Ibhalwe nguPeter van den Dungen, World BEYOND War, Januwari 23, 2022
Ukubuyekezwa Kwencwadi: Kungani Impi? nguChristopher Coker, London, Hurst, 2021, 256 pp., £20 (Hardback), ISBN 9781787383890
Impendulo emfushane, ebukhali ethi Why War? abangase bakubeke phambili abafundi besifazane 'kungenxa yamadoda!' Enye impendulo ingaba 'ngenxa yemibono evezwe ezincwadini ezinjengalezi!' UChristopher Coker ubhekisela 'empicabadala yempi' (4) futhi ugomela ngokuthi 'Abantu banobudlova obungenakugwemeka' (7); ‘Impi iyona esenza abantu’ (20); ‘Asisoze sayibalekela impi ngoba kunemingcele yokuthi singabeka imvelaphi yethu emuva kangakanani’ (43). Nakuba Kungani Impi? ngokushesha ukhumbuza izincwadi ezinesihloko esifanayo phakathi kuka-Albert Einstein noSigmund Freud,1 eyanyatheliswa ngo-1933 yi-International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation yeNhlangano Yezizwe, uCoker akabhekiseli kuyo. Akukho okukhulunywa ngakho nge-CEM Joad's Why War? (1939). Umbono kaJoad (ohlukile kokaCoker) washiwo ngesibindi kukhava yale Penguin Special yango-1939: 'Indaba yami ukuthi impi akuyona into engenakugwenywa, kodwa iwumphumela wezimo ezithile ezenziwe umuntu; lowo muntu angaziqeda, njengoba aqeda izimo lapho inhlupho eyakhula khona'. Okudida ngokufanayo ukungabikho kwereferensi yakudala ngesihloko, Indoda ka-Kenneth N. Waltz, State and War ([1959] 2018). Le theory evelele yobudlelwano bamazwe ngamazwe yabhekana nombuzo ngokuhlonza 'izithombe' ezintathu eziqhudelanayo zempi, ibeka inkinga ezicini ezibalulekile zomuntu, umbuso, kanye nohlelo lwamazwe ngamazwe, ngokulandelana. UWaltz uphethe, njengoRousseau ngaphambi kwakhe, ukuthi izimpi phakathi kwezifundazwe zenzeka ngoba akukho okungazivimba (okuqhathanisa nokuthula okuphakathi kwezizwe ngenxa kuhulumeni omkhulu, nesiphithiphithi esikhona phakathi kwabo ngenxa yokungabikho kohlelo ukubusa komhlaba wonke). Kusukela ngekhulu le-19, ukukhula kokuthembela kombuso kanye nokwanda kokucekela phansi kwempi kuye kwaphumela emizamweni yokunciphisa izehlakalo zempi ngokumisa izinhlaka zokubusa kwembulunga yonke, ikakhulukazi iNhlangano Yezizwe ngemva kweMpi Yezwe I kanye neNhlangano Yezizwe. Amazwe ngemva kweMpi Yezwe II. EYurophu, izinhlelo zekhulu leminyaka zokunqoba impi ekugcineni zafezeka (okungenani ingxenye) ohlelweni oluholele ku-European Union futhi olukhuthaze ukuvela kwezinye izinhlangano zesifunda. Esikhundleni sokudida uprofesa osanda kuthatha umhlalaphansi wobudlelwano bamazwe ngamazwe e-LSE, incazelo ka-Coker ngempi ayishayi indiva indima yombuso kanye nokushiyeka kokubusa kwamazwe ngamazwe futhi icabangela kuphela umuntu ngamunye.
