall Street utshele uButler ukuthi labo abalungisene nabo baqoqe izimbangi ze-500,000 zeMpi Yezwe Lokuqala ezazingakwazi ukubamba amandla ezempi zesikhathi sokuthula ezingenakubalwa ezweni futhi zivulele indlela yokudala uhulumeni othakazelisayo ozoba ngcono kakhulu ebhizinisini. UButler, bakholelwa ukuthi nguye owayengumqeqeshi ophelele wokuhola lo mkhankaso, njengoba ehlonishwa yi-veterans ngokusekela umphakathi emkhankasweni weBonus Army ekukhokhelweni kokuqala kwemali eyengeziwe uhulumeni ayethembisile. Kodwa abaqambi babengazi lutho olubalulekile. Naphezu kobuholi be-Butler obungaqondakali empini, wayesezonda ukuxhashazwa kwezwe ngokuphindaphindiwe kwezempi njenge-cudgel yenkampani. Ngo-1933, wayeqale ukusola obala amabhange kanye nobudlova. Noma kunjalo, naye wahlala ethandana eliqinile. NgoNovemba 20, 1934, Butler kubike ikomidi lokubamba iqhaza ekomidini leMisebenzi eNamerican, okuyinto yalo mbiko elawula ubufakazi obunamandla bokuhlela, kodwa akuzange kube necala lokubulala. Ngesandla sakhe, uSomedley Butler waqhubeka ukushicilela Impi iyiRacket, eyayikhuthaza ukuguqula amasosha aseMelika abe ngamabutho okuvikela kuphela.

Agasti 23. Ngalolu suku ku-1989, abantu ababalelwa ezigidini ezimbili bajoyina izandla emgqeni we-400-mile kuwo wonke amazwe aseBaltic ase-Estonia, eLatvia naseLithuania. Embukisweni obumbene ongabonakali obizwa ngokuthi "i-Baltic Way," babhikisha ukubuswa kwamazwe abo yiSoviet Union. Ukubhikisha okubambe iqhaza kwakunomcimbi wokugubha iminyaka engu-50 yesigceme sikaHitler-Stalin esingenabugqugquzeli ka-Agasti 23, i-1939, ekhishwe yiJalimane ku-1941. Kodwa isivumelwano esifanayo sasinezivumelwano eziyimfihlo ezachaza ukuthi la mazwe amabili azobe esehlukanisa kanjani izizwe zaseMpumalanga Yurophu ukuhlangabezana nezithakazelo zawo siqu. Kwakungaphansi kwalezi zinqubo ukuthi i-Soviet Union yaqala ukuhlala emazweni aseBaltic e-1940, iphoqelela ukuba abantu baseNtshonalanga bahlale ngaphansi kobudlova beqembu lamaKhomanisi. Nokho, kuze kufike i-1989, amaSoviet athi uHlangano likaHitler-Stalin alinalo izivumelwano eziyimfihlo, nokuthi amazwe aseBaltic azinikele ngokuzithandela eSoviet Union. Esibonisweni seBaltic, abahlanganyeli babefuna ukuthi iSoviet Union ivume obala izivumelwano futhi ivumele amazwe aseBaltic ekugcineni avuselele ukuzimela kwawo ngokomlando. Okuphawulekayo, ukubonakaliswa okukhulu, okwakumiswa eminyakeni emithathu yemibhikisho, kwathonya iSoviet Union ekugcineni ukuba yamukele lezi zinhlelo futhi iqinisekise ukuthi ayivumelekile. Ngokubambisana, iminyaka emithathu yemibhikisho engekho emthethweni yabonisa indlela umkhankaso onamandla wokumelana nawo onamandla ngayo, uma ulandela umgomo ofanayo phakathi kwabazalwane nodade. Lo mkhankaso waba yisibonelo esihle kwamanye amazwe aseMpumalanga Yurophu afuna ukuzimela, futhi wafakazela ukugqugquzela inqubo yokuhlanganiswa eJalimane. Amazwe aseBaltic aphinde athole ukuzimela kwabo ngemva kokuwa kweSoviet Union ngoDisemba 1991.

