July

July 1
July 2
July 3
July 4
July 5
July 6
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July 8
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July 10
July 11
July 12
July 13
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July 16
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July 18
July 19
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July 22
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July 28
July 29
July 30
July 31

Julayi 1. Kulolu suku ku-1656, ama-Quaker wokuqala afika eMelika, eseze kulokho okwakuzoba iBoston. Ikoloni yamaPuritan eBoston yasungulwa kahle yi-1650s ngemithetho eqinile esekelwe enkolweni yayo. Lapho abaQuaker befika bevela eNgilandi ku-1656, babingelelwa ngezinsolo zokuthakatha, ukuboshwa, ukuboshwa, kanye nesidingo sokuba basuke eBoston emkhunjini olandelayo. Umyalo obeka izinkokhelo ezinzima emkhunjini abaphathi be-Quaker baya eBoston maduzane badluliselwa amaPuritan. AmaQuaker awamisa ngokubhikisha aqhubeka ehlaselwa, ashaywa, futhi okungenani amane abulawa ngaphambi kokuthi isinqumo sikaPresident Charles II sivimbele ukubulawa eNew World. Njengoba abahlali abaningi abahlukahlukene beqala ukufika eBoston Harbour, amaQuaker athole ukwamukelwa ngokwanele ukusekela ikoloni eyabo ePennsylvania. Ukwesaba kwamaPuritan, noma ukucwaswa kwabantu, kwahlangana eMelika ngesisekelo sokusungula inkululeko nobulungiswa kubo bonke. Njengoba iMelika ikhula, kanjalo nokuhluka kwayo kwahluka. Ukwamukela abanye kwakuwumkhuba okwenziwe kakhulu yi-Quaker, oye wabonisa abanye imikhuba yokuhlonipha amaMelika aseMelika, ubugqila obuphikisayo, ukulwa nempi, nokuphishekela ukuthula. I-Quakers yasePennsylvania yabonisa ukuthi amanye amakoloni izinzuzo zokuziphatha, ezezimali nezamasiko zokwenza ukuthula kunezimpi. Ama-Quaker afundisa abanye baseMelika ngesidingo sokuqeda ubugqila nazo zonke izinhlobo zobudlova. Imicu eminingi enhle egijima emlandweni wase-US iqala ngamaQuakers ngokuqinile ukukhuthaza imibono yabo njengamancane amancane aphikisana nezimfundiso ezamukelekayo emhlabeni jikelele.

Julayi 2. Ngalolu suku ku-1964, uMongameli wase-US uLyndon B. Johnson wasayina uMthetho woLungelo Lwamalungelo Abantu we-1964 emthethweni. Abantu abathunjiwe babe yizakhamizi zase-US abanelungelo lokuvota ku-1865. Noma kunjalo, amalungelo abo aqhubeka nokucindezelwa kulo lonke elaseNingizimu. Imithetho edluliselwe ngabanye ithi isekela ukucwaswa, futhi izenzo ezinonya ezinamaqembu amhlophe aphakeme njengeKu Klux Klan ezisongela inkululeko eyathembiswa ukuba yizigqila zangaphambili. Ku-1957, uMnyango Wezobulungiswa wase-US wadala i-Civil Rights Commission ukuphenya ngalezi zenzo zobugebengu, ezingahambisani nomthetho wezomthetho kuze kube nguMongameli uJohn F. Kennedy oshukunywe yi-Civil Rights movement ukuphakamisa umthethosivivinywa ngoJuni ka-1963 othi: "Lesi sizwe esungulwe ngabantu bezizwe eziningi nezizinda eziningi. Kwasekelwa ngesimiso sokuthi wonke amadoda adalwe alinganisiwe, nokuthi amalungelo omuntu wonke ayancipha lapho amalungelo omuntu oyedwa esengozini. "Ukubulawa kukaKennedy ezinyangeni ezinhlanu kamuva kwashiya uMongameli uJohnson ukuba alandele. Ekhulwini lakhe leNyunyana yeNyunyana, uJohnson wancenga: "Vumela le ngqungquthela yeCongress yaziwe njengesiqephu esenza okungaphezulu amalungelo omphakathi kunamaqembu angamakhulu okugcina ahlangene." Njengoba lo mthethosivivinywa wafika eSenate, izingxabano ezishisayo zaseNingizimu zahlangana nomsakazo wezinsuku ezingu-75. Umthetho Wezinyunyana Zomphakathi we-1964 wagcina wadlulisa ivoti lesithathu. Lo Mthetho uvimbela ukuhlukaniswa kuzo zonke izindawo zokuhlala zomphakathi, futhi uvinjelwa ukucwaswa kwabaqashi kanye nezinyunyana zabasebenzi. Kwasungula iKhomishini Yokuqasha Imisebenzi Elinganayo ehlinzeka usizo lwezomthetho ezakhamuzi ezizama ukuziphilisa.

Julayi 3. Kulolu suku ku-1932, Ithebula Elihlaza, i-ballet yokulwa nempi ebonisa ubunqunu nenkohlakalo yempi, yenziwa ngokokuqala ngqa eParis emncintiswaneni wokuzikhethela. Ebhalwa futhi ekhethwe ngumdansa waseJalimane, uthisha, kanye nomdwebi wokuzikhethela uKurt Jooss (1901-1979), i-ballet iboniswa "ngomdanso wokufa" oboniswe ezinkathini ezindala zaseJalimane. Izigcawu eziyisishiyagalombili zikhombisa indlela ehlukile lapho umphakathi uhambela khona ukubiza impi. Isibalo Sokufa sinyenga osopolitiki, amasosha, umphathi wefulegi, intombazane, umama, umama, ababaleki, kanye nomsizi wezentengiselwano, bonke babo abalethwa ekudanseni kokufa ngendlela efanayo abahlala kuyo. Kuphela isibalo somkayo sinikeza ukuphikiswa kokumelana. Uphendukela ekuhlanganyeleni kanye nokubulala isosha elibuya phambili. Ngenxa yalesi cala, Ukufa kuyamdonsa ukuze ibulawe yiqembu lokudubula. Ngaphambi kokudubula kokuqala, umfazi uphendukela ekufeni futhi ehloniphekile. Ukufa ngokufanayo kumnika amandla okuvuma, bese ebuka izilaleli. Kubuyekezwe kwe-2017 Ithebula Elihlaza, umhleli we-freelance, uJennifer Zahrt ubhala ukuthi omunye umbuyekezi ekusebenzeni kwakhe wathi, "Ukufa kwasibheka sonke njengokungathi sibuze uma siyiqonda." UZahrt uyaphendula, "Yebo," njengokungathi uyavuma ukuthi ukushaya kwezimpi zokufa kuhlale ku enye indlela iqinisekisiwe. Kumele kukhishwe, kodwa, ukuthi umlando wesimanje unikeza izimo eziningi lapho ingxenye encane yabantu abanikezwe khona, ehlelwe njengenhlangano yokuphikisana engeyona enobudlova, iye yakwazi ukuthulisa ucingo lokufa kwalawo wonke umuntu.

Julayi 4. Ngalolu suku unyaka ngamunye, kuyilapho i-United States igubha isimemezelo sayo sokuzibusa eNgilandi ku-1776, iqembu eliphikisayo elingenabo abanobudlova eliseYorkshire, eNgilandi lizibheka ngokuthi "ukuzimela kusuka eMelika Day." Eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Menwith Hill Accountability Campaign (MHAC), inhloso eyinhloko yeqembu kusukela i-1992 bekuzohlola nokukhanyisa ukukhishwa kobuBrithani njengoba iphathelene nezisekelo zezempi zase-US ezisebenza e-United Kingdom. Ukugxila okuyinhloko kwe-MHAC yi-Menwith Hill US base eNorth Yorkshire, esungulwe ku-1951. Ukugijima yi-US National Security Agency (NSA), i-Menwith Hill yiyona ndawo enkulu kunazo zonke e-US ngaphandle kwe-US ngokuqoqa ulwazi nokuqapha. Ngokubuza imibuzo ephalamende nokuhlola umthetho waseBrithani ezinselele zenkantolo, i-MHAC yakwazi ukucacisa ukuthi isivumelwano se-1957 esisemthethweni phakathi kwe-US ne-UK ephathelene ne-NSA Menwith Hill sidlulisiwe ngaphandle kokuphenywa kwephalamende. I-MHAC iphinde ikhombise ukuthi imisebenzi eqhutshwa yisisekelo sokusekela impi yamazwe ase-US, i-US okuthiwa iMissile Defense system, futhi imizamo yokuqoqwa kolwazi ye-NSA yaba nomthelela ojulile ekuziphatheni komphakathi kanye nemikhuba yokubhekwa kwe-elektroniki engatholanga inkulumo encane yomphakathi noma yephalamende. Inhloso eyinhloko yokumiswa kwe-MHAC yilapho kususwe ngokuphelele konke okusekelwe e-US nezisetshenziswa zokuqapha e-UK. Inhlangano ixhumana, futhi isekela, namanye amaqembu ezishoshovu emhlabeni jikelele abelana ngezinhloso ezifanayo emazweni abo. Uma imizamo enjalo iphumelela ekugcineni, izoba isinyathelo esikhulu ekubhebhethekeni komhlaba wonke. I-US manje isebenza ezinye izizinda ezisempi ze-800 ezingaphezu kwamazwe we-80 nakwamanye amazwe.

