ngu-Joseph Essertier, Okthoba 31, 2017
Kusukela I-CounterPunch
“Akukho muntu noma isixuku noma isizwe esingathenjwa ukuthi senze izinto zobuntu noma sicabange ngendlela ehluzekile ngaphansi kwethonya lokwesaba okukhulu.”
- UBertrand Russell, Izindatshana Ezingadumile (1950) [1]
Inkinga yaseNyakatho Korea iveza abantu abangakwesobunxele kuchungechunge olukhululekile enye yezinselelo ezinkulu esake sabhekana nazo. Manje, kunanini ngaphambili, kufanele sikubeke eceleni ukwesaba kwethu okungokwemvelo nokucwasa okuzungezile indaba yezikhali zenuzi futhi sibuze imibuzo enzima efuna izimpendulo ezicacile. Sekuyisikhathi sokuhlehla futhi ucabange ukuthi ubani isiqhwaga eNhlonhlweni YaseKorea, ebeka usongo olukhulu ekuthuleni kwamazwe ngamazwe ngisho nasekusindeni kwezinhlobo zesintu. Sekuyisikhathi esidlule lapho saba nenkulumompikiswano ephenyayo ngenkinga yeWashington eNyakatho Korea kanye nomshini wayo wezempi. Nakhu okunye okungacatshangwa ngezindaba ezishanelwa ngaphansi kukakhaphethi ukusabela okuxekethile—izenzo ezingokwemvelo ezizukulwaneni zabantu baseMelika ezigcinwe ebumnyameni mayelana namaqiniso ayisisekelo omlando. Izintatheli ezivamile ngisho nabaningi abangaphandle kwenkambiso emithonjeni yezindaba ekhululekile neqhubekayo, baphindaphinda ngokungagxeki ukukhohlisa kwase-Washington, bacwasa abaseNyakatho Korea, futhi baveze isimo sethu esibucayi njengempi lapho wonke amaqembu enecala ngokulinganayo.
Okokuqala, kufanele sibhekane neqiniso elingathandeki lokuthi thina maMelika, kanye nohulumeni wethu ngaphezu kwakho konke, yinkinga enkulu. Njengabantu abaningi baseNtshonalanga, cishe angazi lutho ngabantu baseNyakatho Korea, ngakho-ke ngingasho okuncane kakhulu ngabo. Esingakhuluma ngakho nganoma yikuphi ukuzethemba umbuso kaKim Jong-un. Ukukhawulela ingxoxo kulokho, singasho ukuthi izinsongo zakhe azikholakali. Kungani? Isizathu esisodwa esilula:
Ngenxa yokungafani kwamandla phakathi kwamandla ezempi e-US, kuhlanganise nabalingani bayo bezempi bamanje, kanye neNyakatho Korea. Umehluko mkhulu kangangokuthi awufanele ukuxoxisana, kodwa nazi izici eziyinhloko:
Izisekelo zase-US: IWashington inezisekelo okungenani ze-15 zamasosha ezihlakazekile kulo lonke elaseNingizimu Korea, eziningi zazo eziseduze nomngcele neNorth Korea. Kukhona nezisekelo ezisabalele kulo lonke elase-Japan, kusukela e-Okinawa eningizimu ekude kuze kufike enyakatho kuya e-Misawa Air Force Base.[2] Izisekelo zaseNingizimu Korea zinezikhali ezinamandla okucekela phansi ngisho nezikhali zenuzi ezagcinwa iWashington eSouth Korea iminyaka engama-30 ukusuka ku-1958 kuya ku-1991.[3] Izizinda e-Japan zinezindiza ze-Osprey ezingathwala inani elilinganayo lamabhasi amabili edolobha agcwele amasosha nezinto zokusebenza ukuwela ukuya e-Korea ohambweni ngalunye.
Abathwali bezindiza: Kukhona abathwali bezindiza abangaphansi kwezintathu emanzini azungeze iNhlonhlo YaseKorea kanye neqembu labo lempi lababhubhisi.[4] Amazwe amaningi awanawo ngisho nowodwa umthuthi wendiza.
I-THAAD: Ngo-Ephreli walo nyaka iWashington yathumela uhlelo lwe-THAAD ("terminal high area altitude defence") naphezu kokuphikiswa okukhulu kwezakhamuzi zaseNingizimu Korea.[5] Kufanele kuphela ukuthi ibambe imicibisholo ye-ballistic engenayo yaseNyakatho Korea ekwehleni kwayo, kodwa izikhulu zaseShayina e-Beijing zikhathazekile ngokuthi inhloso yangempela ye-THAAD "ukulandelela imicibisholo eyethulwe evela eChina" njengoba i-THAAD inekhono lokugada.[6] Ngakho-ke, i-THAAD isongela iNorth Korea ngokungaqondile futhi, ngokusongela umlingani wayo.
Amasosha aseNingizimu Korea: Leli elinye lamabutho ahlomile amakhulu kunawo wonke emhlabeni, eliphelele ngombutho wasemoyeni ogcwele umoya nezikhali ezivamile ezingaphezu kokwanele ukuhlangabezana nosongo lokuhlasela okuvela eNyakatho Korea.[7] Amasosha aseNingizimu Korea aqeqeshwe kahle futhi ahlanganiswe kahle namasosha ase-US njengoba ejwayele ukuzivocavoca okufana “nokuzivocavoca okukhulu kolwandle, umhlabathi nomoya” okubizwa nge-“Ulchi Freedom Guardian” okubandakanya amashumi ezinkulungwane zamasosha.[8] Ukungamoshi ithuba lokusabisa iPyongyang, lezi zenziwa ekupheleni kuka-Agasti 2017 naphezu kokungezwani okukhulayo.
Amasosha aseJapane: Amasosha aqanjwe ngokusabisa ngokuthi “Amabutho Okuzivikela” ase-Japan ahlome ngemishini yezempi yobuchwepheshe obuphezulu, ehlaselayo emhlabeni, njengezindiza ze-AWACS nama-Osprey.[9] Ngomthethosisekelo wokuthula waseJapan, lezi zikhali “ziyacasula” ngomqondo ongaphezu kowodwa waleli gama.