Agasti 24. Ngalolu suku ku-1967, u-Abbie Hoffman noJerry Rubin baphonsa izikweletu ezingama-300 zedola elilodwa kuvulandi phansi kweNew York Stock Exchange ukuphazamisa ibhizinisi njengenjwayelo. U-Abbie Hoffman, isazi sokusebenza kwengqondo eseshashalazini yaseshashalazini, wathuthela eNew York kuma-1960 njengoba izishoshovu nabaphikisana nabalwa nempi beyizibalo zokungena nokuhamba e-Central Park. U-Hoffman ubelokhu ehileleke eqenjini lezishoshovu elixhunywe enkundleni yemidlalo, i-Diggers, eSan Francisco. Ngokuhlangenwe nakho lapho, wafunda ukubaluleka kokusebenza mayelana nokubheka izimbangela, njengoba imibhikisho nemigudu yayiba yinto evamile kakhulu ngezinye izikhathi ngezinye izikhathi zazingenwa yizindaba. U-Hoffman uhlangane nombhikisho uJerry Rubin owabe esehlambalaza ubuholi be-capitalism njengesisusa sezimpi nokungalingani e-United States. Kanye no-activist we-gay-amalungelo uJim Fouratt, uHoffman noRubin bahlele ukubonisa eNew York Stock Exchange abamema uMarty Jezer, umhleli we-War Resisters League, umagazini we-WIN uKorea Lampe, no-activist woxolo uStewart Albert kanye abanye abangu-12, kanye nabezindaba. Leli qembu lacela ukuvakasha kwesakhiwo se-NYSE lapho uHoffman abelane khona ngezikhwama ze-dollar eyodwa ngaphambi kokuba aqondiswe esitezi sesibili lapho ayemi khona ebheke phansi kubathengisi baseWall Street. Izikweletu zabe seziphonsa phansi ngesitimela, ziwa phansi phansi. Abathengi bayeka ukuhweba njengoba bezama ukuqoqa izikweletu eziningi ngangokunokwenzeka, okuholela ekumangalisweni kokulahleka kokuhweba. UHoffman kamuva wamane wachaza: "Ukuthungula imali kubathengi baseWall Street kwakuyi-version yobudala be-TV yokushayela abaguquli bemali ethempelini."

August 25. Ngalolu suku ku-1990, uMkhandlu wezokuPhepha we-UN unikeze ama-navies omhlaba ithuba lokusebenzisa amandla ukuze ayeke ukuhlukunyezwa kwezindlela zokuhweba ezenziwa e-Iraq. I-United States ibheka ukuthi isenzo sinqoba ngokuyinhloko. Kwasebenza kanzima ukuqinisa iSoviet Union, eChina, nokuzamazama komhlaba amazwe amathathu okumele kwenziwe isinyathelo esiphuthumayo ukuhlola ukwephulwa kwezigwegwe ezomnotho eziphelele e-Iraq ngemuva kokuhlasela kwe-Agasti 2 kwe-Kuwait. Nokho, izigwegwe zahluleka ukuphoqelela ukuhoxiswa kwempi yama-Iraqi. Kunalokho baxoshwa empini ngasekupheleni kukaFebhuwari 1991 e-Gulf War led US. Kodwa-ke, ngisho nokubuyiselwa kwe-Kuwaiti ukuzimela, izigwegwe zagcinwa endaweni, okuthiwa yizandla zokucindezela izikhali ze-Iraq nezinye izinhloso. Kodwa empeleni, bobabili i-US ne-UK babelokhu becacisa ukuthi bazovimbela noma yikuphi ukuphakamisa noma ukuguqulwa okukhulu kwezigwebo uma nje uSaddam Hussein ehlala engumongameli we-Iraq. Lokhu kwakungekho ubufakazi obuqinile bokuthi lezi zigwegwe zahluleka ukucindezela iSaddam kodwa zilimaza kabi izakhamuzi zase-Iraq ezingenacala. Lezi zimo zanqoba kuze kufike ngo-Mashi 2003, lapho ama-US nase-UK baphinde benza impi e-Iraq futhi baqeda uhulumeni waseSaddam. Ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho, i-US yacela futhi yathola ukukhishwa kwezigwegwe ze-UN, ukuyilawula ngokugcwele ukuthengiswa kwamafutha e-Iraq kanye nembonini. Nokho, iminyaka eyishumi nesishiyagalolunye yesigwebo, yayikhiphe ukuhlupheka kwabantu. Leyo mphumela isukela ekukhungeni ukungabaza kuwo wonke umphakathi womhlaba wonke mayelana nokuphumelela kwemigomo yezomnotho ekufezeni imigomo yenqubomgomo kanye nomthetho wabo ngaphansi komthetho wamazwe omhlaba olawula ukwelashwa kanye namalungelo abantu.