Uthola ukuthi umsebenzi wesazi sesayensi yemvelo saseDashi, u-Niko Tinbergen ('okungenzeka ukuthi uke uzwe ngaye') - 'indoda eyayibukele ama-seagull' (Tinbergen [1953] 1989), eyayimangele ukuziphatha kwawo okunonya - inikeza indlela engcono kakhulu yokunikeza impendulo ku-Why War? (7). Izinkomba zokuziphatha kwezinhlobonhlobo zezilwane ziyavela kuyo yonke incwadi. Nokho, uCoker ubhala ukuthi impi ayaziwa emhlabeni wezilwane nokuthi, ecaphuna uThucydides, impi 'iyinto yomuntu'. Umbhali ulandela 'Indlela yaseTinbergen' (Tinbergen 1963) equkethe ukubuza imibuzo emine ngokuziphatha: ithini imvelaphi yakho? yiziphi izindlela ezivumela ukuthi kuchume? ithini i-ontogeny yayo (ukuziphendukela kwemvelo komlando)? futhi uyini umsebenzi wayo? (11). Isahluko sinikezwe ngamunye wale migqa yophenyo ngesahluko sokuphetha (esithakazelisa kakhulu) esikhuluma ngentuthuko yesikhathi esizayo. Bekuyofaneleka kakhulu futhi kuthele izithelo uma u-Coker eqaphele umsebenzi ka-Niko umfowabo ka-Jan (owabelane ngomklomelo wokuqala kaNobel kwezomnotho ngo-1969; uNiko wabelane ngomklomelo ku-physiology noma imithi ngo-1973). Uma uCoker eke wezwa ngomunye wosomnotho abahamba phambili emhlabeni owayengumeluleki weNhlangano Yezizwe ngeminyaka yawo-1930 futhi engummeli oqinile kahulumeni womhlaba, akushiwo lutho ngakho. Umsebenzi kaJan omude nomangalisayo wawunikezelwe ekusizeni ukuguqula umphakathi, okuhlanganisa nokuvimbela nokuqedwa kwempi. Encwadini yakhe ayibhale ngokuhlanganyela, Warfare and welfare (1987), u-Jan Tinbergen waphikisana nokungahlukaniswa kwenhlalakahle nokuvikeleka. I-Network of European Peace Scientists iqambe ingqungquthela yayo yaminyaka yonke ngemuva kwakhe (uhlelo lwama-20 ngo-2021). Kuyafaneleka futhi ukuveza ukuthi uzakwabo kaNiko Tinbergen, isazi sesayensi yezinto eziphilayo kanye nesazi sezilwane uRobert Hinde, owakhonza eRAF phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, wayengumongameli weBritish Pugwash Group kanye neMovement for the Abolition of War.
UCoker uyabhala, 'Kunesizathu esithile sokuthi ngibhale le ncwadi. Ezweni laseNtshonalanga, izingane zethu asizilungiseleli impi' (24). Lesi simangalo siyangabazeka, kanti nakuba abanye bevumelana futhi behlulele lokhu njengokwehluleka, abanye bangaphendula ngokuthi, 'kanjalo - kufanele sifundisele ukuthula, hhayi impi'. Udonsela ukunakekela ezindleleni zamasiko ezinomthelela ekuphikeleleni kwempi futhi uyabuza, 'Besingazama yini ukufihla ububi bempi . . . futhi akusona yini esinye sezici eziyiqhubayo? Asazi yini sizilalise ukufa ngokusebenzisa izifu- ndo ezinjengokuthi “Abawile”?' (104). Impela kunjalo, kodwa ubonakala enqikaza ukuvuma ukuthi izici ezinjalo aziguquki. U-Coker ngokwakhe angeke angabi nasici ngokuphelele lapho ethi, 'akukho i-taboo ngokumelene nempi. Awukho umyalo ongatholakala ngokumelene nayo eMithethweni Eyishumi' (73) - okusho ukuthi 'Ungabulali' akusebenzi ekubulaleni impi. KuHarry Patch (1898–2009), isosha lokugcina laseBrithani elasinda eMpini Yomhlaba I, 'Impi ingukubulala okuhleliwe, futhi akukho okunye'2; kuLeo Tolstoy, 'amasosha angababulali egqoke iyunifomu'. Kunezinkomba ezimbalwa zeMpi Nokuthula (uTolstoy 1869) kodwa akukho emibhalweni yakhe yakamuva, ehluke kakhulu ngale ndaba (Tolstoy 1894, 1968).