Imikhumbi-ngwenya enemicibisholo yenuzi: I-US inemikhumbi-ngwenya eduze neNhlonhlo YaseKorea ehlome ngemicibisholo yenuzi “enamandla okubulala okuqondiswe kanzima” ngenxa yedivayisi entsha “eyi-super-fuze” esetshenziselwa ukuthuthukisa izikhali ezindala ze-thermonuclear. Lokhu manje kungenzeka ukuthi kutshalwe kuzo zonke imikhumbi-ngwenya ye-missile yase-US.[10] “Ikhono lokubulala eliqondiswe kanzima” libhekisela emandleni azo okucekela phansi izinhloso eziqinile njengezisele zaseRussia ze-ICBM (okungukuthi, imicibisholo yenuzi engaphansi komhlaba). Lezi ngaphambili kwakunzima kakhulu ukuzibhubhisa. Lokhu kusongela iNorth Korea ngokungaqondile kwazise iRussia ingelinye lamazwe angasiza uma kwenzeka i-US inesiteleka sokuqala.
Njengoba uNobhala Wezokuvikela waseMelika uJames Mattis esho, impi neNorth Korea izoba “yinhlekelele”.[11] Lokho kuyiqiniso—inhlekelele ikakhulukazi kubantu baseKorea, enyakatho naseningizimu, futhi ngokunokwenzeka nakwamanye amazwe esifundeni, kodwa hhayi e-USA Futhi kuyiqiniso futhi ukuthi “kusekelwe odongeni,” ojenene baseNyakatho Korea “bayolwa,” njengoba USolwazi Bruce Cumings, isazi-mlando esivelele saseKorea eNyuvesi yaseChicago, uyagcizelela.[12] I-US "izobhubhisa ngokuphelele" uhulumeni enhlokodolobha yaseNyakatho Korea, iPyongyang, futhi mhlawumbe nayo yonke iNorth Korea, njengoba uMongameli waseMelika uTrump esongela.[13] INorth Korea yona izokwenza umonakalo omkhulu eSeoul, elinye lamadolobha aminyene kakhulu emhlabeni, idale izigidi zabantu abalimala eSouth Korea kanye namashumi ezinkulungwane eJapan. Njengoba isazi-mlando uPaul Atwood sibhala, njengoba sazi ukuthi “umbuso wasenyakatho unezikhali zenuzi ezizokwethulwa ezisekelweni zaseMelika [eNingizimu Korea] naseJapane, kufanele simemeze siphezu kwezindlu ukuthi ukuhlasela kwaseMelika kuzodedela lawo manuki, ngokunokwenzeka kuzo zonke izinhlangothi, futhi incithakalo elandelayo ingase iguquke ngokushesha ibe usuku olubi lokwahlulela lonke uhlobo lwesintu.”[14]
Alikho izwe emhlabeni elingasongela i-US. Isikhathi. UDavid Stockman, owayeyilungu leCongress lamahlandla amabili waseMichigan uyabhala, “Noma ngabe ukusika kanjani, awekho nje amazwe amakhulu emhlabeni anezimboni, zobuchwepheshe obuphezulu angasongela izwe laseMelika noma abe nenhloso encane yokwenza lokho. .”[15] Ubuza ngokunganaki, "Ingabe ucabanga ukuthi [uPutin] angaxhamazela noma azibulale ngokwanele ukuze asabise i-US ngezikhali zenuzi?" Lowo ngumuntu onezinhloko zezikhali zenuzi ezinga-1,500.
"USiegfried Hecker, umqondisi ophuma e-Los Alamos National Laboratory kanye nesikhulu sokugcina esaziwayo saseMelika ukuthi sihlole izindawo zenuzi zaseNyakatho Korea, ubale ubukhulu bezikhali zaseNyakatho Korea ngamabhomu angeqile kwangu-20 kuye kwangama-25."[16] Uma kungaba ukuzibulala ukuthi uPutin aqale impi ne-US, lokho kungaba iqiniso nakakhulu kuKim Jong-un waseNyakatho Korea, izwe elinengxenye eyodwa kweshumi yabantu base-US nengcebo encane.
Izinga lase-US lokulungela amasosha lihamba ngaphezu kwalokho okudingekayo ukuze kuvikelwe iNingizimu Korea. Isongela ngokuqondile iNorth Korea, iChina neRussia. Njengoba uMfundisi Martin Luther King, Jr. ake asho, i-US “ingumhloli omkhulu wobudlova emhlabeni.” Lokho kwakuyiqiniso ngesikhathi sakhe futhi konke kuyiqiniso manje.
Odabeni lwaseNyakatho Korea, ukubaluleka kokugxila kohulumeni bayo odlameni kuqashelwa negama elithi “izwe lamasosha,”[17]ukuthi uCumings ukuhlukanisa kanjani. Leli gama libona iqiniso elingephikwe lokuthi abantu baseNyakatho Korea bachitha isikhathi sabo esiningi belungiselela impi. Akekho obiza iNorth Korea ngokuthi "umhloli omkhulu wodlame" noma kunjalo.
Ubani onomunwe wakhe enkinobho?
Udokotela wengqondo ohamba phambili waseMelika uRobert Jay Lifton usanda kugcizelela “ukwembulwa okungenzeka kukaDonald Trump.”[18] Uchaza ukuthi uTrump “ubona umhlaba ngomqondo wakhe siqu, lokho akudingayo nalokho akuzwayo. Futhi wayengeke akwazi ukuguquguquka noma ahlakazeke noma abe yingozi.”
Emkhankasweni wakhe wokhetho uTrump akagcinanga nje ngokuphikisana nokusetshenziswa kwezikhali zenuzi kweJapan neSouth Korea, kodwa waveza intshisekelo eyesabekayo ekusebenziseni izikhali ezinjalo. Ukuthi uDonald Trump, indoda okucatshangwa ukuthi ayizinzile ngokwengqondo, unezikhali ezikwazi ukucekela phansi iplanethi izikhathi eziningi kumelela usongo olwesabekayo ngempela, okungukuthi, usongo olukholakalayo.
Kulo mbono, lokho okubizwa ngokuthi “usongo” lwaseNyakatho Korea kubukeka njengesivunguvungu esisenkomishini yetiye.
Uma uzizwa usaba uKim Jong-un, cabanga ukuthi abantu baseNyakatho Korea kumele bethuke kangakanani. Amathuba okuthi uTrump adedele i-nuclear genie engenakuvinjwa ebhodleleni kufanele kube ukuphaphama kubo bonke abantu noma kuphi ku-spectrum yezepolitiki ukuthi bavuke futhi benze ngaphambi kokuthi kuphuze kakhulu.