Agasti 26. Ngalolu suku ku-1920, uNobhala Wezwe wase-US uBainbridge Colby uqinisekise i-19^th Ukuchitshiyelwa kokufakwa eMthethweni We-US, ukunikeza abesifazane base-US ilungelo lokuvota kukho konke ukhetho. Lokhu kusengaphambili okusemthethweni kwamalungelo omphakathi ase-US kwakuwukuphela komhlangano wesifazane we-suffrage, owawubuyela emuva phakathi no-19^th ikhulu leminyaka. Ukusebenzisa amaqhinga njengama-parades, ama-silence, nokulamba indlala, abesifazane baphishekela amasu ahlukene kuwo wonke amazwe ukuze banqobe ilungelo lokuvota-kaningi lapho bebhekene nokuphikisana okuqhamuka kwabaphikisi ababethelwa, ababoshwa, futhi ngezinye izikhathi bewahlukumeza ngokomzimba. Nge-1919, ama-suffragettes athole amalungelo okuvotela egcwele emazweni ayishumi nesishiyagalolunye emazweni angamashumi amane nesishiyagalolunye, ikakhulukazi entshonalanga, futhi athola ukulingana okulinganiselwe kwezinye eziningi. Ngaleso sikhathi, izinhlangano ezinkulu ze-suffrage zahlanganiswa ekukholweni ukuthi amalungelo okuvotela kuwo wonke amazwe angafinyelelwa kuphela ngokuchitshiyelwa koMthethosisekelo. Lokho kwaba umgomo osebenzayo ngemuva kokuba uMongameli Wilson esho ukusekela kwakhe ukuchitshiyelwa ku-1918. Utshele iSenate ukuthi: "Ngibheka ukukhuliswa kwabesifazane njengento ebalulekile ekushushisweni okuphumelelayo kwempi enkulu yesintu esibheke kuyo." Umzamo osheshayo wokudlulisa ukuchitshiyelwa okuhlongozwayo wehlulekile eSenate ngamavoti amabili kuphela . Kodwa ngo-May 21, i-1920, yadluliselwa kakhulu yiNdlu yabaMamele, futhi ngemva kwamasonto amabili yiSenate nge-majority yesithathu yesidingo. Ukuchitshiyelwa kwaqinisekiswa ngo-Agasti 18, 1920, lapho iTennessee iba yi-36^th I-48 ithi iyayivuma, ngakho-ke ithola isivumelwano esidingekayo sezingxenye ezintathu zezine.

Agasti 27. Lona usuku, ku-1928, lapho i-Kellogg-Briand Pact yokuqothula impi yaqinisekiswa eParis yizizwe ezinkulu zomhlaba. Yethiwa ngabalobi bayo, uNobhala Wombuso wase-United States uFrank Kellogg noNgqongqoshe Wezangaphandle waseFrance u-Aristide Briand, iSivumelwano saqala ukusebenza ngoJulayi 1929. Sashiya impi njengesixhobo senqubomgomo kazwelonke futhi sabeka ukuthi zonke izingxabano zomhlaba wonke zanoma yiluphi uhlobo kumele zixazululwe yi-pacific kuphela kusho. Yonke impi kusukela ngo-1928 yephule lesi sivumelwano, esasivimbela ezinye izimpi futhi sasebenza njengesisekelo sokushushiswa kokuqala kobugebengu bempi ekupheleni kweMpi Yezwe II, kusukela ngaleso sikhathi amazwe acebile ahlome kahle awazange alwe okunye - ukukhetha esikhundleni sokulwa futhi kube lula impi phakathi kwamazwe ampofu. Ngemuva kweMpi Yomhlaba Yesibili, ukunqotshwa kwendawo kwaphela kakhulu. Unyaka we-1928 waba umugqa ohlukanisayo wokunquma ukuthi yikuphi ukunqotshwa okwakusemthethweni nokuthi yini okungeyona. Amakoloni afuna inkululeko yawo, futhi amazwe amancane aqala ukwakhiwa ngamashumi amaningi. ICharter yeZizwe Ezihlangene ihlanekezele ukuvinjelwa kweSivumelwano Sokuthula empini kwaba ukuvinjelwa kwezimpi ezingazivikeli noma ezingagunyaziwe yiNhlangano Yezizwe. Izimpi ebezingekho emthethweni ngisho nangaphansi kwe-Charter ye-UN, kodwa abaningi abathi noma bacabanga ukuthi zisemthethweni, zifake izimpi e-Afghanistan, Iraq, Pakistan, Somalia, Libya, Yemen naseSyria. Cishe eminyakeni engama-90 ngemuva kokusungulwa kweKellogg-Briand Pact, iNkantolo Yamazwe Ngamazwe Yezobugebengu yamukela inqubomgomo yokushushisa ubugebengu bempi, kepha umenzi wezimpi ovame kakhulu emhlabeni, i-United States, wathi unelungelo lokusebenza ngaphandle komthetho. .