July 5. Ngalolu suku ku-1811, iVenezuela yaba yilapho kuqala i-colonial yaseMelika yaseMelika ukuveza ukuzimela kwayo. Kwakulwa iMpi Yenkululeko kusukela ngo-Ephreli 1810. IFirst Republic yaseVenezuela yayinohulumeni ozimele nomthethosisekelo, kodwa yathatha unyaka owodwa kuphela. Uquqaba lwaseVenezuela lwamelana nokubuswa ngabamhlophe abaseCaracas futhi bahlala bethembekile kumqhele. Iqhawe elidumile, uSimón Bolívar Palacios, wazalelwa eVenezuela emndenini ovelele futhi ukumelana nezikhali kwabaseSpain kwaqhubeka ngaphansi kwakhe. Wamenyezelwa njenge-El Libertador njengoba kumenyezelwa njengeRiphabhulikhi Yesibili yaseVenezuela kwathi uBolivar wanikezwa amandla wobushiqela. Uphinde wazishalazela izifiso zabantu baseVenezuela abangabamhlophe. Iphinde yahlala unyaka owodwa kuphela, kusukela ngo-1813-1814. UCaracas wayelawula iSpain, kepha ngo-1819, uBolivar waqokwa njengoMongameli weThird Republic of Venezuela. Ngo-1821 iCaracas yakhululwa kwadalwa iGran Colombia, manje eyiVenezuela neColombia. UBolivar washiya, kodwa waqhubeka nokulwa ezwenikazi futhi wabona iphupho lakhe leMelika elihlangene laseSpain liza nezithelo ezithile kuConfederation of the Andes ehlanganisa lokho manje okuyi-Ecuador, iBolivia nePeru. Nakulokhu, uhulumeni omusha waba nzima ukuphatha futhi awahlalanga. Abantu baseVenezuela bacasukela enhlokodolobha iBogota ezindaweni ezikude neColombia, futhi bamelana neGran Colombia. UBolivar walungela ukuya ekudingisweni eYurophu, kepha washona eneminyaka engu-47 enesifo sofuba ngoDisemba 1830, ngaphambi kokuya eYurophu. Ngenkathi efa, umkhululi okhungathekile wasenyakatho yeNingizimu Melika wathi “Bonke abasebenzela inguquko balilime ulwandle.” Bunjalo ubuze bempi.

Julayi 6. Ngalolu suku ku-1942, u-Anne Frank oneminyaka eyishumi nantathu ubudala, abazali bakhe nodadewabo bathuthela engxenyeni engenalutho yehhovisi e-Amsterdam, eHolland lapho u-Anne uyise ka-Anne enza khona ibhizinisi lebhange. Lapho imindeni yamaJuda-abomdabu baseJalimane ababebalekele eHolland kulandela ukuvuka kukaHitler ngo-1933 – bazifihla kumaNazi aseyangena ezweni. Ngesikhathi behlukanisiwe, u-Anne wagcina idayari echaza ulwazi lomndeni oluzomenza adume umhlaba wonke. Lapho umndeni utholakala futhi uboshwa eminyakeni emibili kamuva, u-Anne nonina nodadewabo badingiselwa ekamu lokuhlushwa laseJalimane, lapho bobathathu babulawa yisifo sohlobo lwe-typhus. Konke lokhu ulwazi olujwayelekile. Bambalwa abantu baseMelika, abazi yonke indaba. Imibhalo edalulwe ngo-2007 ikhombisa ukuthi umzamo ka-Otto Frank wezinyanga eziyisishiyagalolunye ngo-1941 wokuthola ama-visa azongenisa umndeni wakhe e-US waphazanyiswa ngamazinga okuhlola ase-US aqhubeka ebandlulula. Ngemuva kokuthi uMongameli Roosevelt exwayise ngokuthi ababaleki abangamaJuda abase-US kungenzeka "bahlola ngenkani," kwanikezwa igunya lokuphatha elalivimba ukwamukelwa kwe-US kwababaleki abangamaJuda nezihlobo eziseduze zase-Europe, ngokususelwa kumqondo oyindida wokuthi amaNazi angahle abambe labo izihlobo zithunjwa ngenhloso yokuphoqa ababaleki ukuba benze ubuhloli bukaHitler. Impendulo ifanekisela ubuwula nosizi olungaba khona lapho ukwesaba okusatshiswa yimpi mayelana nokuvikeleka kwezwe kuqala kunokukhathazeka kwabantu. Akugcinanga nje ngokusikisela ukuthi u-Anne Frank ongacashuniwe angacindezelwa ukuthi asebenze njengenhloli yamaNazi. Kungenzeka futhi kube nomthelela ekufeni okungagwemeka kwamanani angenakubalwa amaJuda aseYurophu.

Julayi 7. Ngalolu suku ku-2005, uchungechunge lwezihlaselo zokubulala ukuzibulala kwamaphekula kwenzeka eLondon. Amadoda amathathu aqoqa amabhomu okwenziwe ngokweqile kodwa ngesikhathi esifanayo e-London Underground kanti owesine wenza okufanayo ebhasini. Kuhlanganisa amaphekula amane, abantu abayizinkulungwane ezingamashumi amahlanu nabezizwe ezihlukahlukene bafa, futhi abangu-7 balimala. Ucwaningo luye lwabona ukuthi i-95% yokuhlasela kwamaphekula okuzibulala ishukunyiswa isifiso sokuthola umbutho wezempi ukuqeda umsebenzi. Lokhu kuhlaselwa kwakungekho ngaphandle kwalowo mthetho. Isisusa sasiphetha umsebenzi wase-Iraq. Ngonyaka odlule, ngoMashi 11, i-2004, i-Al Qaeda amabhomu ayebulewe abantu base-191 eMadrid, eSpain, ngaphambi nje kokhetho lapho iqembu elilodwa lihlehlise khona ukulwa neSpain empini eholwa e-Iraq. Abantu baseSpain bavotela amaSocialists, bawasusa onke amasosha aseSpain avela e-Iraq ngoMeyi. Kwakungekho amabhomu eSpain. Ukulandela ukuhlaselwa kwe-2005 eLondon, uhulumeni waseBrithani wazinikela ekuqhubekeni kwemisebenzi enobudlova yase-Iraq ne-Afghanistan. Ukuhlasela kwamaphekula eLondon kulandelwe ku-2007, 2013, 2016, naku-2017. Kuyathakazelisa ukuthi emlandweni wezwe inani elikhulu lokuzibulala kwamaphekula kulokhu liye labhalwa ukuthi liqhutshwa ukucasuka izipho zokudla, imithi, izikole noma amandla ahlanzekile. Ukunciphisa ukuhlaselwa kokuzibulala kungasiza ngokunciphisa ukuhlupheka okuhlanganyelwe, ukungabi nabulungisa, nokungabi nabulungisa, nangokuphendula izikhalo ezingaphephile, ezivame ukuqala izenzo zobudlova kodwa ngokuvamile zilahlwa. Ukwelapha lobu bugebengu njengobugebengu, kunokuba izenzo zempi zingabhidliza umjikelezo ononya.

Julayi 8. Kulolu suku ku-2014, empini yezinsuku eziyisikhombisa ezaziwa ngokuthi i-2014 Gaza War, u-Israyeli waqala umoya wamasonto ayisikhombisa futhi wahlaselwa ngokumelene ne-Hamas eyayibusa iGaza Strip. Inhloso yalokhu kusebenza kwakuwukuyeka umlilo we-rocket kusukela eGaza waya e-Israel, okwenyuka ngemuva kokuthunjwa kukaJuni kanye nokubulawa kwabasha abathathu base-Israel ngamabutho amabili e-Hamas eNtshonalanga Bank abangela ukuqhuma kwe-Israel. I-Hamas ifuna ukukhiqiza u-Israyeli ukucindezela ukuvinjelwa kweGaza Strip. Kodwa lapho impi iphelile, ukubulawa kwabantu, ukulimala, nokungabi namakhaya kwakunjalo ngokumelene nabantu baseGazan abangaphezu kuka-2000 Gazan abashonile, uma kuqhathaniswa nabakwa-Israyeli kuphela-ukuthi iseshini esikhethekile se-Russell Tribunal ePalestina kubizwe ukuthi uzophenya ngokubulawa kuka-Israyeli. Ijaji lalingenzima ukuphetha ngokuthi ukuhlaselwa kwe-Israel, kanye nokukhomba kwayo okungakhethi, kwabekwe ebugebengu obubhekiswe kubantu, njengoba bebeka isijeziso ngokuhlanganyela kubo bonke abantu. Iphinde inqabe isimangalo se-Israel sokuthi izenzo zayo zingase zilungiswe njengokuzivikela ekuhlaselweni kwe-rocket eGaza, ngoba lezo zihlaselo zenza izenzo zokumelana nabantu abahluphekile ngaphansi kokujezisa u-Israel. Noma kunjalo, ijaji lala ukubiza izenzo ze-Israel ngokuthi "uhlanga," ngoba lokho kukhishwa ngokomthetho kwakudinga ubufakazi obunamandla bokuthi "inhloso yokubhubhisa." Yiqiniso, ezinkulungwaneni zamaGazans ezifile, abalimele nabangenamakhaya, lezi ziphetho zazingenasiphelo . Kubo, nakwezinye izindawo zomhlaba, impendulo yangempela kuphela yenkathazo yempi isalokhu isiphelile ngokuphelele.