Uma ukwesaba kwethu uKim Jong-un ukuthi asishaye kuqala kungenangqondo, futhi uma umqondo wokuba “emishinini yokuzibulala” kungenasisekelo—njengoba yena, ojenene bakhe, kanye nezikhulu zikahulumeni wakhe yibona abahlomula ubukhosi obunikezayo. amandla namalungelo abalulekile—khona-ke uyini umthombo wokungabi nangqondo kwethu, okungukuthi, ukungabi nangqondo kwabantu base-US? Konke lokhu kukhuluma kumayelana nani? Ngithanda ukuphikisa ngokuthi umthombo owodwa walolu hlobo lokucabanga, uhlobo lokucabanga esilubona ngaso sonke isikhathi ezingeni lasekhaya, empeleni kuwukucwasa ngokwebala. Lolu hlobo lokucwasa, njengezinye izinhlobo zenkulumo-ze eminingi, lukhuthazwa kakhulu uhulumeni osekela inqubomgomo yezangaphandle eholwa umhobholo we-1% kunezidingo zama-99%.
I "umnyango ovulekile” iphupho
Umnyombo wenqubomgomo yethu yezangaphandle ungafingqwa ngesiqubulo senkulumo-ze esidabukisayo esisekhona esaziwa ngokuthi “Inqubomgomo Yomnyango Ovulekile,” njengoba kuchazwe kamuva nje ngu-Atwood.[19] Ungase ukhumbule lesi sisho esidala esivela ekilasini lomlando wesikole samabanga aphezulu. Inhlolovo ka-Atwood emfushane yomlando we-Open Door Policy isibonisa ukuthi kungani ingabavula amehlo ngempela, inikeza ukhiye wokuqonda ukuthi yini ebisenzeka muva nje ngobudlelwano baseNyakatho Korea-Washington. U-Atwood ubhala ukuthi “i-US ne-Japan bezilokhu zisenkingeni kusukela ngeminyaka yawo-1920s nango-1940, phakathi nokucindezeleka komhlaba wonke, zazivaleleke emzabalazweni wokuthi ubani owayezohlomula kakhulu ezimakethe nasezinsizeni ze-Greater China futhi EMpumalanga Asia.” Uma umuntu kufanele achaze ukuthi yayiyini imbangela yeMpi YasePacific, lowo musho wawuzohamba ibanga elide. U-Atwood uyaqhubeka, “Isizathu sangempela sokuthi i-US imelane namaJapane e-Asia asikaze sixoxwe futhi siyisihloko esinqatshelwe emithonjeni yezindaba njengoba kuyizisusa zangempela zenqubomgomo yezangaphandle yaseMelika ebhalwe kabanzi.”
Kwesinye isikhathi kuyaphikiswana ngokuthi i-US ivimbe ukufinyelela kwe-Japan kuzinsiza e-East Asia, kodwa inkinga ivezwa ngendlela yohlangothi olulodwa, njengomunye wobugovu base-Japan kanye nokuzimisela ukubusa okubangela ukungqubuzana esikhundleni se-Washington.
U-Atwood uchaza ngokufanelekile, “I-Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere yaseJapan yayivala kancane kancane 'Umnyango Ovulekile' wokungena kweMelika kanye nokufinyelela engcebweni enenzuzo yase-Asia ngesikhathi esibucayi. Njengoba i-Japan ithatha izintambo zokulawula i-East Asia i-US yathuthela i-Pacific Fleet e-Hawaii ebangeni elimangalisayo lase-Japan, yabeka unswinyo lwezomnotho, insimbi evinjiwe namafutha futhi ngo-August 1941 yakhipha isimemezelo esicacile sokushiya i-China ne-Vietnam 'noma okunye.' Ngokubona lokhu kwakamuva njengosongo okwakuyikho, iJapane yenza lokho eTokyo kwakuyisiteleka sangaphambi kokuzama eHawaii.” Okukholelwa abaningi bethu, ukuthi iJapan yavele yathuka ngoba ibuswa uhulumeni ongenantando yeningi futhi ophethe impi, empeleni kwakuyindaba endala yodlame mayelana nokuthi ngubani ophethe izinsiza zomhlaba ezinomkhawulo.
Impela, umbono kaCumings, osechithe impilo yakhe yonke ecwaninga umlando waseKorea, ikakhulukazi njengoba uhlobene nobudlelwano base-US-Korea, uhambisana kahle noka-Atwood: “Selokhu kwashicilelwa 'amanothi omnyango ovulekile' ngo-1900 phakathi nombango wombuso. Indawo ethengiswayo yaseShayina, umgomo omkhulu waseWashington wawulokhu uwukufinyelela okungavinjelwanga esifundeni sase-East Asia; yayifuna ohulumeni bendabuko baqine ngokwanele ukuze balondoloze inkululeko kodwa bengenawo amandla anele okulahla ithonya laseNtshonalanga.”[20] Isihloko esifushane kodwa esinamandla sika-Atwood sinikeza umuntu isithombe esikhulu se-Open Door Policy, kuyilapho ngomsebenzi kaCumings, umuntu angakwazi ukufunda ngemininingwane yokuthi yasetshenziswa kanjani e-Korea ngesikhathi sokudla kweMelika izwe ngemva kweMpi YasePacific, ngokusebenzisa -ukhetho lwamahhala nolungenabulungiswa lukamashiqela wokuqala waseNingizimu Korea u-Syngman Rhee (1875-1965), kanye nempi yombango eKorea eyalandela. “Ukufinyelela okungavinjelwe esifundeni sase-East Asia” kwakusho ukufinyelela ezimakethe zesigaba samabhizinisi aseMelika aphakeme, nokubusa ngempumelelo kwalezo zimakethe kanye nenani elingeziwe.
Inkinga yayiwukuthi ohulumeni ababelwa namakoloni bathola ukulawula eKorea, eVietnam naseChina. Lab’ ohulumeni babefuna ukusebenzisa izinsiza zabo ekuthuthukisweni okuzimele ukuze kuzuze abantu bezwe labo, kodwa lokho kwakuyifulegi elibomvu, futhi kuseyilo, “lenkunzi” okuyisakhiwo samasosha nezimboni zaseMelika. Ngenxa yalokho kunyakaza kwenkululeko, iWashington yafuna "indawo yesibili ehamba phambili." "Abahleli baseMelika bakha umhlaba wesibili ohamba phambili owahlukanisa i-Asia isizukulwane."[21] Omunye umdidiyeli uPak Hung-sik uthe “abashisekeli benguquko nabashisekeli bezwe” babeyinkinga, okungukuthi, abantu ababekholelwa ukuthi ukukhula komnotho waseKorea kufanele kuzuze ikakhulukazi amaKorea, futhi ababecabanga ukuthi iKorea kufanele ibuyele ekubeni uhlobo oluthile lokuhlanganisa konke (njengoba yayinjalo. okungenani iminyaka eyi-1,000).