Agasti 28. Kulolu suku ku-1963, Amalungelo Abantu aseMelika asekela uMartin Luther King Jr. akhulume nge-TV ethi "Nginalo Iphupho" inkulumo phambi kwesixuku sabantu abathile be-250,000 ngoMashi eWashington. Le nkulumo yasebenzisa ngokusobala izipho zeNkosi ngezinkondlo, ezamenza wakwazi ukuthola amalungelo alinganayo kubantu base-Afrika baseMelika ngokucela umoya wobumbano ohlanganisa ukwehlukana kwabantu. Ukulandela ukuphawula okwethulwayo, uKing wasebenzisa isingathekiso ukuchaza ukuthi abamashi bebeze enhlokodolobha bezokhipha "inothi lesethembiso" eliqinisekisa impilo, inkululeko, nokufuna injabulo kuwo wonke amaMelika, kepha phambilini babebuyele kubantu bebala kubhalwe “imali enganele.” Cishe maphakathi nenkulumo, u-King wasuka embhalweni wakhe awulungiselele ukuze akhulume ngememori lokho ayekuhlolile ngaphambili "ngiphupha". Elinye lala maphupho selibekelwe bucala ekuqapheleni kobuzwe: “ukuthi izingane zami ezine ezincane ngelinye ilanga zizohlala esizweni lapho zingayokwahlulelwa khona ngebala lesikhumba sazo kodwa ngokuqukethwe ubunjalo bazo.” Le nkulumo yaphetha ngokuqhuma kokugcina kwezinkulumo ezinesigqi, ngokususelwa kumculo othi "Inkululeko mayikhale": "Uma siyivumela ukuba ikhale kuwo wonke amadolobhana nakuyo yonke idolobhana…," kusho iNkosi, "sizokwazi ukusheshisa ngalolo suku lapho bonke abantwana bakaNkulunkulu… bazokwazi ukuhlanganisa izandla futhi bacule ngamazwi womoya wakudala weNegro: 'Ngikhululekile ekugcineni! Sikhululekile ekugcineni! Sibonga uNkulunkulu uSomandla, ekugcineni sesikhululekile! '”Ngo-2016, Isikhathi Umagazini uhloniphe inkulumo njengenye yezinkulumo eziyishumi ezinkulu emlandweni.