Julayi 9. Kulolu suku ku-1955, u-Albert Einstein, uBertrand Russell nabanye ososayensi abayisikhombisa baxwayisa ngokuthi kufanele kwenziwe ukhetho phakathi kwempi nokuphila komuntu. Ososayensi abahlonishwayo emhlabeni wonke, kubandakanya uMax Born waseJalimane, kanye noKhomanisi waseFrance uFrederic Joliot-Curie, bajoyina u-Albert Einstein noBertrand Russell emzameni wokuqeda impi. IManifesto, incwadi yokugcina eyasayinwa ngu-Einstein ngaphambi kokufa kwakhe, yayifundeka kanje: “Uma sibheka iqiniso lokuthi kunoma iyiphi impi yesikhathi esizayo izikhali zenuzi zizosetshenziswa, nokuthi lezo zikhali zisongela ukuqhubeka kwesintu, sinxusa ohulumeni bezwe umhlaba ukwazi, futhi uvume esidlangalaleni, ukuthi inhloso yabo ayinakuqhubekiswa yimpi yezwe, futhi-ke sibanxusa ukuthi bathole izindlela ezinokuthula zokuxazulula zonke izindaba zempikiswano phakathi kwabo. ” Lowo owayenguNgqongqoshe Wezokuvikela e-United States, uRobert McNamara, waveza nokwesaba kwakhe ukuthi inhlekelele yenuzi yayingenakugwemeka ngaphandle kokuba izinqola zenuzi ziqedwe, waphawula: “Inhloko yempi yase-United States inamandla okubhubhisa izikhathi ezingu-20 kunaleyo yebhomu laseHiroshima. Kuma-warheads ase-US asebenzayo noma asebenzayo angama-8,000, angama-2,000 20 asexwayisweni sezinwele… I-US ayikaze ivume inqubomgomo 'yokungasetshenziswa kokuqala,' hhayi phakathi neminyaka eyisikhombisa njengonobhala noma kusukela lapho. Besikulungele futhi sihlala sikulungele ukuqala ukusetshenziswa kwezikhali zenuzi – ngesinqumo somuntu oyedwa, umongameli… .umongameli uzimisele ukuthatha isinqumo kungakapheli imizuzu engama-20 engaqala esinye sezikhali ezibhubhisa kakhulu emhlabeni. Ukumemezela impi kudinga isenzo seCongress, kepha ukuqala ukuqothulwa kwenyukliya kudinga ukucatshangelwa kwemizuzu engama-XNUMX ngumongameli nabeluleki bakhe. ”

Julayi 10. Ngalolu suku ku-1985, uhulumeni waseFrance wagijima wabulala i-Greenpeace flagship I-Rainbow Warrior, ehambela esigodini e-Auckland, idolobha elikhulu eNew Zealand eNorth Island. Ukuphishekela isithakazelo sayo ekuvikeleni imvelo, i-Greenpeace yayilokhu isebenzisa umkhumbi ukuze isungulwe enye yemikhankaso yayo engaphephile yokulwa nokuhlolwa kwe-nyukliya eFrance ePacific. I-New Zealand yayisekela kakhulu imibhikisho, ibonisa indima yayo njengomholi emnyangweni wezwe olwa nuclear. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, uFrance wabona ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi kubalulekile ekuvikeleni kwayo, futhi beyesaba ukucindezela komhlaba jikelele okungase kuphoqele ukuphela kwayo. AbaFulentshi babeqaphele kakhulu izinhlelo zikaGreenpeace zokuhamba ngomkhumbi kusukela e-Auckland wharf kanye nesiteji nenye enye imibhikisho e-Mururoa Atoll eFrance ePacific. Njengoba i-flagship, i-Rainbow Warrior ingabangela i-flotilla yamachibi amancane okumbhikisho ayenamasu okungaziphathi kahle ama-navy aseFrance angathola kunzima ukulawula. Umkhumbi wawukhulu kakhulu ngokwanele ukuthwala izinto zokwanele kanye nemishini yokuxhumana ukuze kugcinwe ukuphikisana okuqhubekayo nokuhamba komsakazo nomhlaba wangaphandle kanye nemibiko nezithombe ezinhlanganweni zezindaba zomhlaba wonke. Ukuze ugweme konke lokhu, ama-Agent French Secret Service aye athunyelwe ekucwiliseni umkhumbi futhi avimbele ukuthi ungaqhubeki. Lesi sinyathelo sabangela ukuwohloka okukhulu kobudlelwane phakathi kweNew Zealand neFrance futhi kwenziwa okuningi ekukhuthazeni ukuqhutshwa kobuzwe eNew Zealand. Ngenxa yokuthi iBrithani ne-United States bahlulekile ukulahla lesi senzo sobuphekula, futhi kwaqina ukusekelwa ngaphakathi eNew Zealand ngenqubomgomo engaphandle yokuzimela yangaphandle.

July 11. Ngalolu suku ngonyaka, i-UN Population-Day Day Day, eyasungulwa ku-1989, igxila ezindabeni ezinjalo eziphathelene nokwanda komphakathi njengokuhlela komndeni, ukulingana ngokobulili, impilo yabantu kanye nemvelo, imfundo, ukulingana kwezomnotho kanye namalungelo abantu. Ngaphezu kwalokhu kukhathazeka, ochwepheshe bezinombolo zabantu futhi baye babona ukuthi ukwanda kwabantu ngokushesha emazweni ampofu kubeka ingcindezi kuzinsizakusebenza ezitholakalayo ezingaholela ngokushesha ekungazinzini komphakathi, izingxabano zombango nempi. Lokhu kuyiqiniso engxenyeni ebalulekile ngoba ukwanda okusheshayo kwabantu kuvame ukukhiqiza iningi labantu abangaphansi kweminyaka engamashumi amathathu. Lapho abantu abanjalo beholwa uhulumeni obuthakathaka noma ozibusayo, futhi behluleka kokuthola izinsiza ezibalulekile nemfundo eyisisekelo, ezempilo, namathuba emisebenzi kubantu abasha, iba yindawo evuthayo yezingxabano zombango. IBhange Lomhlaba libala i-Angola, iSudan, iHaiti, iSomalia neMyanmar njengezibonelo ezimbi kakhulu “zamazwe ahola kancane aphansi kwengcindezi.” Kuzo zonke, uzinzo lubekelwa phansi inani labantu elikhokha intela isikhala nezinsizakusebenza. Uma sezidliwe yizingxabano zombango, izizwe ezinjalo zikuthola kunzima ukuqala kabusha intuthuko yezomnotho – noma ngabe zicebile ngemithombo yemvelo. Ochwepheshe abaningi baxwayisa ngokuthi amazwe anokwanda okuphezulu kwabantu futhi engenazo izinsiza ezanele zokuhlinzekela abantu bawo kungenzeka ukuthi azale izinxushunxushu endaweni. Yebo amazwe abizwa ngokuthi athuthukile athumela izikhali, izimpi, amaqembu okufa, amaqili, kanye nokungenelela, esikhundleni sosizo lwabantu kanye nezemvelo, nakho kubhebhezela udlame ezingxenyeni zomhlaba ezimpofu nezinezindawo ezinabantu abaningi, ezinye zazo azisenabantu abaningi, zimane nje zihlupheka kakhulu , kuneJapan noma iJalimane.

Julayi 12. Kulolu suku ku-1817 uHenry David Thoreau wazalwa. Noma mhlawumbe mhlawumbe eyaziwa kakhulu nge-philosophical transcendentalism yakhe-lapho, njengokungathi Walden, wabheka ukubonakaliswa kwemvelo njengombonakaliso wemithetho engokomoya-uThoreau naye owayengewona onguphikisi okholelwa ukuthi ukuziphatha okuhle akuveli ekuthobeleni igunya kepha kunembeza ngamunye. Lo mbono uchazwe encwadini yakhe ende Ukungalaleli Kwabantu, okuyinto ephefumulelwe kamuva amalungelo amalungelo omphakathi ezifana Martin Luther King noMahatma Gandhi. Izinkinga ezithinta kakhulu iTrereau zaziyizigqila kanye neMpi yaseMexico. Ukwenqaba kwakhe ukukhokha intela yokusekela impi yaseMexico kwaholela ekuboshweni kwakhe, nokuphikiswa kwakhe ebugqilini bezincwadi ezinjengokuthi "Ubugqila eMassachusetts" nethi "A Plea for Captain John Brown." Ukuzivikela kukaThoreau ngo-radical obolistist uJohn Brown kwaqhathaniswa ukusola kukaBrown ngemuva kokuzama kwakhe ukubopha izigqila ngokubamba izikhali eHarper's Ferry. Ukuhlaselwa kwaholela ekufeni kwesinye seMelika yaseMelika kanye nabayishumi nesishiyagalolunye bavukeli. UBrown ubekwe icala lokubulala, ukuhlubuka, nokugqugquzela ukuhlubuka kwabantu abagqilaziwe, ekugcineni waphonywa. UThoreau, waqhubeka evikela uBrown, ebona ukuthi izinhloso zakhe zazingabantu abanomusa futhi zazalwa ngokunamathela kunembeza namalungelo omthethosisekelo wase-US. Impi Yomphakathi eyayilandela yayiyoholela ekufeni kwabantu abathile be-700,000. UThoreau wafa ngenkathi impi iqala ngo-1861. Noma kunjalo, abaningi ababesekela uMbumbano, bobabili amasosha kanye nezakhamizi, bahlala bephefumulelwe umbono kaThoreau wokuthi ukuqeda ubugqila kwakudingeka isizwe esithi siyabona abantu, ukuziphatha, amalungelo kanye nonembeza.