Endabeni yokudweba, enye indlela yamasiko uCoker ayicabangelayo, uyaphawula: 'Iningi labadwebi . . . angikaze ngibone inkundla yempi, ngakho-ke angikaze ngipende ngokuzibonela mathupha . . . umsebenzi wabo wahlala ngokuphephile ungenalo intukuthelo noma intukuthelo, noma ngisho nozwela oluyisisekelo ngezisulu zempi. Abazange bakhethe ukukhuluma egameni lalabo abaye bahlala bengenazwi kuze kube yiminyaka' (107). Lesi ngesinye isici esinomthelela ekuqhubekiseni impi okuthi, nokho, nayo ingashintsha futhi nemiphumela yayo, aphinde ayishaye indiva. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ushaya indiva imisebenzi yabanye abadwebi abakhulu bezikhathi zanamuhla njengeRussia Vasily Vereshchagin. UWilliam T. Sherman, umkhuzi wamasosha aseMelika ngesikhathi seMpi Yombango yase-US, wammemezela 'umdwebi omkhulu wezinto ezesabekayo zempi ezake zaba khona'. UVereshchagin waba isosha ukuze azi impi ngokuhlangenwe nakho kwakhe siqu futhi owafela emkhunjini wezempi phakathi neMpi YaseRussia-Japanese. Emazweni amaningana, amasosha ayenqatshelwe ukuvakashela imibukiso yemidwebo yakhe (anti-) yempi. Incwadi yakhe ngomkhankaso waseRussia oyinhlekelele kaNapoleon (Verestchagin 1899) yavinjelwa eFrance. Kumelwe futhi kukhulunywe ngo-Iri no-Toshi Maruki, abadwebi baseJapane bamaphaneli e-Hiroshima. Ingabe kukhona ukubonakaliswa okudabukisayo kwentukuthelo noma ukucasuka kune-Picasso's Guernica? U-Coker ubhekisela kuyo kodwa akasho ukuthi inguqulo ye-tapestry kuze kube muva nje ikhonjiswe esakhiweni se-UN eNew York (e) yahlanganiswa ngoFebhuwari 2003, lapho uNobhala Wezwe waseMelika u-Colin Powell ephikisana necala lempi ne-Iraq. 3
Nakuba uCoker ebhala ukuthi kwakungeMpi Yezwe I kuphela lapho abadwebi bedweba izigcawu 'ebekufanele ngabe zithene amandla noma ubani owayecabanga ukujoyina imibala' (108), akasho lutho ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene ezisetshenziswa iziphathimandla zombuso ukuvimbela ukudikibala okunjalo. Kubandakanya ukucutshungulwa, ukuvinjelwa kanye nokushiswa kwemisebenzi enjalo - hhayi nje kuphela, ngokwesibonelo, e-Nazi-Germany kodwa nase-US nase-UK kuze kube manje. Ukuqamba amanga, ukucindezelwa, kanye nokusetshenziswa kweqiniso, ngaphambi, ngesikhathi nangemva kwempi kubhalwe kahle ekuvezweni kwakudala ngu-Arthur Ponsonby (1928) noPhilip Knightly ([1975] 2004) futhi, muva nje, ku-Pentagon Papers ( Impi yaseVietnam), 4 The Iraq Inquiry (Chilcot) Report,5 kanye nekaCraig Whitlock ethi The Afghanistan Papers (Whitlock 2021). Ngokufanayo, kusukela ekuqaleni, izikhali zenuzi bezizungezwe imfihlo, ukucutshungulwa kanye namanga, kuhlanganise nemiphumela yokuqhunyiswa kwamabhomu eHiroshima naseNagasaki ngo-August 1945. Ubufakazi balokho abukwazanga ukuboniswa lapho kugujwa iminyaka engu-50 ngo-1995 embukisweni omkhulu owathi. kwakuhlelwe eSmithsonian eWashington DC; yakhanselwa futhi umqondisi wemnyuziyamu waxoshwa ngesilinganiso esihle. Amafilimu okuqala okucekelwa phansi kwamadolobha amabili ashaqwa futhi acindezelwa yi-US (bheka, isib uMitchell 2012; futhi bona isibuyekezo sika-Loretz [2020]) ngenkathi i-BBC ivala ukubukiswa kumabonakude i-The War Game, ifilimu eyayinayo. ujutshwe ngomphumela wokuwisa ibhomu lenuzi eLondon. Inqume ukungayisakazeli ifilimu ngenxa yokwesaba ukuthi ingase iqinise umkhankaso wokulwa nezikhali zenuzi. Abaphehli bamakhwela abanesibindi abafana noDaniel Ellsberg, u-Edward Snowden kanye noJulian Assange bashushiswe futhi bajeziswa ngokudalula inkohliso esemthethweni, ngamacala ezimpi zonya, kanye namacala empi.