Agasti 29. Ngalolu suku unyaka ngamunye, kubonakala ukuthi iNhlangano Yezizwe Ezihlangene Yezizwe Ezibhekene Nama-Nuclear Tests. Izinhlangano zokuthula emhlabeni wonke zisebenzisa iSuku lokufundisa umphakathi mayelana nesidingo sokuqeda ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi emhlabeni jikelele, okufaka izingozi eziyingozi kubantu, emvelweni naseplanethi. Okokuqala ku-2010, iSuku Lwamanye amazwe ngokumelene Nezivivinyo ZaseNyukliya laphefumulelwe ekupheleni kuka-Agasti 29, 1991 kwesayithi lokuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi eKazakhstan, okuyingxenye yeSoviet Union. Amakhulu amadivaysi enyukliya ayechithekile lapho iminyaka engamashumi amane, kokubili ngenhla nangaphansi komhlaba, futhi ubangele ukulimala kakhudlwana ngokuhamba kwesikhathi kubantu abazungezile. Njengama-2016, amazinga emisebe emhlabathini nasemanzini eduze kwedolobha laseSemey (owayengama-Semipalatinsk), ama-100 ngamamayela empumalanga kweso sayithi, ayesenamaphesenti ayishumi ephakeme kunejwayelekile. Amantombazane aqhubeka ezalwa enezinkinga, futhi, ingxenye yengxenye yabantu, isikhathi sokuphila sasingaphansi kweminyaka engu-60. Ngaphandle kwezixwayiso zayo mayelana nezingozi zokuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi, iSuku Lwamanye amazwe ngokumelene neziNhloli zeNyukliya likhonza ukukhumbuza umhlaba ukuthi isivumelwano esivele samukelwa yi-UN sokuqeda ukuhlolwa okunjalo asikaqala ukusebenza. I-1996 Comprehensive Test Treaty Ban Treaty (CTBT) izovimbela yonke ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi noma ukuqhuma kunoma yisiphi isimo. Kodwa kungenza njalo kuphela lapho bonke abakwa-44 bethi babehlanganyele ekuxoxweni ukuze benze isivumelwano, futhi babe namandla noma amandla okucwaninga enyukliya ngaleso sikhathi, baye bakuvuma. Eminyakeni engamashumi amabili kamuva, amazwe ayisishiyagalombili, kuhlanganise ne-United States, ayengakwenzi kanjalo.

Agasti 30. Ngalolu suku ku-1963, isixhumanisi sokuxhumana se-"Hot Line" sasungulwa phakathi kweNdlu Elingcwele ne-Kremlin eyenzelwe ukusheshisa kakhulu ukushintshanisana kwezombusazwe phakathi kwabaholi bamazwe amabili uma kwenzeka isimo esiphuthumayo. Lokhu kusungulwa kwakushukunyiswe yiCuban Missile Crisis yango-Okthoba 1962, lapho ukuthunyelwa ngocingo kwathatha amahora ukufinyelela kolunye uhlangothi, okwandisa izingxoxo ezazishubile phakathi kwemibuso yezwe enempi ephikisayo. Ngobuchwepheshe obusha be-Hot Line, imilayezo yocingo ethayiphiwe kumshini we-teletype ingafinyelela kolunye uhlangothi ngemizuzu nje. Ngenhlanhla, asikho isidingo se-Hot Line esavela kwaze kwaba ngo-1967, ngenkathi uMongameli uLyndon Johnson eyisebenzisa ukwazisa uNdunankulu wangaleso sikhathi wase-Soviet u-Alexei Kosygin ngohlelo lweqhinga ayelucabanga ngokungenelela empini yezinsuku eziyisithupha yase-Arab-Israel. Ngo-1963, uMongameli uKennedy kanye noNdunankulu waseSoviet uNikita Khrushchev base bevele sebusungulile ubudlelwano obukhiqizayo obususelwa ekuqondaneni nasekuthembaneni. Ngokuyinhloko bekungumkhiqizo wokushintshana okungaguquki kweminyaka emibili yezincwadi ezisemthethweni nezomuntu siqu. Elinye igatsha elikhulu lezincwadi kwakuwukuyekethisa okucatshangelwe okwakuqede i-Cuban Missile Crisis. Futhi kunikeze umfutho esivumelwaneni esilinganiselwe sokuvinjelwa kwenuzi ngo-Agasti 5, 1963, kanye nenkulumo kaMongameli waseMelika University ezinyangeni ezimbili ngaphambili ebudlelwaneni be-US-Soviet. Lapho, uKennedy wayengafunanga “ukuthula nje esikhathini sethu kodwa nokuthula kwaphakade.” Encwadini ekhokhisela uKennedy udumo ngemuva kokushona kwakhe, u-Khrushchev wamchaza "njengomuntu onemibono ebanzi owayefuna ukubhekisisa isimo emhlabeni nokubheka izindlela zokuxazulula izinkinga zomhlaba ezingakaxazululeki ngezingxoxo."