Julayi 13. Kulolu suku ku-1863, phakathi kweMpi Yombango, ukuqala kokulwa kwamazwe ase-US ngesikhathi sokulwa nempi kudala izinsuku ezine zokuhlukumezeka eNew York City ezibeka phakathi kokubhubhisa nokubhubhisa kakhulu emlandweni wase-US. Ukuvuswa akuzange kuboniswe ngokuyinhloko ukuphikiswa kokuziphatha empini. Imbangela yomsuka kungenzeka ukuthi ukuyeka ukuthengiswa kwekotoni okuvela eNingizimu okwasetshenziselwa amaphesenti angu-XNUM wezo zonke izimpahla ezithunyelwa kusuka echwebeni lomuzi. Izinkathazo ezikhiqizwa ukulahlekelwa komsebenzi zivele zikhungulwe uMemezelo Wokumiswa Kwemongameli ngoSeptemba 40. Umyalo kaLincoln wakhipha ukwesaba phakathi kwabantu abasebenza abamhlophe ukuthi izinkulungwane zabakhulu abamnyama abavela eNingizimu zingase zithathe isikhundla saso emakethe yemisebenzi kakade. Ngenxa yalokho okwesabayo, abamhlophe abaningi baqala ukubamba ama-African-American ahlukumezekile ngokubambisana nempi kanye nekusasa labo elingenasisekelo lezomnotho. Ukuhamba komthetho wokubhaliswa kwamasosha ekuqaleni kwe-1862 okwavumela abacebile ukukhiqiza indawo noma ukuthenga indlela yabo, bahambisa abantu abaningi abamhlophe ukuba basebenzise impikiswano. Baphoqeleka ukubeka ukuphila kwabo engozini ngenxa yeNyunyana ababezizwa beyikhohlisile, babuthana yizinkulungwane ngoJulayi 1863th ukuze benze izenzo zobudlova zenzondo kubantu abamnyama, izindlu namabhizinisi. Kulinganiselwa inani labantu ababulewe kufika ku-13. Nakuba ukuqothulwa kwaphela ngoJulayi 1,200 ngokufika kwamabutho ase-federal, impi yaphinde yaveza imiphumela embi engalindelekile. Noma kunjalo, izingelosi ezingcono nazo ziyoba nendima. Umnyathelisi wase-New York wase-Afrika wokubhubhisa abancane wavuka kancane kancane kusuka e-dormancy ukuthuthukisa ukulingana okumnyama edolobheni futhi ushintshe umphakathi wakhe ukuze ube ngcono.

July 14. Ngalolu suku ku-1789, abantu baseParis bahlasela futhi baqothule iBastille, inqaba yendlu yobukhosi kanye nejele eyayifanekisela ukuhlukunyezwa kwamakhosi aseFrance eBourbon. Nakuba belambile futhi bekhokha intela enzima kakhulu lapho abefundisi nabahlonishwa bebekhululekile khona, abalimi nabasemadolobheni ababehamba beya eBastille bafuna kuphela ukuthatha isikhunta sebutho lempi esilondolozwe khona ukuze kulungiselelwe amasosha inkosi eyayinqume ukuyohamba ngaseParis. Ngenkathi kwenzeka ukulwa okungalindelekile, abavukuzi bakhulula iziboshwa futhi baboshwa umbusi wejele. Lezo zenzo zibonisa ukuqala okungokomfanekiso we-Revolution yesiFulentshi, iminyaka eyishumi yezingxabano zezombangazwe ezadala izimpi futhi zadala ukuBusa koMbubhiso ngokumelene nabaphikisi bezinguquko lapho amashumi ezinkulungwane zabantu, kuhlanganise nenkosi nendlovukazi, bebulawa. Ngenxa yalezi zinkinga, kungase kudingeke ukuthi umcimbi obaluleke kakhulu ekubukeni kokuqala kuka Revolution kwenzeka ngo-Agasti 4, 1789. Ngalolo suku iNhlangano Yomthetho Kazwelonke Yomhlaba yahlangana futhi yaqala ukushintsha izinguquko eziphelile ekuqedeni ubuFulentshi beminyaka yobudala yaseFrance, nayo yonke imithetho yayo yakudala, izinhlinzeko zentela, kanye namalungelo okwenza abahlonishwayo nabafundisi. Ngokuyinhloko, abalimi baseFrance bawamukela lezi zinguquko, bezibona njengezimpendulo zezikhalazo zabo ezicindezelayo. Noma kunjalo, i-Revolution ngokwayo yayizokwelula iminyaka eyishumi, kuze kube yilapho uNapoleon ethatha amandla ezombusazwe ngoNovemba 1799. Ngokuphambene, ukuguqulwa kuka-Agasti 4 kuphela kubonisa ukuzimisela okuphawulekayo kwabakhulumi abanelungelo lokubeka ukuthula nenhlalakahle yesizwe ngaphambi kwezithakazelo zangasese njengokubheka ukunakekelwa komhlaba.

Julayi 15. Ngalolu suku ku-1834, i-Inquisition yaseSpain, eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Tribunal of the Holy Office ye-Inquisition, yaqedwa ngokuphelele ngesikhathi sokubusa okuncane kweNdlovukazi u-Isabel II. Leli hhovisi lalisungulwe ngaphansi kwegunya likapapa ngo-1478 ngamakhosi aseSpain ahlangene, iNkosi uFerdinand II wase-Aragon neNdlovukazi u-Isabella I waseCastile. Inhloso yalo yasekuqaleni kwakungukusiza ekuhlanganiseni umbuso waseSpain owawusanda kuhlanganiswa ngokukhipha amaJuda noma amaSulumane aphendukela ebuKristwini. Izindlela ezinesihluku nezilulazayo zisetshenziselwe ukufeza zombili lezo zinto kanye nokulwa okwandayo kokungahambisani nenkolo. Eminyakeni engama-350 yokuQulwa Kwamacala Ezihlubuki, kwashushiswa amaJuda, amaSulumane, amaProthestani kanye nabefundisi bamaKatolika abangaphansi kuka-150,000 3,000. Kubo, kwabulawa abangu-5,000 160,000 kuya ku-XNUMX XNUMX, ikakhulu ngokushiswa esigxotsheni. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amaJuda angaba ngu-XNUMX XNUMX enqaba ubhapathizo lobuKristu axoshwa eSpain. UkuQulwa Kwamacala Ezihlubuki eSpain kuyohlale kukhunjulwa njengesinye seziqephu ezidabukisa kakhulu emlandweni, kepha amandla okukhuphuka kwamandla acindezelayo ahlala egxilile kuyo yonke inkathi. Izimpawu zalo zihlala zifana: ukulawula okwandayo kwenqwaba yengcebo nokusizakala kwezikhulu eziphakeme; ingcebo eyehla njalo nenkululeko yabantu; kanye nokusetshenziswa kwamasu okulungisa, okuziphatha okubi noma okunonya ukugcina izinto zinjalo. Lapho izimpawu ezinjalo zivela ezweni lesimanje, zingahlangatshezwa ngempumelelo yisishoshovu sezepolitiki esiphikisayo esiguqula ukulawula kube yisakhamuzi esibanzi. Abantu ngokwabo bangathenjwa kangcono kakhulu ekuphokopheleni izinhloso zobuntu eziphoqa labo abababusayo ukuthi bangafuni amandla elite, kodwa okuhle okuhle.

Julayi 16. Kulolu suku ku-1945 i-US ihlolwe ngempumelelo ibhomu lokuqala le-athomu lezwe at i-Alamogordo ibhomu e-New Mexico. Ibhomu liwumkhiqizo we-okuthiwa iManhattan Project, umzamo wokucwaninga nokuthuthukiswa owaqala ngenkuthalo ekuqaleni kwe-1942, lapho kuvela ukwesaba ukuthi amaJalimane ahlakulela ibhomu lawo le-athomu. Umkhankaso wase-US wagxila esiteshini eLos Alamos, eNew Mexico, lapho izinkinga zokufeza ubunzima obunzima bokubangela ukuqhuma kwezikhali zenuzi kanye nokwakhiwa kwebhomu lokukhululwa. Ngesikhathi ibhomu lokuhlola lidonsa endaweni ehlane laseNew Mexico, laphefumula umbhoshongo owahlala kuwo, yathumela ukukhanya kwe-40,000 emanzini, futhi yenza amandla okubhubhisa we-15,000 kumathani we-20,000 we-TNT. Ngaphansi kwenyanga, ngo-Agasti 9, 1945, ibhomu lomklamo ofanayo, obizwa ngokuthi uFat Boy, lahlelwa eNagasaki, eJapane, labulala abantu abangu-60,000 abalinganiselwa kubantu abangu-80,000. Ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II, umncintiswano wezikhali zenuzi wasungulwa phakathi kwe-US kanye neSoviet Union ekugcineni, noma okungenani okwesikhashana, ihlanganiswa yizivumelwano zokulawula izikhali. Ezinye zaphinda zachithwa yiziphathimandla zase-US ezifuna inzuzo yamasosha emikhakheni yamandla omhlaba wonke. Bambalwa bangaphikisana ngokuthi ukusetshenziswa okuhleliwe noma okuphuthumayo kwezikhali zenuzi ezinamandla kunazo zonke kuyingozi abantu kanye nezinye izinhlobo zezilwane, nokuthi kubalulekile ukuqinisa izivumelwano zokungavinjelani phakathi kwamandla amabili enuzi. Abahleli besivumelwano esishaya zonke izikhali zenuzi banikezwa uMklomelo Wokuthula we-Nobel ku-2017.