Eseyingane, uCoker wayethanda ukudlala namasosha amathoyizi futhi lapho esemusha wayebambiqhaza oshisekayo emidlalweni yempi. Wavolontiya embuthweni we-cadet wesikole futhi wajabulela ukufunda ngeMpi YeThrojani namaqhawe ayo futhi wajabulela umlando wojenene abakhulu abafana no-Alexander noJulius Caesar. Lona wakamuva 'wayengomunye wabaphangi bezigqila abakhulu kunabo bonke abake baba khona. Ngemva kokukhankasa iminyaka eyisikhombisa wabuyela eRoma neziboshwa eziyisigidi ezazithengiswa ebugqilini, kanjalo . . . ukumenza usozigidi ngobusuku '(134). Kuwo wonke umlando, izimpi namaqhawe kuye kwahlotshaniswa ne-adventure nesasasa, kanye nenkazimulo nobuqhawe. Imibono yakamuva kanye namagugu ngokwesiko kuye kwadluliselwa uhulumeni, isikole kanye nesonto. U-Coker akasho ukuthi isidingo sohlobo oluhlukile lwemfundo, yeqhawe kanye nomlando kwaphikiswana ngakho kakade eminyakeni engu-500 edlule (lapho impi nezikhali kwakukudala uma kuqhathaniswa nanamuhla) ngabaphambili babantu (nabagxeki bombuso, isikole kanye nesonto) njengo-Erasmus noVives nabo abangabasunguli bezifundo zokufundisa zesimanje. U-Vives unamathisele ukubaluleka okukhulu ekubhalweni nasekufundiseni umlando futhi wagxeka ukonakala kwawo, ethi 'Kungaba iqiniso ukubiza uHerodotus (uCoker abhekisela kaningi kuye njengomtsheli omuhle wezindaba zempi) uyise wamanga kunomlando'. UVives naye wamelana nokutusa uJulius Caesar ngokuthumela izinkulungwane eziningi zamadoda ekufeni okunobudlova empini. U-Erasmus wayengumgxeki onzima kaPapa Julius II (omunye umuntu owayethanda uKhesari owamukela igama lakhe njengopapa) okwakudume ukuthi wachitha isikhathi esiningi enkundleni yempi kunaseVatican.
Akukho okushiwo ngezithakazelo eziningi ezihlotshaniswa, nezishukumisayo, impi, okokuqala nokubalulekile umsebenzi wezempi, abakhiqizi bezikhali nabahwebi bezikhali (abakwabizwa ngokuthi 'abathengisi bokufa'). Isosha laseMelika elidumile nelihlotshiswe kakhulu, uMajor General Smedley D. Butler, wagomela ngokuthi iWar is a Racket (1935) lapho abambalwa benza khona inzuzo futhi abaningi bakhokha izindleko. Enkulumweni yakhe yokuvalelisa kubantu baseMelika (1961), uMongameli uDwight Eisenhower, omunye ujenene webutho lase-US owayehlotshiswe kakhulu, waxwayisa ngokwesiprofetho ngezingozi zokukhula kwesakhiwo sezempi nezimboni. Indlela ebandakanyeka ngayo ekuthathweni kwezinqumo eziholela empini, nasekuziphatheni nasekubikeni kwayo, ibhalwe kahle (okuhlanganisa nokushicilelwe okukhulunywe ngakho ngenhla). Kunezifundo eziningi eziqinisekisayo ezikhanyisa umsuka kanye nemvelo yezimpi ezimbalwa zesimanje futhi ezinikeza izimpendulo ezicacile neziphazamisayo zombuzo othi Why War? Ukuziphatha kwama-seagull kubonakala kuyinto engabalulekile. Ucwaningo olunjalo olusekelwe ebufakazini aluyona ingxenye yophenyo lukaCoker. Akukho ngokuphawulekayo ku-numericallly impressive bibliography of ca. Izihloko ezingama-350 ziyizincwadi zezazi ezikhuluma ngokuthula, ukuxazulula izingxabano nokuvimbela impi. Ngempela, igama elithi 'ukuthula' alikho nhlobo encwadini yezincwadi; ireferensi eyivelakancane ivela esihlokweni senoveli edumile kaTolstoy. Ngakho-ke umfundi usala engazi lutho ngokutholwe ngezimbangela zempi ngenxa yocwaningo lokuthula nezifundo zokuthula ezavela ngeminyaka yawo-1950 ngenxa yokukhathazeka kokuthi impi enkathini yenuzi yasongela ukusinda kwesintu. Encwadini ka-Coker eyinkimbinkimbi nedidayo, izinkomba zohlu olubanzi lwezincwadi namafilimu zithinta ikhasi; izakhi ezihlukene ezijikijelwa ekuhlanganiseni zenza umbono onesiphithiphithi. Ukwenza isibonelo, ngemuva nje kokuthi kwethulwe uClausewitz bese kuvela u-Tolkien (99–100); UHomer, uNietzsche, uShakespeare kanye noVirginia Woolf (phakathi kwabanye) bayabizwa emakhasini ambalwa alandelayo.