“Ingozi ephuzi” ukucwasa ngokwebala
Njengoba ukucabanga okunjalo okuqinile njengokuthi “ubuzwe” obuzimele bekulokhu kudingeke ukuba kuqedwe nganoma iyiphi intengo, kungase kudingeke ukutshalwa kwezimali okukhulu ezimpini ezibizayo. (Umphakathi ongabatshalizimali nezinkampani abanikazi bamasheya!) Ukutshalwa kwezimali okunjalo kungadinga ukubambisana kwezigidi zabantu baseMelika. Kulapho-ke umbono “wengozi ephuzi” wafika khona wasiza. I-Yellow Peril umqondo wenkulumo-ze oguqukayo osebenze ngokubambisana ne-Open Door Policy, nganoma iyiphi indlela ezibonakalisa ngayo njengamanje.[22] Ukuxhumana kukhonjiswe ngokusobala ekwenziweni kabusha kwekhwalithi ephezulu kakhulu kwenkulumo-ze Yellow Peril kusukela ngesikhathi seMpi yokuqala yamaSino-Japanese (1894-95) ehlanganiswe nendatshana kaprofesa womlando uPeter C. Perdue kanye noMqondisi Wokudala we I-Visualizing Cultures u-Ellen Sebring e-Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[23] Njengoba indaba yabo ichaza, “isizathu sokuthi imibuso yangaphandle eyandayo yayihlose ukuqopha iShayina ibe imikhakha yethonya, empeleni, kwakuwumbono wayo wokuthi inzuzo engachazeki yayiyotholakala kulokhu. Lelisaka elibenyezelayo legolide, ngempela, laliwulunye uhlangothi ‘lwengozi ephuzi’.” Isithombe esisodwa se-propaganda yisithombe esingajwayelekile sendoda yaseShayina, empeleni ehlezi phezu kwamasaka egolide ngakolunye uhlangothi lolwandle.
Ukucwasa ngokwebala kwaseNtshonalanga kubantu baseMpumalanga sekunesikhathi eside kubonakaliswa ngegama elibi lokucwasa elithi “gook.” Ngenhlanhla lelo gama selifile. Abantu baseKorea abazange bakujabulele ukuphathwa ngezinhlanga ezinjengalezi,[24] hhayi ngaphezu kwamaPhilippines noma Vietnamese.[25] (E-Vietnam kwakunomthetho ongekho emthethweni kodwa owawuvame ukusetshenziswa “ngomthetho nje wokugoba” noma “i-MGR,” owawuthi amaVietnam kwakuyizilwane nje ezingabulawa noma zihlukunyezwe ngokuthanda kwakhe). Leli gama lalisetshenziselwa ukubhekisela kumaKorea, futhi, kokubili enyakatho naseningizimu. UCumings usitshela ukuthi “umhleli ohlonishwayo wezempi” uHanson Baldwin ngesikhathi seMpi YaseKorea waqhathanisa amaKorea nezinkumbi, amaqaba, nesixuku sikaGenghis Khan, nokuthi wasebenzisa amagama ukuwachaza “njengabasendulo.”[26]Umfelandawonye waseWashington, iJapan, nawo uvumela ukucwasa kwabantu baseKorea ukuthi kuthuthuke futhi waphasisa umthetho wawo wokuqala omelene nenkulumo enenzondo ngo-2016.[27]Ngeshwa, umthetho ongenamazinyo futhi isinyathelo sokuqala kuphela.
Ukwesaba okungenangqondo kwezinkolelo ezingokomoya ezingezona ezobuKristu, amafilimu mayelana ne-Diabolical Fu Manchu,[28] kanye nokuvezwa kwabezindaba okucwasa ngokwebala phakathi nekhulunyaka lama-20 konke kwabamba iqhaza ekudaleni isiko lapho uGeorge W. Bush ayengakwazi, ngobuso obuqondile, aqoke iNorth Korea njengelinye lamazwe amathathu “e-Axis of Evil” ngemva kuka-9/11.[29] Akuzona kuphela izintatheli ezingenamsebenzi nezinamandla kwa-Fox News kodwa amanye amanethiwekhi wezindaba namaphepha empeleni ayiphinda le lebula yopopayi, eyisebenzisa “njengeshosha” kunqubomgomo ethile yase-US.[30] Igama elithi “isizinda senzondo” cishe lasetshenziswa, ngaphambi kokuba lihlelwe likhishwe enkulumweni yokuqala. Kodwa iqiniso lokuthi la magama athathwa ngokungathi sína kuwuphawu lokungahloniphi ohlangothini “lwethu,” uphawu lobubi nenzondo emiphakathini yethu.
Isimo sengqondo sikaTrump sokucwasa abantu bemibala sisobala kakhulu asidingi ukubhalwa phansi.
Ubudlelwano bangemva kwempi phakathi kwamaKorea amabili neJapan
Njengoba lolu bandlululo lusemuva—lolu bandlululo abantu basechwebeni laseMelika abalubhekise kubantu baseKorea—akumangalisi ukuthi bambalwa abantu baseMelika abaye bashaya phansi ngonyawo bamemeza, “sekwanele” mayelana nokuphathwa kabi yiWashington ngemva kwempi. Enye yezindlela zokuqala nezimbi kakhulu lapho iWashington yaphatha kabi amaKorea ngemuva kweMpi YasePacific yayiphakathi Nenkantolo Yezempi Yamazwe Ngamazwe YaseMpumalanga Ekude eyahlangana ngo-1946: uhlelo lokugqilazwa ngokobulili lwamasosha aseJapane (ngokungangabazeki abizwa ngokuthi “uhlelo lokududuza kwabesifazane”) akazange ashushiswe, okwenza ukuba ukushushumbiswa kocansi okuzalelwe kamuva kwanoma yiliphi izwe, kuhlanganise ne-US, kuphinde kwenzeke. Njengoba u-Gay J. McDougall we-UN abhala ngo-1998, “...izimpilo zabesifazane zisaqhubeka nokubukelwa phansi. Ngokudabukisayo, lokhu kwehluleka ukubhekana nobugebengu obuhlobene nobulili obenziwa ngezinga elikhulu phakathi neMpi Yezwe Yesibili kuye kwanezela ezingeni lokungajeziswa okwenziwa ngalo ubugebengu obufanayo namuhla.”[31] Amacala ocansi abhekiswe kwabesifazane baseKorea ngamasosha ase-US esikhathi esedlule nanamuhla axhunyaniswe nalawo amasosha aseJapan esikhathi esedlule.[32] Impilo yabesifazane bebonke yayinganakwa, kodwa izimpilo zika Korean abesifazane ikakhulukazi babenganakwa njengalabo “abampofu”—ukucwasa ngobulili kanye nokucwasa ngokwebala.