July 17. Ngalolu suku ku-1998, isivumelwano esiyitholwa enkomfeni edibanisa eRoma, eyaziwa ngokuthi iSitatimende saseRoma, sakha i-International Criminal Court. Inhloso yenkantolo ukukhonza njengendlela yokugcina yokuzama abaholi bezempi nezombusazwe kunoma yiluphi uhlanga olusayinezelayo mayelana namacala okubulala, ukulwa nobugebengu bezempi, noma ubugebengu obuphikisana nomuntu. Isitatimende saseRoma esisungula iNkantolo saqala ukusebenza ngoJulayi 1, i-2002, sesigunyazwe noma isayinwe ngamazwe angaphezu kwe-150-nakuba engekho e-US, eRussia noma eChina. Ngalokhu, uhulumeni wase-US uye waphikisana njalo nenkantolo yamazwe omhlaba engakwazi ukubamba abaholi bayo bezempi nezombusazwe ukuba babe nemigomo yemibuso yomhlaba jikelele. Abaphathi beClinton bahlanganyele ngenkuthalo ekuxoxisaneni isivumelwano esibeka iNkantolo, kodwa bafuna ukuhlolwa kokuqala kwamacala e-Security Council amacala ayeyokwenza ama-US avume noma yikuphi ukuphikiswa okuphikisana nawo. Njengoba iNkantolo isondelene nokuqaliswa kwe-2001, ukuphathwa kweBush kwayiphikisa ngokuqinile, kuxoxisana ngezivumelwano zomhlaba namanye amazwe okuhloswe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi abantu base-United States bazovikeleka ekushushisweni. Eminyakeni eminingi ngemuva kokuqaliswa kweNkantolo, ukuphathwa kweTrump mhlawumbe kwembula ngokucacile ukuthi kungani uhulumeni wase-US eqhubeka ephikisana nayo. NgoSeptemba 2018, uhulumeni wabala ukuvalwa kwehhovisi lasePalestina Liberation eWashington futhi wasongela iNkantolo uma kufanele uphishekele uphenyo ngamacala okulwa nobugebengu yi-US, u-Israel noma noma yikuphi okubambisana nawo. Kungenzeka yini lokhu kungakhombisi ukuthi ukuphikiswa kwe-US kwi-International Criminal Court akuhlangene nokuvikela isimiso sobukhosi bukazwelonke kunokuba ngokuvikela inkululeko engapheli yokuzivocavoca ingase ihambe kahle?

Julayi 18. Lolu suku lubonisa umkhosi waminyaka yonke weNhlangano yeziNhlanganiso zeNhlangano yeziZwe zikaNelson Mandela. Ngokuhambisana nokuzalwa kukaMandela, futhi ehlonishwa ngeminikelo yakhe eminingi emkhakheni wokuthula nenkululeko, lolo suku lwakhulunywa ngokusemthethweni yi-UN ngoNovemba 2009 futhi lwaqala ukuqala ngoJulayi 18, 2010. Njengommeli wamalungelo abantu, umboshwa wesazela, nomongameli wokuqala okhethwe ngentando yeningi eNingizimu Afrika, uNelson Mandela wanikela impilo yakhe ezimbangela ezibalulekile ekukhuthazeni intando yeningi kanye nesiko lokuthula. Zihlanganisa, phakathi kwamanye, amalungelo esintu, ukuphakanyiswa kobulungiswa bezenhlalakahle, ukubuyisana, ubudlelwano bobuhlanga, nokuxazulula izingxabano. Mayelana Nokuthula, uMandela wakhuluma enkulumweni kaJanuwari 2004 eNew Delhi, eNdiya: "Inkolo, ubuhlanga, ulimi, ezenhlalakahle kanye nemikhuba yenkambiso yizinto ezicebisa intuthuko yabantu, engeza ingcebo yokuhlukahluka kwethu. Kungani kufanele bavunyelwe ukuba yisizathu sokuhlukaniswa nobudlova? "Umnikelo kaMandela ekuthuleni awuhambisani neze nemigomo yemigomo yokuqeda impi yomhlaba wonke; ukugxila kwakhe, okuyinto ngokungangabazeki okusekela lokho kuphelela, kwakuwukuletha amaqembu ahluke ndawonye emazingeni angaphakathi nabezwe ngomqondo omusha womphakathi okwabiwe. I-UN ikhuthaza labo abafisa ukudumisa uMandela ngosuku lwakhe ukuba bazinikeze imizuzu ye-67 ngesikhathi sabo-ngomzuzu owodwa ngeminyaka yakhe yonke ye-67 yenkonzo yomphakathi-ukwenza isenzo esincane sokubambisana nomuntu. Phakathi kweziphakamiso zalo zokwenza lokhu yizinyathelo ezilula: Siza umuntu athole umsebenzi. Hamba inja enesizungu esitokisini sendawo yesilwane. Yenza ubungane nomuntu ovela emlandweni wezamasiko ohlukile.

Julayi 19. Ngalolu suku ku-1881, uSitting Bull, oyinhloko yezizwe zase-Sioux Indian zaseMelika ezinkulu eziPhahleni, unikezwe nabalandeli bakhe e-US Army ngemuva kokubuyela emuva eDakota Territory elandela iminyaka emine edingisiwe eCanada. Ukuhlala uBull kwahola abantu bakhe bawela umngcele baya eCanada ngoMeyi 1877, kulandela ukubamba iqhaza kwabo onyakeni owedlule e-Battle of the Little Big Horn. Lokho kwaba kokugcina kweMpi enkulu yamaSioux yango-1870, lapho amaNdiya asethafeni alwela ukuvikela ifa lawo njengabazingeli benyathi abazimele abanolaka ekuhlaselweni yiWhite Man. ISioux yayinqobe eLittle Big Horn, yaze yabulala nomkhuzi ohlonishwayo we-US Seventh Cavalry, uLieutenant Colonel George Custer. Ukunqoba kwabo, nokho, kwenza ibutho laseMelika laphindaphinda imizamo yokuphoqa amaNdiya asethafeni ukuba abhukhe. Kwakungalesi sizathu ukuthi uSitting Bull wayeholele abalandeli bakhe ekuphepheni kweCanada. Ngemuva kweminyaka emine, nokho ukuqothulwa kwenyathi yasemaThafeni, ngenxa yokufuna ukuzingela ngokweqile ngokweqile, kwaletha abathunjwa emaphethelweni endlala. Bephethwe yiziphathimandla zase-US nezaseCanada, abaningi babo babhekisa amabombo ngaseningizimu. Ekugcineni, uSitting Bull wabuyela e-United States nabalandeli abangu-187 kuphela, abaningi abadala noma abagulayo. Ngemuva kweminyaka emibili eboshiwe, inkosi eyake yazigqaja yabelwa ukubhuka kweStinging Rock eSouth Dakota yanamuhla. Ngo-1890, wadutshulwa wabulawa ngesikhathi kuboshwa abamele baseMelika nabaseNdiya ababesaba ukuthi uzosiza ekuholeni inhlangano ekhulayo yeGhost Dance ehlose ukubuyisa indlela yokuphila kaSioux.

Julayi 20. Ngalolu suku ku-1874, uLieutenant Colonel George Custer uholele amandla okuhambela ayenamadoda angaphezulu kuka-1,000 namahhashi nezinkomo ze-US Seventh Cavalry ezingeni elimnyama lase-South Dakota langaphambilini. Isivumelwano saseFort Laramie sango-1868 sasibeke eceleni izindawo zokubekisa esifundeni iBlack Hills eDakota Territory sezizwe zamaSioux Indian zaseNyakatho Great Plains ezavuma ukuhlala lapho, futhi zavimbela abamhlophe ukungena. Inhloso esemkhankasweni weCuster kwakuwukuphinda ahlanganise izindawo ezingaba khona zezinqaba zamasosha eBlack Hills noma eduze kwayo ezazingalawula izizwe zakwaSioux ezazingasayinanga kuLaramie Treaty. Empeleni, noma kunjalo, lolu hambo lwalufuna nokuthola izinqolobane ezinamahemuhemu ezimbiwa phansi, amapulangwe negolide abaholi baseMelika ababezimisele ukukuthola ngokwedelela lesi sivumelwano. Njengoba kwenzeka, lolu hambo lwathola igolide, okwadonsela izinkulungwane zabavukuzi ngokungemthetho eBlack Hills. I-US yasishiya ngempumelelo iSivumelwano seLaramie ngoFebhuwari 1876, kanye nango-June 25 olandelayo^th Impi yeBighorn encane eningizimu-mpumalanga e-Montana yaholela ekunqobeni okungalindelekile kweSioux. NgoSeptemba, Nokho, ibutho lase-US, besebenzisa amaqhinga ayevimbela iSioux ukuba abuyele e-Black Hills, wabanqoba empini ye-Slim Buttes. I-Sioux ibize ngokuthi le mpi "Ukulwa Lapho Silahlekelwa Khona Izintaba Ezimnyama." Kodwa-ke, i-US, ngokwayo, ingase ibhekene nokuhluleka okukhulu kokuziphatha. Ekunciphiseni i-Sioux yezwe eliphephile elisemkhakheni wakubo, yavuma inqubomgomo yangaphandle ngaphandle kwemingcele yabantu ekubusweni kwayo kwezomnotho neyezempi.