Agasti 31. Ngalolu suku ku-1945, abantu abangaba yizinkulungwane ezimbili eLondon Westminster Central Hall bacela isihloko esithi "UkuBumbana Kwezwe noma Ukubhujiswa Kwezwe" ekuhlanganyeleni ukusabalalisa kwezikhali zenuzi. EWestminster, emhlabeni wonke, ukuqhunyuka kwamabhomu kaHiroshima noNagasaki amasonto ambalwa nje ngaphambi kokuba kubangele izinkulungwane zabantu ukuba zihlanganyele emkhosini odumile wokugcina isintu ekubhujisweni kwezinto zenuzi. Ekuqaleni, ukwesaba kwenhlekelele yenyukliya emhlabeni wonke kwahambisana nomqondo wohulumeni wezwe. Bertrand Russell, phakathi kwabanye, wanconywa futhi wakhipha izixuku ezinkulungwaneni emihlanganweni yomphakathi lapho kuxoxwa ngakho. Inkulumo ethi "Izwe elilodwa noma akekho" lalingenalo uRussell kuphela, kodwa nguGandhi no-Einstein. Ngisho neLondon Times wagcizelela ukuthi "kufanele kube yinto engenakwenzeka empini ukuqala, noma ngabe isintu sishabalalisa." Nokho, ezinyangeni ezalandela neminyaka, izikhulumi emibuthano yaseBrithani yokulwa nempi, ngenkathi ziqhubeka nokulahla amabhomu eJapane, zaqala ukugqugquzela izingalo zenuzi ukulawula nokungazibandakanyi. Ngama-1950s, "Izwe Elilodwa" alisekho isihloko esiyinhloko sokunyakaza kwebhomu, kodwa ngokuyinhloko isifiso sama-pacifists kanye nabameli bakahulumeni wezwe. Noma kunjalo, ngokugcizelela inhlekelele engaba khona yokusabalalisa okungapheli kwezikhali zenuzi, amaqembu okuthula kanye nokulwa nezidakamizwa eBrithani nakwaseNtshonalanga basiza ekuguquleni ukucabanga okucatshangelwayo ngokwamukelwa okukhulu kwemingcele yobukhosi bukazwelonke. Njengoba bebhekene nezingozi ezingakaze zenzeke zempi yenuzi, abantu babonisa ukuzimisela okukhulu ukwamukela ukucabanga okusha ngobuhlobo bomhlaba wonke. Sibonga isazi-mlando u-Lawrence S. Wittner, obhala imibhalo ephelele mayelana nokunyakaza kwezinto zenuzi ahlinzeke ngolwazi ngalesi sihloko.

Le Peace Almanac ikwazisa ngezinyathelo ezibalulekile, inqubekela phambili, kanye nezithiyo ezinhlanganweni zokuthula ezenzeke ngosuku ngalunye lonyaka.

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Umbhalo ukhiqizwe futhi uhlelwe ngu UDavid Swanson.

Umsindo uqoshwe ngu UTim Pluta.

Izinto ezibhalwe ngu URobert Anschuetz, uDavid Swanson, u-Alan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, u-Eleanor Millard, u-Erin McElfresh, u-Alexander Shaia, uJohn Wilkinson, uWilliam Geimer, uPeter Goldsmith, uGar Smith, uThierry Blanc, noTom Schott.

Imibono ngezihloko ezithunyelwe yi David Swanson, Robert Anschuetz, Alan Knight, Marilyn Olenick, Eleanor Millard, Darlene Coffman, David McReynolds, Richard Kane, Phil Runkel, Jill Greer, Jim Gould, Bob Stuart, Alaina Huxtable, Thierry Blanc.

Umculo isetshenziswa yimvume evela “Ukuphela Kwempi,” ngu-Eric Colville.

Umsindo womsindo nokuxutshwa nguSergio Diaz.

Imidwebo ngu Parisa Saremi.

World BEYOND War ngumnyakazo ongahlosile womhlaba wonke wokuqeda impi futhi usungule ukuthula okulungile futhi okuzinzile. Sihlose ukudala ukuqwashisa ngokuxhaswa okudumile kokuqeda impi futhi sithuthukise nalolo sizo. Sisebenzela ukuqhubekisela phambili umbono wokuthi singagcini nje ngokuvikela noma iyiphi impi ethile kepha sichithe sonke isikhungo. Silwela ukubuyisela isiko lempi libe linye lokuthula lapho izindlela zokungqubuzana okungezona zobubi zithathe indawo yokuchitheka kwegazi.