Isimo sengqondo sokudelela samasosha aseMelika ngodlame locansi sabonakala eJapan ngendlela iWashington eyavumela ngayo amasosha aseMelika ukuthi aqwayize abesifazane baseJapan, izisulu zokushushumbiswa ngocansi okuxhaswe nguhulumeni waseJapan, okubizwa nge-“Recreation and Amusement Association,” eyavezwa ngokusobala injabulo yawo wonke amasosha ahlangene.[33] Endabeni yaseKorea, kwatholakala emibhalweni yokuqulwa kwamacala ephalamende laseNingizimu Korea ukuthi “esikhathini esisodwa sokuxoxisana ngo-1960, abameli ababili banxusa uhulumeni ukuba aqeqeshe inqwaba yabaqwayizi ukuze bahlangabezane nalokho omunye akubiza ngokuthi 'izidingo zemvelo' zamasosha ahlangene futhi zibavimbele ekusebenziseni amadola abo eJapan esikhundleni seSouth Korea. Iphini likangqongqoshe wezangaphakathi ngaleso sikhathi, u-Lee Sung-woo, waphendula ngokuthi uhulumeni wenze intuthuko ethile 'ekuphakeleni ngezifebe' 'nasohlelweni lokuzijabulisa' lwamasosha aseMelika.”[34]
Akumele futhi kukhohlakale ukuthi amasosha ase-US adlwengula abesifazane baseKorea ngaphandle kwezindawo zokuqwashisa. Abesifazane baseJapan, njengabesifazane baseKorea, bebeyizisulu zodlame locansi ngesikhathi sodlame lwase-US lapho naseduze nezizinda zamasosha ase-US—abesifazane abashushumbiswa ngocansi kanye nabesifazane bezihambela nje emgwaqweni.[35] Izisulu kuwo womabili la mazwe zisahlushwa amanxeba asemzimbeni kanye ne-PTSD—kokubili okuwumphumela wokuhlala kanye nezisekelo zezempi. Kuyicala lomphakathi wethu ukuthi isimo sengqondo esithi "abafana bazoba abafana" besiko lezempi lase-US siyaqhubeka. Bekumele ikhishwe ku-International Military Tribunal yaseMpumalanga Ekude.
Inkululeko ye-MacArthur yangemva kwempi yangemva kwempi yayihlanganise nezinyathelo eziya embusweni wentando yeningi njengokushintshwa komhlaba, amalungelo abasebenzi, kanye nokuvumela ukuxoxisana ngokuhlanganyela kwezinyunyana zabasebenzi; ukuhlanjululwa kwezikhulu zikahulumeni ezingahambisani nobuhlanga; kanye nokubusa kweZaibatsu (okungukuthi, izingqungquthela zebhizinisi zesikhathi seMpi YasePacific, ezazuza ngempi) kanye namaqembu obugebengu obuhleliwe; Okokugcina, umthethosisekelo wokuthula oyingqayizivele emhlabeni wonke kanye neSiphakamiso sawo sesi-9 “Abantu baseJapane bayayilahla phakade impi njengelungelo elibusayo lesizwe kanye nosongo noma ukusetshenziswa kwamandla njengendlela yokuxazulula izingxabano zamazwe ngamazwe.” Ngokusobala, okuningi kwalokhu kungamukeleka kubantu baseKorea, ikakhulukazi ngaphandle kwe-ultranationalists emandleni kanye nomthethosisekelo wokuthula.
Ngeshwa, ukunyakaza okunjalo akwamukelekile ezinkampanini noma ezimbonini zezempi, ngakho ekuqaleni kuka-1947 kwanqunywa ukuthi imboni yaseJapane izophinde ibe "inkundla yokucobelelana ngolwazi yaseMpumalanga naseNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia," nokuthi iJapane neNingizimu Korea zizothola ukusekelwa. Washington ukuze kuthuthukiswe umnotho ngokuhambisana ne-Marshall Plan eYurophu.[36] Umusho owodwa embhalweni ovela kuNobhala Wezwe uGeorge Marshall uya kuDean Acheson ngoJanuwari 1947 ufingqa inqubomgomo yase-US ngeKorea eyayizoqala ukusebenza kusukela ngalowo nyaka kuze kube u-1965: “hlela uhulumeni oqinisekile waseNingizimu Korea futhi uxhume [sic] umnotho waseJapan.” U-Acheson walandela uMarshall njengoNobhala Wezwe kusukela ngo-1949 kuya ku-1953. "Waba ummeli oyinhloko wangaphakathi wokugcina i-Southern Korea endaweni yethonya laseMelika nelaseJapane, futhi wabhala ngesandla esisodwa ukungenela kweMelika eMpini YaseKorea," emazwini kaCumings. .
Ngenxa yalokhu, abasebenzi baseJapan balahlekelwa amalungelo ahlukahlukene futhi baba namandla amancane okuxoxisana, kwasungulwa ama-Self-Defense Forces abizwa nge-"Self-Defense Forces", futhi ama-ultranationalists afana nomkhulu kaNdunankulu u-Abe uKishi Nobusuke (1896-1987) bavunyelwa ukubuyela kuhulumeni. . Ukuvuselelwa kabusha kweJapan kuyaqhubeka namuhla, kusongela amaKorea kanye neChina neRussia.
Isazi-mlando esawina uMklomelo kaPulitzer uJohn Dower siphawula umphumela owodwa odabukisayo owalandela ezivumelwaneni ezimbili zokuthula zaseJapane ezaqala ukusebenza ngosuku iJapane iphinde yathola ngalo ubukhosi bayo mhla zingama-28 kuMbasa 1952: “IJapane yavinjelwa ukuba iqhubekele phambili ngokuphumelelayo ekubuyisaneni nasekuhlanganisweni kabusha nezwe layo. omakhelwane base-Asia abaseduze. Ukudala ukuthula kubambezelekile.”[37] IWashington ivimbe ukudala ukuthula phakathi kweJapan nomakhelwane ababili abakhulu eyayibenze ikoloni, iKorea neChina, ngokusungula “ukuthula okuhlukene” okwakhipha amaKorea kanye nePeople's Republic of China (PRC) kulo lonke lolu hlelo. IWashington yasonta ingalo yeJapan ukuze ithole ukubambisana kwayo ngokusabisa ngokuqhubeka nomsebenzi owawuqale noGeneral Douglas MacArthur (Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964). i-PRC ayizange isayinwe kwaze kwaba ngu-1965, kwaba nokubambezeleka isikhathi eside, okwathi phakathi naso ngokukaDower, “Amanxeba namafa abuhlungu ombuso wama-imperialism, ukuhlasela, nokuxhashazwa kwashiywa kubhebhetheka—kunganakwa futhi kunganakiwe eJapane. kwaphumela esimweni sokubheka empumalanga ngaphesheya kwePacific kuya eMelika ukuze bathole ukulondeka, futhi, ngempela, nangenxa yokuthi ingubani njengesizwe.” Kanjalo iWashington yahlukanisa phakathi kwamaJapane namaKorea namaShayina ngakolunye, yawaphika amaJapane ithuba. ukuzindla ngezenzo zabo zangesikhathi sempi, ukuxolisa, nokwakha kabusha ubuhlobo bobungani. Ukucwaswa kwamaJapane amaKorea namaShayina kwaziwa kakhulu, kodwa abambalwa kuphela abanolwazi oluningi. d abantu bayaqonda ukuthi iWashington nayo inecala.