Julayi 21. Kulolu suku ku-1972, umculi we-standup wokumisa umklomelo uGeorge Carlin waboshwa ngezinsolo zokuziphatha ngokungcolile nokuhlambalaza ngemuva kokwenza amazwi akhe athi "Amazwi Ayisikhombisa Ongasoze Uwasebenzisa Ngethelevishini" esimisweni somculo we-Summerfest eMilwaukee. UCarlin wayeseqale umsebenzi wakhe wokuma ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yama-1950 njengomdlalo wamahlaya osikiwe ohlanzekile owaziwa ngokudlala kwakhe ngokukhalipha nokukhumbula kwakhe ukukhuliswa kwabasebenzi base-Ireland eNew York. Nokho, ngo-1970, wayesezenze waba nentshebe, izinwele ezinde, nejean, futhi wayenendlela yamahlaya, ngokusho komunye umgxeki, eyayicwile “ezidakamizweni nasolimini olubi.” Lolu shintsho lwadaleka emuva ngokushesha kubanikazi bama-nightclub nabaxhasi, ngakho-ke uCarlin waqala ukuvela ezindlini zekhofi, emakilabhini abantu, nasemakolishi, lapho izilaleli ezincane, ezinesibindi zamukela isithombe sakhe esisha nezinto ezingezinhlonipho. Kwabe sekufika uSummerfest 1972, lapho uCarlin ezwa khona ukuthi “Amagama Ayisikhombisa” akhe ayenqatshelwe ayengamukelekile esiteji esisogwini lolwandle lwaseMilwaukee kunakuthelevishini. Emashumini eminyaka alandelayo, nokho, wona lawo magama — nama-initials spfccmt – amukelwa kabanzi njengengxenye engokwemvelo yezinkulumo ezihlekisayo. Ngabe ushintsho lukhombise ukuguquguquka kwesiko laseMelika? Noma bekungukunqoba kwenkulumo yamahhala engafakwanga esize abasebasha babone ukuzenzisa okunyantisayo nokwedelela kwempilo yangasese neyomphakathi yaseMelika? Usomahlaya uLewis Black wake wanikeza umbono wokuthi kungani intukuthelo yakhe yamahlaya enamahlaya engakaze ibonakale ingathandwa. Akuzwanga ubuhlungu, wathi uhulumeni wase-US kanye nabaholi bawo babemnikeza ukugeleza okuhlala njalo kwezinto ezintsha azosebenza kuzo.

Julayi 22. Ngalolu suku ku-1756, i-pacifist i-Religion Society of Friends e-colonial yasePennsylvania, eyaziwa ngokuthi yi-Quakers, yasungula "i-Friendly Association yokuthola futhi yokulondoloza ukuthula namaNdiya ngezimiso zasePacific." Isiteji salesi senzo sasibekwe ku-1681, lapho isikhulu seNgisi uWilliam Penn, i-Quaker yokuqala kanye nomsunguli wesiFundazwe sasePennsylvania, sisayina isivumelwano sokuthula noTamany, umholi waseNdiya weDelaware Nation. Ukufinyelela okujwayelekile lapho i-Friendly Association efisa khona yenziwa yizinkolelo zenkolo zamaQuaker ukuthi uNkulunkulu angazibonela ngaphandle kokuxoxisana kwezefundisi nokuthi abesifazane bayalingana ngokomoya nabantu. Lezi zivumelwano zihambelana nesizinda esinqunyiwe nesilinganiselwe isiko lamaMelika aseMelika, okwenza kube lula kumaNdiya ukwamukela amaQuaker njengezithunywa zevangeli. Kubantu bamaQuaker, i-Association yayizoba yisibonelo esihle kubo bobabili amaNdiya nakwabanye baseYurophu ukuthi ubudlelwane be-intercultural kufanele buqhutshwe kanjani. Ngokwenza kanjalo, ngokungafani nezinye izinsiza zaseYurophu, i-Association empeleni yachitha izimali zayo ngenhlalakahle yaseNdiya, ayizange ilahle izinkolo zaseNdiya, futhi yamukela amaNdiya endlini yokuhlangana yaseQuaker yokukhulekela. Ku-1795, amaQuaker akhethe ikomidi lokuletha amaNdiya kulokho abakuzwa ukuthi yizobuciko obudingekayo empucuko, njengezolimo. Banikeza nezeluleko zokuziphatha, bexusa iSeneca, isibonelo, ukuba ihlaziye, ihlanzeke, igcine isikhathi futhi ikhuthele. Kodwa azange enze umzamo wokuguqula amaNdiya ekukholweni kwabo. Kuze kube yilolu suku, uMngane wama-Friendly owaziwa kakhulu usazisa ukuthi indlela eqinisekisayo yokwakha umhlaba ongcono iwukuba nobuhlobo obunokuthula, obuhloniphayo nabomakhelwane phakathi kwezizwe.

Julayi 23. Kulolu suku ku-2002, uNdunankulu waseBrithani u-Tony Blair uhlangane nohulumeni wase-UK, u-defense kanye no-intelligence izibalo e-10 Downing Street, indawo yokuhlala ehhovisi likaNdunankulu eLondon, ukuxoxa ngesiphakamiso esiphezulu sokulwa ne-United States elwa ne-Iraq. Amaminithi alowo mhlangano alotshwe kudokhumenti eyaziwa ngokuthi i-Downing Street "Memo," eyashicilelwe ngaphandle kokugunyazwa okusemthethweni ku I-London [iSunday Times] ngo-May 2005. Ukufakazela futhi ukuthi iMpi Yingamanga, iMemo imbula ngokucacile ukuthi i-US Bush Administration yenze ingqondo yayo ukuya empini ngokumelene ne-Iraq ngaphambi kokuba iphumelele ukufuna imvume ye-UN, kodwa nokuthi iBritish yayivumile kakade ukubamba iqhaza empini njengabalingani bezempi. Lesi sivumelwano sifikelelwe naphezu kokuqashelwa yiziphathimandla zaseBrithani ukuthi icala lokulwa ne-Iraq "lincane." Ukuphathwa kukaBush kwasungula icala lakhe ngokumelene nombuso waseSaddam ngokusekelwa kwawo okuhlangene kobuphekula nezikhali zokubhujiswa okukhulu. Kodwa ngokwenza kanjalo, iziphathimandla zaseBrithani zathi, abaphathi babenqume ukuhlakanipha nobuqiniso bayo ukuze bavumelane nenqubomgomo yalo, hhayi umgomo wokulingana nobuhlakani bawo namaqiniso. I-Downing Street Memo ayizange ibonakale kusenesikhathi ngokwanele ukuze ihambe empini ye-Iraq, kodwa kungenzeka ukuthi yasize ekwenzeni izimpi zase-US ezizayo zingenakwenzeka uma ngabe abezindaba be-US bezenzile konke okusemandleni ukuze bakwazi ukuwazisa umphakathi. Esikhundleni salokho, abezindaba benza konke okusemandleni ekunciphiseni ubufakazi bokukhwabanisa koMemo bokukhwabanisa lapho ekugcineni kwashicilelwa eminyakeni emithathu kamuva.

Julayi 24. Lolu suku ku-1893 lubonisa ukuzalwa e-Negley, e-Ohio, we-activist enkulu yokukhohlakala yaseMelika u-Amm Hennacy. Abazali abazalwa ku-Quaker, u-Hennacy wenza uhlobo lomuntu siqu lokuzikhandla kokuthula. Akazange ajoyine abanye ngokuhlasela ngokuqondile uhlelo oluyinkimbinkimbi yempi yase-US exhasa impi. Kunalokho, kulokho ayekubiza ngokuthi "One-Man Revolution," wathinta unembeza wabantu abavamile ngokuphikisana nempi, ukubulawa kwesimo sombuso kanye nezinye izinhlobo zobudlova ngokuvamile esengozini yokuboshwa noma ngokuzila ukudla isikhathi eside. Ebiza ngokuthi u-antiarchist ongumKristu, u-Hennacy wenqaba ukubhalisa empini yezimpi zomhlaba zombili, ekhonza iminyaka emibili ejele ngenxa yokumelana naye okokuqala ejele. Kanti futhi wenqaba ukukhokha intela yentela, eyayizosetshenziselwa ingxenye yokusekela amasosha. Esikhathini sakhe somlando Incwadi ka-Amoni, UHennacy unxusa abanye baseMelika ukuba bangenwe ukubhalisa ukulungiswa kwempahla, bathenge izibopho zempi, benze imishini yokulwa, noma bakhokhe intela yempi. Wayengalindeli izindlela zezombusazwe noma zezikhungo zokuletha ushintsho. Kodwa kusobala ukuthi wayekholelwa ukuthi yena ngokwakhe, kanye nabanye abambalwa abahlali bezokuthula, abahlakaniphile nesibindi, bangenza isibonelo esikhulu sokuziphatha kwamazwi nezenzo zabo, bashukumise isixuku esibucayi sezakhamuzi ezikanye nabo ukuphikisa ukuthi izingxabano kuzo zonke Izinga lixazululwe ngezindlela zokuthula. U-Hennacy wafa ngo-1970, lapho iMpi YeVietnam isisondele kakhulu. Kodwa kungenzeka ukuthi wayebheke phambili usuku lapho isiqubulo sokuthula sodumo sesikhathi salo sasingeke sithandeke kodwa singokoqobo: "Ake sithi banikela impi futhi akekho ofika."