UCoker akacabangi ukuthi singase sibe nezimpi ngoba 'umhlaba ugcwele izikhali futhi ukuthula kunemali encane' (uNobhala-Jikelele we-UN u-Ban Ki-moon). Noma ngenxa yokuthi sisaqondiswa i-dictum yasendulo (futhi engagunyaziwe), Si vis pacem, para bellum (Uma ufuna ukuthula, lungiselela impi). Kungenzeka yini ukuthi ngoba ulimi esilusebenzisayo lufihla ubuqiniso bempi futhi lugubuzelwe ngamazwi athi: izinkonzo zempi seziphenduke izinkonzo zezokuvikela, futhi manje ezokuphepha. U-Coker akakhulumi (noma ngokudlula kuphela) ukubhekana nalezi zinkinga, konke okungacatshangwa ukuthi kunesandla ekuqhubekeni kwempi. Yizimpi namaqhawe abusa ezincwadini zomlando, izikhumbuzo, iminyuziyamu, amagama emigwaqo nezikwele. Intuthuko yakamuva kanye nomnyakazo wokukhipha amakholoni kukharikhulamu kanye nenkundla yomphakathi, kanye nobulungiswa nokulingana kwezinhlanga nobulili, nakho kudinga ukunwetshwa ekususweni kwezempi emphakathini. Ngale ndlela, isiko lokuthula nokungabi nodlame kancane kancane lingathatha indawo yesiko lempi nobudlova eligxilile.
Lapho exoxa ngo-HG Wells kanye nokunye 'okuphindaphindwayo okuqanjiwe kwekusasa', u-Coker uyabhala, 'Ukucabangela ikusasa, vele akusho ukukudala' (195–7). Kodwa-ke, UMA uClake (1966) uphikisene ngokuthi ngezinye izikhathi izindaba zezimpi zesikhathi esizayo zaziphakamisa okulindelekile okwakuqinisekisa ukuthi, lapho impi ifika, yayizoba nobudlova kakhulu kunokuba bekungenjalo. Futhi, ukucabanga ngezwe elingenayo impi kuwumbandela obalulekile (nakuba unganele) wokuwuletha. Ukubaluleka kwalesi sithombe ekubumbeni ikusasa kuye kwaphikiswa ngendlela ekholisayo, isb, ngu-E. Boulding kanye no-K. Boulding (1994), amavulandlela amabili ocwaningo lokuthula abanye umsebenzi wabo wagqugquzelwa yincwadi kaFred L. Polak ethi The Image of the Future. (1961). Isithombe esithinta igazi esembozweni ethi, Why War? usho konke. UCoker uyabhala, 'Ukufunda ngempela kusenza abantu abahlukene; sithambekele ekubhekeni ukuphila ngendlela eyakhayo . . . ukufunda inoveli yempi ekhuthazayo kwenza kube lula ukuthi sibambelele embonweni wokulunga komuntu' (186). Lokhu kubonakala kuyindlela engavamile yokukhuthaza ubuhle bomuntu.
amanothi
- Kungani Impi? Einstein kuFreud, 1932, https://en.unesco.org/courier/may-1985/ why-war-letter-albert-einstein-sigmund-freud Freud to Einstein, 1932, https:// en.unesco.org /courier/marzo-1993/why-war-letter-freud-einstein
- Patch noVan Emden (2008); I-audiobook, i-ISBN-13: 9781405504683.