Ungavumeli umnyango uvale e-East Asia
Ukubuyela ephuzwini lika-Atwood mayelana neNqubomgomo Yomnyango Ovulekile, uyichaza ngokucacile nangokufanele le mfundiso yama-imperialism ngale ndlela: “Izimali zaseMelika kanye nezinkampani kufanele zibe nelungelo elingenakulinganiswa lokungena ezimakethe zazo zonke izizwe nezindawo kanye nokufinyelela ezinsizeni zabo namandla okusebenza ashibhile. Amagama aseMelika, kwesinye isikhathi ngokwezokuxhumana, ngokuvamile ngodlame oluhlomile. "[38] Uyachaza ukuthi le mfundiso yaqala kanjani. Ngemva kweMpi Yethu Yombango (1861-65), iButho Lasemanzini Lase-US laqhubeka likhona “kulo lonke uLwandlekazi iPacific ikakhulukazi eJapane, eChina, eKorea naseVietnam lapho langenela khona izikhali eziningi.” Umgomo weNavy kwakuwukuqinisekisa ukuthi umthetho nokuhleleka nokuqinisekisa ukufinyelela kwezomnotho… ngenkathi kuvimbela amandla aseYurophu ... ekutholeni amalungelo angafaka ngaphandle abantu baseMelika.
Uqala ukuzwakala ujwayelekile?
I-Open Door Policy iholele ezimpini ezithile zokungenelela, kodwa i-US empeleni ayizange iqale ukuzama ukuvimba ukunyakaza kwe-anticolonial e-East Asia, ngokusho kukaCumings, kuze kube umbiko we-1950 National Security Council 48/2, owawuyiminyaka emibili ukwenza. Yayinesihloko esithi “Isikhundla Se-United States Ngokuhlonipha I-Asia” futhi yasungula uhlelo olusha ngokuphelele “olwalungakaze lucatshangwe nhlobo ekupheleni kweMpi Yezwe II: yayizolungiselela ukungenelela ngezempi ngokumelene nokunyakaza kwe-anticolonial e-East Asia—iKorea yokuqala, kwase kuba iVietnam, neNguquko YaseShayina njengesizinda esiphakeme.”[39] Le NSC 48/2 izwakalise ukuphikisa “ukwenziwa kwezimboni jikelele.” Ngamanye amazwi, kungaba kuhle ukuthi amazwe ase-East Asia abe nezimakethe ze-niche, kodwa asifuni ukuthi athuthukise izimboni ezigcwele njengoba kwenza i-US, ngoba lapho azokwazi ukuncintisana nathi emikhakheni esinayo. "inzuzo yokuqhathanisa."[40] Yilokho i-NSC 48/2 eyakubiza ngokuthi “ukuzigqaja kwezwe kanye nesifiso sokuvelela,” “okungavimbela izinga elidingekayo lokubambisana kwamazwe ngamazwe.”
Ukuhlukaniswa kweKorea
Ngaphambi kokuba iJapane ithathe iKorea ngo-1910, iningi labantu baseKorea “laliyizakhamuzi zasemaphandleni, iningi labo kungabantu abaqashile abasebenza imihlaba ephethwe enye yezicukuthwane eziqine kakhulu emhlabeni,” okungukuthi, yangbanizicukuthwane.[41] Igama lakhiwe ngezinhlamvu ezimbili zesiShayina, yang okusho ukuthi “okubili” kanye vala okusho ukuthi “iqembu.” Isigaba esibusayo sezikhulu sakhiwe amaqembu amabili—izisebenzi zikahulumeni nezikhulu zempi. Futhi ubugqila abuzange buqedwe eKorea kwaze kwaba ngu-1894.[42] Ukuhlala kwe-US kanye nohulumeni omusha, ongathandwayo waseNingizimu Korea we-Syngman Rhee owasungulwa ngo-Agasti 1948 waphishekela izinqubomgomo zokuhlukanisa nokunqoba ukuthi, ngemva kweminyaka eyi-1,000 yobumbano, waphusha iNhlonhlo YaseKorea yaba impi egcwele, impi yombango nokuhlukana phakathi kwezigaba. imigqa.
Pho liyini icala leningi lamaKorea asebezojeziswa ngalo? Ubugebengu babo bokuqala ukuthi bazalelwa esigabeni sezomnotho esaxhashazwa ezweni eliphakathi kwamazwe amabili acebile futhi anamandla, okungukuthi, iShayina neJapane. Ngemva kokuhlupheka okukhulu ngaphansi kobukoloni baseJapane iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-30, bajabulela umuzwa omfushane wenkululeko owaqala ehlobo lika-1945, kodwa ngokushesha i-US yathatha izintambo lapho uMbuso WaseJapane wawusuphelile. Ubugebengu babo besibili bekuwukumelana nalokhu kugqilazwa kwesibili ngaphansi kuka-Syngman Rhee osekelwa yiWashington, okwasusa iMpi YaseKorea. Okwesithathu, abaningi babo babenesifiso sokusabalalisa ingcebo yezwe labo ngendlela efanele. Lezi zinhlobo ezimbili zokugcina zokuvukela umbuso zabafaka enkingeni ngoBully Number One, njengoba kushiwo ngenhla, wanquma ngasese ukungavumeli “ukuthuthukiswa kwezimboni” ku-NSC 48/2 yayo, ngokuhambisana nendlela yayo evamile yezombangazwe, ejezisa kanzima amazwe afisa Ozimele ukuthuthukiswa komnotho.