Julayi 25. Ngalolu suku ku-1947, i-US Congress yadlulisa uMthetho wezokuVikela kaZwelonke, owasungula uhlaka oluningi lobuholi lokwenza nokwenziwa komgomo wangaphandle wezwe phakathi neMpi Yomshoshaphansi naphesheya. Lo Mthetho wawunezigaba ezintathu: wahlanganisa uMnyango Wezempi neMpi yoMnyango ngaphansi koMnyango Wezokuvikela omusha; yasungula uMkhandlu wezokuPhepha kaZwelonke, owabekwa icala lokulungiselela imibiko embalwa kuMongameli ekungenizeni okuqhubekayo kolwazi lwezobambiswano nolwazi; futhi yakha i-Central Intelligence Agency, eyayingakhokhiswa nje ngokuqoqa izingcweti ezivela emagatsheni ahlukahlukene ezempi noMnyango WezeMbuso, kodwa futhi ngokuqhuba imisebenzi yezizwe zakwamanye amazwe. Kusukela ekusungulweni kwawo, la ma-ejensi asekhulile ngokuya ngamandla, ubukhulu, amabhajethi, namandla. Kodwa-ke, zombili iziphetho lapho lezo zimpahla zisetshenzisiwe, nezindlela abagcinwa kuzo, ziye zaphakamisa imibuzo ejulile yokuziphatha nokuziphatha. I-CIA isebenza ekusithekeni ngenxa yokubusa komthetho kanye nokuthi kungenzeka ukubusa kombuso wentando yeningi. Imindeni ye-White House imfihlo kanye nezimpi zomphakathi ngaphandle kwe-Congressional noma i-United Nations noma ukugunyazwa komphakathi. UMnyango Wezokuvikela ulawula isabelomali ukuthi i-2018 yayinkulu kunaleyo yezingxenye eziyisikhombisa ezilandelayo eziphakeme kakhulu ezisebenzayo ezempi ezihlangene, kodwa nokho yiyo kuphela i-ejensi kahulumeni wase-US engeke ihlolwe. Izisetshenziswa ezinkulu ezilahlekelwe ukulwa nempi zingase zisetshenziselwe ukuhlangabezana nezidingo ezingokwenyama nezingokwenyama zabantu abavamile e-United States nasemhlabeni jikelele.

Julayi 26. Ngalolu suku ku-1947, uMengameli uHarry Truman wasayina i-oda elihle elihloswe ekuqedeni ukucwasana ngokobuhlanga e-US Army Forces. Isiqondiso sikaTruman sasihambisana nokukhuliswa okuthandwa kakhulu ekuqedeni ukucwasana ngokobuhlanga, umgomo ayebheke ngawo ukuthi enze umthamo ophansi ngokuya komthetho we-Congressional. Ngesikhathi leyo mizamo ibhekiswa yizisongelo ze-filibuster yaseSouth, umongameli wenza lokho angakwenza ngokusebenzisa amandla akhe amakhulu. Okubaluleke kakhulu kwakhe kwakuyi-désegregation yezempi, hhayi ingxenye encane ngenxa yokuthi yayingenakuqhathaniswa nokuphikiswa kwezombangazwe. Ama-American aseMelika ahlanganisa cishe amaphesenti angu-XNUM bonke ababhalisiwe ababophezelekile emisebenzini yempi kanye nenani eliphakeme lama-inductees kuwo wonke amagatsha ezempi ngaphandle kwe-Marine Corps. Noma kunjalo, izikhulu zabasebenzi ezivela kuzo zonke amagatsha ezempi zazwakalisa ukuphikiswa kwazo, ngezinye izikhathi ngisho nangesidlangalaleni. Ukuhlanganiswa okuphelele akuzange kufike kuze kube yiMpi yaseKorea, lapho ukulimala okunzima kukwenza izinyathelo ezihlukanisiwe zihlangane ukuze zisinde. Noma kunjalo, ukwehlukaniswa kwamabutho ahlomile kwakubonisa isinyathelo sokuqala sokubulungiswa kobuhlanga e-United States, okwakungapheli ngisho nangemva kwemithetho emikhulu yamalungelo omphakathi we-11s. Ngaphandle kwalokhu, futhi, kusalokhu kubeka ukukhathazeka kobudlelwane bomuntu phakathi kwabantu bomhlaba-okuyinto, njengoba kuboniswe eHiroshima naseNagasaki, kwahlala ibhuloho kakhulu kuHarry Truman. Noma kunjalo, ngisho nohambo lwamakhilomitha ayizinkulungwane, kudingeka izinyathelo zokuqala. Kuwukuqhubekela phambili okuqhubekayo ekuboneni izidingo zomunye njengezethu ukuthi ngelinye ilanga singakwazi ukubona umbono wobuzalwane bomuntu nodade ezweni elinokuthula.

Julayi 27. Ngalolu suku ku-1825, i-US Congress yamukele ukusekwa kwezindawo zaseNdiya. Lokhu kwasusa indlela yokuthunyiswa ngokuphoqeleka kwezinto okuthiwa izinhlanga ezinhlanu ezithuthukisiwe "emthonjeni wezinyembezi" ukuze kube nosuku lwe-Oklahoma. Umthetho we-Indian Removal Act wasayinwa nguMongameli Andrew Jackson ku-1830. Izizwe ezinhlanu ezithintekile zaziyiCherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, neSominole, bonke baphoqeleka ngokungaqondile ukuthi bahlale ngaphansi komthetho wase-US noma bahambe emazweni abo. Ebizwa ngokuthi iZizwe Eziphuthumayo, zazihlanganisiwe ezigabeni ezihlukahlukene emasikweni asezindaweni zasentshonalanga futhi, uma kwenzeka iCherokee, yakha ulimi olulotshiwe. Abafundi banomncintiswano nabahlali abamhlophe phakathi nentukuthelo enkulu. Ama-Seminoles alwa, futhi ekugcineni akhokhelwa ukuthutha. AmaCreeks asuswe ngamandla ngamasosha. Ayikho isivumelwano esenziwe neCherokee, owaletha icala labo enkantolo eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-United States lapho belahlekelwa khona. Kwakukhona ukuqhutshwa kwezombangazwe okuningi kokubili nangemva kweminyaka eyisithupha, iSivumelwano Sase-New Echota samemezelwa ukusebenza nguMongameli. Yanikeza abantu iminyaka emibili ukuwela entshonalanga phezu kweMisissippi ukuba bahlale eNsimini yaseNdiya. Lapho bengashukunyanga, bahlaselwa ngesihluku, amakhaya abo ashiswa futhi aphangwa. Ama-Cherokees ayizinkulungwane ezingu-17 ahlanganiswe futhi adluliselwa ekamu lokuhlushwa, athuthwa ezitimeleni, bese ephoqeleka ukuba ahambe. Abangu-4 000 bafa "Emthonjeni Wezinyembezi." Ngokwe-1837, ukuphathwa kukaJackson kwakususwe yimpi nezinyathelo zobugebengu, abantu baka-46,000 baseMelika baseMelika, bevula ama-acre angu-25 angamahektha omhlaba ukuba ahlale emhlophe futhi abe nobugqila.

Julayi 28. Ku-1914, u-Austria-Hungary wachaza impi eSerbia, eqala iWWI. Ngemuva kokuba indlalifa yesihlalo sobukhosi sase-Austro-Hungarian, uFranz Ferdinand, ebulawa nomkakhe waseSerbia ngokuphindisela ngenxa yokuphikisana okuqhubekayo nezwe lakhe, kwaqala iMpi Yezwe I. Ukukhula kobuzwe, ukulwa nempi, imperialism, kanye nemibango yempi kulo lonke elaseYurophu kulindelwe ukushaywa njengesibulala. Njengoba izizwe zazizame ukuzikhulula ekubuseni kobukhosi, i-Industrial Revolution yayishukumise umjaho wezikhali. Ukubuswa kwempi kuye kwavumela uMbuso wase-Austro-Hungarian ukuba ulawule izizwe eziningi eziyishumi nesishiyagalolunye, futhi ukunyuka kwama-imperialism kwakhuthaza ngisho nokunyuka kwamandla empi. Njengoba ukoloni luqhubeka, imibuso yaqala ukugoqa bese ifuna ukusebenzisana. UMbuso Wase-Ottoman kanye neJalimane ne-Austria, noma i-Central Powers, ihambisana noMbuso wase-Austro-Hungarian, kanti iSerbia yayisekelwa yi-Allied Power of Russia, eJapane, eFrance, e-Italy naseMbusweni WaseBrithani. I-United States yajoyina ama-Allies ku-1917, futhi izakhamizi ezivela kuwo wonke amazwe zathola ukuthi zihlupheka futhi zaphoqelelwa ukuba zikhethe uhlangothi. Amabutho angaphezu kwezigidi eziyisishiyagalolunye, futhi izakhamuzi ezingenakubalwa zafa ngaphambi kokuwa kwemibuso yaseJalimane, isiRussia, i-Ottoman, ne-Austro-Hungarian. Impi yaphela ngendawo yokuziphendulela eyasiza ekuqinisekiseni ukuholela empini yezwe elandelayo. Ubuzwe, ukulwa kwamabutho, kanye nama-imperialism kwaqhubeka naphezu kokushaqeka okubangelwa abantu emhlabeni wonke. Ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe I, imibhikisho eyenziwa ukugcwaliseka kwezindleko zempi ezibuhlungu yayixoshwe emazweni ahlukahlukene, kuyilapho izinkolelo zempi zazingena njengamandla amakhulu okulawula umphakathi.