- Ukuze uthole ukuphinda kwemisebenzi yabadwebi okukhulunywe ngayo, bheka i-War and Art ehlelwe ngu-Joanna Bourke futhi yabuyekezwa kulo magazini, uMqulu 37, No. 2.
- Amaphepha e-Pentagon: https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers
- Uphenyo lwase-Iraq (Chilcot): https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20171123122743/http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/the-report/
Okubhekwayo
Boulding, E., kanye no-K Boulding. 1994. Ikusasa: Izithombe Nezinqubo. 1000 Oaks, California: Sage Publishing. I-ISBN: 9780803957909.
Butler, S. 1935. War is a Racket. 2003 ukuphrinta kabusha, USA: Feral House. I-ISBN: 9780922915866.
Clarke, IF 1966. Voices Prophesying War 1763-1984. I-Oxford: I-Oxford University Press.
Joad, CEM 1939. Kungani Impi? Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Knightly, P. [1975] 2004. Ingozi Yokuqala. 3rd ed. I-Baltimore: I-Johns Hopkins University Press. I-ISBN: 9780801880308.
Loretz, John. 2020. Ukubuyekezwa kwe-Fallout, i-Hiroshima Cover-up kanye ne-Reporter Eyembulele Umhlaba, ngu-Lesley MM Blume. Umuthi, Ukungqubuzana Nokusinda 36 (4): 385-387. doi:10.1080/13623699.2020.1805844
Mitchell, G. 2012. Isembozo se-Atomic. New York, Sinclair Books.
Patch, H., kanye no-R Van Emden. 2008. The Last Fighting Tommy. London: Bloomsbury.
Polak, FL 1961. Isithombe Sekusasa. E-Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Ponsonby, A. 1928. Amanga Ngesikhathi Sempi. London: Allen & Unwin.
Tinbergen, Jan, no D Fischer. 1987. Impi Nenhlalakahle: Ukuhlanganisa Inqubomgomo Yezokuphepha Kunqubomgomo Yezenhlalo Nezomnotho. I-Brighton: Izincwadi Ze-Wheatsheaf.
Tinbergen, N. [1953] 1989. I-Herring Gull's World: A Study of the Social Behavior of Birds, New Naturalist Monograph M09. okusha u-ed. Lanham, Md: Lyons Cindezela. I-ISBN: 9781558210493. Tinbergen, N. 1963. "Ezinhlosweni Nezindlela Ze-Ethology." I-Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20: 410-433. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x.
Tolstoy, L. 1869. Impi Nokuthula. ISBN: 97801404479349 London: Penguin.
Tolstoy, L. 1894. Umbuso kaNkulunkulu ungaphakathi Kwawe. I-San Francisco: Ingobo yomlando ye-inthanethi evulekile yoHlelo Lomtapo Wolwazi No. OL25358735M.
Tolstoy, L. 1968. Imibhalo ka-Tolstoy mayelana nokungalaleli komphakathi kanye nokungabi nodlame. London: Peter Owen. Verestchagin, V. 1899. “1812” uNapoleon I eRussia; ngeSingeniso sika-R. Whiteing. 2016 itholakala njenge-e-book ye-Project Gutenberg. London: UWilliam Heinemann.
Waltz, Kenneth N. [1959] 2018. Umuntu, Izwe, kanye Nempi, Ukuhlaziywa Kwethiyori. kubuyekezwe u-ed. ENew York: Columbia University Press. I-ISBN: 9780231188050.
Whitlock, C. 2021. Amaphepha ase-Afghanistan. ENew York: USimon & Schuster. I-ISBN 9781982159009.
UPeter van den Dungen
I-Bertha Von Suttner Peace Institute, eHague
petervandendungen1@gmail.com
Lesi sihloko sishicilelwe kabusha ngezinguquko ezincane. Lezi zinguquko azithinti okuqukethwe kwezemfundo kwe-athikili.
© 2021 Peter van den Dungen
https://doi.org/10.1080/13623699.2021.1982037