Mhlawumbe ngenxa yokubonakala kokuba semthethweni ukuthi i-UN entsha, ebuthaka, nebuswa yi-United States yanikeza uhulumeni ka-Syngman Rhee, bambalwa ongqondongqondo eNtshonalanga abake babheka unya olwenziwa yi-US ngesikhathi sokuphatha kwayo i-Korea, noma ngisho nasezindaweni ezithile. unya oluhambisana nokusungulwa kukahulumeni kaRhee. Phakathi kuka-100,000 no-200,000 amaKorea abulawa uhulumeni waseNingizimu Korea kanye namasosha ase-US ngaphambi kukaJuni 1950, lapho kuqala "impi evamile", ngokocwaningo lukaCumings, futhi "abantu abangu-300,000 baboshwa futhi babulawa noma bavele banyamalala ngabaseNingizimu Korea. uhulumeni ezinyangeni ezimbalwa zokuqala emva kwalokho evamile yaqala impi.”[43] (Omalukeke bami). Ngakho-ke ukubeka phansi ukumelana namaKorea ezigabeni zayo zakuqala kwakuhlanganisa ukubulawa kwabantu abangaba yingxenye yesigidi. Lokhu kukodwa kuwubufakazi bokuthi isibalo esikhulu samaKorea aseningizimu, hhayi kuphela iningi lamaKorea asenyakatho (izigidi zawo ezabulawa ngesikhathi seMpi YaseKorea), azizange zibamukele ngezandla ezimhlophe omashiqela babo abasha ababesekelwa yi-US.
Ukuqala "kwempi evamile," ngendlela, kuvame ukuphawulwa njenge-25 June 1950, lapho amaKorea asenyakatho "ehlasela" izwe lawo, kodwa impi yaseKorea yayisivele iqhubeka ekuqaleni kuka-1949, ngakho nakuba Kucatshangwa kabanzi ukuthi iMpi yaqala ngo-1950, uCumings uyawuchitha lowo mcabango.[44] Isibonelo, kwaba nempi enkulu yabalimi esiqhingini saseCheju ngo-1948-49 lapho kwabulawa khona izakhamuzi phakathi kuka-30,000 no-80,000, phakathi kwabantu abangu-300,000, abanye babo babulawa ngokuqondile abantu baseMelika futhi abaningi babo ngokungaqondile ngabaseMelika umqondo wokuthi iWashington yasiza ngodlame lwezwe luka-Syngman Rhee.[45] Ngamanye amazwi, kungaba nzima ukusola iMpi YaseKorea kuDemocratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), kodwa kube lula ukuyisola kuWashington noSyngman Rhee.
Ngemuva kwakho konke ukuhlupheka okudalwe yi-US amaKorea, enyakatho naseningizimu, akufanele kusimangaze ukuthi uhulumeni waseNyakatho Korea uphikisana namakholoni futhi uphikisana namaMelika, nokuthi amanye amaKorea aseNyakatho abambisana nohulumeni kaKim Jong-un. ekusizeni iNyakatho ilungiselele impi ne-US, noma ngabe uhulumeni akanantando yeningi. (Okungenani iziqeshana esiziboniswa ngokuphindaphindiwe ku-TV evamile, zamasosha ahambayo zibonisa izinga elithile lokubambisana). Emazwini kaCumings, "I-DPRK akuyona indawo enhle, kodwa iyindawo eqondakalayo, izwe eliphikisana nekoloniyali kanye ne-anti-imperial ephuma engxenyeni yekhulu leminyaka yombuso wamakoloni waseJapane kanye nenye ingxenye yekhulunyaka yokubhekana ngokuqhubekayo ne-hegemonic. I-United States kanye neNingizimu Korea enamandla kakhulu, enakho konke ukuhlehla okungabikezelwa (isifunda samasosha, ezombangazwe ngokuphelele, ukungaziphathi kahle kwabantu bangaphandle) kanye nokunaka ngokweqile ukwephulwa kwamalungelo ayo njengesizwe.”[46]
Yini manje?
Lapho uKim Jong-un ekhipha izinsongo zomlomo, azikholakala neze. Lapho uMongameli waseMelika uTrump esongela iNorth Korea, kuyethusa. Impi yenuzi eyaqala eNhlonhlweni YaseKorea “ingaphonsa umule nemfucumfucu eyanele ukuze isongele abantu bomhlaba wonke,”[47] ngakho empeleni usongela ukuphila kwesintu.
Umuntu udinga kuphela ukuhlola lokho okubizwa ngokuthi “Iwashi Losuku Lwembubhiso” ukuze abone ukuthi kuphuthuma kangakanani ukuba sithathe isinyathelo manje.[48] Abantu abaningi abanolwazi baye banqotshwa, ngokuvamile, endabeni efaka wonke umuntu amademoni eNyakatho Korea. Ngaphandle kwezinkolelo zezepolitiki, kufanele sicabange kabusha futhi sihlele kabusha inkulumo-mpikiswano yamanje mayelana nalokhu US Crisis - ukukhuphuka kweWashington kokungezwani. Lokhu kuzodinga ukubona okuzayo “okungacabangeki,” hhayi njengesenzakalo esizimele kodwa njengomphumela ongenakugwemeka wokugeleza kwezimo ezinodlame zomlando we-imperialism kanye ne-capitalism ngokuhamba kwesikhathi—hhayi nje “ukubona” kuphela, kodwa ukusebenza ngokubambisana ukuze kuguqule izinhlobo zethu zezilwane. ukuthambekela kodlame.
Amanothi.
[1] Bertrand Russell, Izindatshana Ezingadumile (USimon And Schuster, 1950)
[2] "Izisekelo Zezempi Zase-US Ezizindeni Zezempi Zase-Japan"
[3] Cumings, Indawo YaseKorea Elangeni: Umlando Wesimanje (WW Norton, 1988) p. 477.
Alex Ward,"I-South Korea Ifuna I-US Imise Izikhali Zenuzi Ezweni. Lowo Umbono Omubi. " I-Vox (I-5 Septhemba 2017).
[4] U-Alex Lockie, "I-US ithumela inkampani yesithathu yendiza e-Pacific njengoba i-armada enkulu isondela eduze neNyakatho Korea, " I-Business Insider (I-5 Juni 2017)
[5] UBridget Martin, "I-THAAD Conundrum kaMoon Jae-In: "Umongameli Wokukhanya Kwekhandlela" waseNingizimu Korea Ubhekana Nokuphikiswa Okuqinile Kwezakhamizi Ngokuvikela Imicibisholo, " I-Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 15:18:1 (15 Septemba 2017).