Julayi 29. Ngalolu suku ku-2002, uMongameli uGeorge W. Bush wachaza 'i-Axis of Evil' okwakuthiwa ixhasa ubushokobezi, enkulumweni yakhe ye-State of the Union. I-Axis ibandakanya i-Iraq, Iran neNyakatho Korea. Kwakungeyona nje inkulumo eqondile. UMnyango Wezwe waseMelika uqoka amazwe okusolakala ukuthi ahlinzeka ukweseka izenzo zobuphekula zomhlaba wonke. Kujeziswa kanzima la mazwe. Izijeziso zibandakanya, phakathi kweminye imibandela: ukuvinjelwa kokuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe okuhlobene nezikhali, ukwenqatshelwa kosizo lwezomnotho, nemikhawulo yezimali kubandakanya ukuvimbela noma isiphi isakhamuzi saseMelika ukuzibandakanya kwezentengiselwano nohulumeni onohlu lwamaphekula, kanye nokuvinjelwa kokungena e-United Izwe. Ngaphandle kwezijeziso, i-United States yahola impi enobudlova e-Iraq kusukela ngo-2003, futhi yasongela ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuhlaselwa okufanayo e-Iran naseNyakatho Korea iminyaka eminingi. Eminye imisuka yomqondo omubi ingatholakala ezincwadini zethangi lokucabanga elibizwa ngeProject for the New American Century, enye yazo yathi: “Asikwazi ukuvumela iNorth Korea, i-Iran, i-Iraq… ukuba icekele phansi ubuholi baseMelika, isabise abaseMelika angabasizi, noma asongele izwe lakubo laseMelika uqobo. ” Iwebhusayithi yethangi lokucabanga yehlisiwe ngemuva kwalokho. Owayengumphathi omkhulu wale nhlangano ngo-2006 wathi “usewenzile vele umsebenzi wawo,” wasikisela ukuthi “umbono wethu wamukelekile.” Izimpi eziyinhlekelele nezingakhiqizi zeminyaka eyalandela i-2001 zinezimpande eziningi kulokho okwaba yimbono edabukisayo yempi engapheli nobudlova - umbono othembele ngokuyisisekelo emcabangweni ongenangqondo wokuthi izizwe ezimbalwa, ezihluphekayo, nezizimele zenza usongo olukhona I-united states.
ISILUNGISO: LOKHU KUFANELE KUBE UJANUARY, HHAYI UJULY.

Julayi 30. Lolu suku, njengoba lunqunywe ku-2011 ngokusungulwa kwe-UN General Assembly, lubonisa umkhosi wonyaka we-International Day of Friendship. Isixazululo sibheka abantu abasha njengabaholi besikhathi esizayo, futhi bagcizelela kakhulu ukubandakanya emisebenzini yomphakathi ehlanganisa amasiko ahlukene futhi bakhuthaze ukuqonda jikelele nokuhlonipha ukuhlukahluka. Usuku Lomhlaba Wonke Wobuhlobo lulandela izinqumo ezimbili ze-UN zangaphambili. Isixazululo seSiko sokuThula, esimemezelwe ku-1997, siyabona umonakalo omkhulu nokuhlupheka okubangelwa izingane ngokusebenzisa izinhlobo ezahlukene zokungqubuzana nobudlova. Yenza ukuthi lezi zishayo zingavinjelwa kangcono uma izimpande zabo zibhekiswe ngenhloso yokuxazulula izinkinga. Esinye isandulela seSuku Lomhlaba Wonke Lomngane yisixazululo se-UN-1998 sokumemezela i-International Decade yeSiko Lokuthula Nokungabi Nezobudlova kwabantwana bezwe. Egcinwe ku-2001 nge-2010, lesi sinqumo sichaza ukuthi isihluthulelo sokuthula nokubambisana emhlabeni jikelele ukufundisa izingane yonke indawo ngokubaluleka kokuphila ngokuthula nokuvumelana nabanye. Usuku Lomhlaba Wonke Lomngane lusetshenziswa kulezi zandulela ekukhuthazeni umlayezo wokuthi ubungane phakathi kwamazwe, amasiko, kanye nabantu ngabanye bungasiza ekukhiqizeni isisekelo sokwethenjelwa okudingekayo emizamweni yamazwe omhlaba yokunqoba amandla amaningi okuhlukanisa okwehlisa ukuphepha komuntu siqu, ukuthuthukiswa komnotho, ukuzwana komphakathi , nokuthula ezweni lanamuhla. Ukugcina usuku lobudlelwane, i-UN ikhuthaza ohulumeni, izinhlangano zomhlaba wonke, kanye namaqembu omphakathi ukuba abambe izenzakalo nemisebenzi efaka imizamo yomphakathi wamazwe omhlaba ukugqugquzela ingxoxo ehlose ukufeza ubumbano bomhlaba wonke, ukuqondana ndawonye nokubuyisana.

Julayi 31. Kulolu suku ku-1914 uJean Jaurès wabulawa. Umholi oshisekayo wobuntu no-pacifist weFrance Socialist Party, uJaures wayiphikisa kakhulu impi, futhi wakhuluma ngokumelene ne-imperialism eyayiyikhuthaza. Wazalwa ngo-1859, ukufa kukaJaures kubhekwe ngabaningi njengesinye sezizathu zokungena kweFrance eMpini Yezwe Yokuqala. Ukuphikisana kwakhe ngezixazululo ezinokuthula kwadonsela amashumi ezinkulungwane ezinkulumweni nasezincwadini zakhe, kanye nokubheka izinzuzo zokumelana nobumbano kweYurophu ekwanda kwezempi. UJaures ubesemkhankasweni wokuhlelela abasebenzi umbhikisho obumbene ngaphambi nje kokuba kuqale impi ngesikhathi edutshulwa wabulawa ehleli eduze kwewindi endaweni yokudlela yaseParis. Umbulali wakhe, ubuzwe baseFrance uRaoul Villain, waboshwa wabe esekhishwa phambili ngo-1919 ngaphambi kokubaleka eFrance. Lowo owayengumphikisi uMengameli uFrancois Hollande waphendula ngokufa kukaJaures ngokubeka umqhele kule ndawo yokudlela, futhi wavuma nomsebenzi wakhe wokuphila “wokuthula, ubumbano nokuhlangana kwe-republic.” IFrance yabe isingena kwi-WWI ngethemba lokuguqula ukulahleka kwesimo okubonakalayo kanye nensimu etholwe yiJalimane ngemuva kwempi yaseFranco-Prussian. Amagama kaJaures kungenzeka ukuthi akhuthaze ukukhetha okunengqondo kakhulu: “Ikusasa lizoba njani, lapho izigidigidi manje ezilahliwe zilungiselela impi zisetshenziselwa izinto eziwusizo ukukhulisa inhlalakahle yabantu, ekwakhiweni kwezindlu ezisezingeni elifanele ezabasebenzi, ekwenzeni ngcono ezokuhamba, ekubuyiseni umhlaba? Umkhuhlane we-imperialism usuphenduke ukugula. Yisifo somphakathi oqhutshwa kabi ongazi ukuthi ungawasebenzisa kanjani amandla awo ekhaya. ”

Le Peace Almanac ikwazisa ngezinyathelo ezibalulekile, inqubekela phambili, kanye nezithiyo ezinhlanganweni zokuthula ezenzeke ngosuku ngalunye lonyaka.

Thenga okubhaliwe, noma PDF.

Iya kumafayela wokulalelwayo.

Iya embhalweni.

Iya kwihluzo.

Le Peace Almanac kufanele ihlale ilungile unyaka nonyaka kuze kube yilapho yonke impi ichithwa futhi kusungulwa ukuthula okuzinzile. Inzuzo yokuthengiswa kwephrinta nezinhlobo ze-PDF zikhokhela umsebenzi we World BEYOND War.

Umbhalo ukhiqizwe futhi uhlelwe ngu UDavid Swanson.

Umsindo uqoshwe ngu UTim Pluta.

Izinto ezibhalwe ngu URobert Anschuetz, uDavid Swanson, u-Alan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, u-Eleanor Millard, u-Erin McElfresh, u-Alexander Shaia, uJohn Wilkinson, uWilliam Geimer, uPeter Goldsmith, uGar Smith, uThierry Blanc, noTom Schott.

Imibono ngezihloko ezithunyelwe yi David Swanson, Robert Anschuetz, Alan Knight, Marilyn Olenick, Eleanor Millard, Darlene Coffman, David McReynolds, Richard Kane, Phil Runkel, Jill Greer, Jim Gould, Bob Stuart, Alaina Huxtable, Thierry Blanc.

Umculo isetshenziswa yimvume evela “Ukuphela Kwempi,” ngu-Eric Colville.

Umsindo womsindo nokuxutshwa nguSergio Diaz.

Imidwebo ngu Parisa Saremi.

World BEYOND War ngumnyakazo ongahlosile womhlaba wonke wokuqeda impi futhi usungule ukuthula okulungile futhi okuzinzile. Sihlose ukudala ukuqwashisa ngokuxhaswa okudumile kokuqeda impi futhi sithuthukise nalolo sizo. Sisebenzela ukuqhubekisela phambili umbono wokuthi singagcini nje ngokuvikela noma iyiphi impi ethile kepha sichithe sonke isikhungo. Silwela ukubuyisela isiko lempi libe linye lokuthula lapho izindlela zokungqubuzana okungezona zobubi zithathe indawo yokuchitheka kwegazi.