[6] UJane Perlez, "E-China, i-Missile Defence System eSouth Korea ikhuluma ngokuthandana okuhlulekile," New York Times (I-8 Julayi 2016)
[7] UBruce Klingner, "INingizimu Korea: Ukuthatha Izinyathelo Ezilungile Zokuguqulwa Kwezokuvikela,” i-Heritage Foundation (19 October 2011)
[8] Oliver Holmes, "I-US kanye neSouth Korea bazokwenza umsebenzi omkhulu wezempi naphezu kwenkinga yaseNyakatho Korea, " The Guardian (11 Agasti 2017)
[9] "I-Japan-Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) Mission Computing Upgrade (MCU),” I-Ejensi Yokubambisana Kwezokuphepha Kwezokuvikela (26 Septemba 2013)
[10] Hans M. Kristensen, Matthew McKinzie, kanye noTheodore A. Postol, “Ukuthi I-US Nuclear Force Modernization Ibukela Kanjani Ukuzinza Kwesu: I-Burst-Height Compensating Super-Fuze, " I-Bulletin ye-Atomic Scientists (Mashi 2017)
Umkhumbi-ngwenya owodwa uhanjiswe esifundeni ngo-Ephreli 2017. Bona uBarbara Starr, uZachary Cohen noBrad Lendon, "I-US Navy Guided-missile Sub Calls eNingizimu Korea,” CNN (25 April 2017).
Kufanele kube okungenani ezimbili esifundeni nokho. Bona "UTrump utshela uDuterte ngama-subs amabili enuzi ase-US emanzini aseKorea: NYT,” I-Reuters (24 May 2017)
[11] Dakshayani Shankar,”UMattis: Impi neNyakatho Korea izoba 'yinhlekelele',” ABC News (10 Aug 2017)
[12] UBruce Cumings, "UMbuso Wama-Hermit Uyasithela, " I-LA Times (I-17 Julayi 1997)
[13] UDavid Nakamura no-Anne Gearan, "Enkulumweni ye-UN, uTrump usongela 'ukubhubhisa ngokuphelele iNorth Korea' futhi ubiza uKim Jong Un 'Rocket Man'., " Washington Post (19 Septhemba 2017)
[14] UPaul Atwood, "Korea? Bekuhlala Kumayelana NeChina!,” I-CounterPunch (22 Septhemba 2017)
[15] UDavid Stockman, "'Usongo lwase-Iranian' lwe-Deep State's Bogus, " Antiwar.com (14 Okthoba 2017)
[16] UJoby Warrick, u-Ellen Nakashima, no-Anna Fifield "INorth Korea manje yenza izikhali zenuzi ezilungele imicibisholo, kusho abahlaziyi baseMelika, " Washington Post (8 Agasti 2017)
[17] Bruce Cumings, I-North Korea: Elinye Izwe (The New Press, 2003) p. 1.
[18] Umbhalo wenhlolokhono, "Udokotela Wengqondo uRobert Jay Lifton Osemsebenzini Wokuxwayisa: 'Ubudlelwano bukaTrump Neqiniso' Buyingozi Kithi Sonke,” Intando yeningiManje! (13 Okthoba 2017)
[19] Atwood, “Korea? Bekuhlezi Kukhuluma NgeShayina!” I-CounterPunch.
[20] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, ingxenye ethi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isigaba sesi-7.
[21] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, ingxenye ethi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isigaba sesi-7.
[22] Aaron David Miller noRichard Sokolsky, "T'i-eksisi yobubi' isibuyile,” CNN (26 April 2017) l
[23] "I-Boxer Uprising-I: Isiphepho Esihlanganayo eNyakatho neChina (1860-1900),” I-MIT Visuaizing Cultures, iwebhusayithi yelayisensi ye-Creative Commons:
[24] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 4, isigaba sesi-3.
[25] U-Nick Turse ulandisa ngomlando wokucwasa okubi okuhlotshaniswa naleli gama ku Bulala Noma yini Eshukumisayo: Impi Yangempela YamaMelika eVietnam (Picador, 2013), Isahluko 2.
[26] Ukuze uthole isihloko sokuqala esinodlame olungokomfanekiso, bheka u-Hanson W. Baldwin, “Isifundo Sase-Korea: Ikhono Le-Reds, Ubizo Lwamandla Lokucutshungulwa Kabusha Kwezidingo Zokuvikela Ngokuhlasela Okuzumayo,” New York Times (I-14 Julayi 1950)
[27] Tomohiro Osaki, "Ukudla kuphasisa umthetho wokuqala wase-Japan wokunqanda inkulumo enenzondo, " I-Japan Times (I-24 Meyi 2016)
[28] UJulia Lovell, "Ingozi Ephuzi: UDkt Fu Manchu & Ukunyuka Kwe-Chinaphobia nguChristopher Frayling - buyekeza, " The Guardian (30 Okthoba 2014)
[29] UChristine Hong, "Impi Ngezinye Izindlela: Udlame Lwamalungelo Abantu BaseNyakatho Korea, " I-Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 12:13:2 (30 Mashi 2014)
[30] ULucas Tomlinson kanye ne-Associated Press, “'I-Axis of Evil' isaphila njengoba iNorth Korea, i-Iran yethula imicibisholo, yeqa unswinyo,” Fox News (29 July 2017)
UJaime Fuller, "Inkulumo yesi-4 ehamba phambili yeSimo seNyunyana: 'I-Axis of evil, ' Washington Post (25 Januwari 2014)
[31] Caroline Norma, I-Japanese Comfort Women and Slavery Sexual phakathi neChina ne-Pacific Wars (Bloomsbury, 2016), Isiphetho, isigaba sesi-4.
[32] UTessa Morris-Suzuki, “Awufuni Ukwazi Ngamantombazane? I-'Comfort Women', Ibutho Lezempi LaseJapan kanye Namazwe Ahlangene Empini Yase-Asia-Pacific," I-Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 13:31:1 (3 Agasti 2015).
[33] John W. Dower, Ukwamukela Ukunqotshwa: Japan ngesikhathi seMpi Yezwe II. (Norton, 1999)
[34] U-Katharine HS Moon, "Ubufebe Bezempi kanye ne-US Military e-Asia," I-Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus Umqulu 7:3:6 (12 January 2009)
[35] Norma, I-Japanese Comfort Women and Slavery Sexual phakathi neChina ne-Pacific Wars, Isahluko 6, isigaba sokugcina sesigaba esithi “Izisulu ezidayisa ngomzimba kuze kube sekupheleni.”
[36] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 5, isigaba sesibili ukuya kwesokugcina sengxenye yokuqala ngaphambi kokuthi “Iningizimu-ntshonalanga yeKorea phakathi Nohulumeni Wezempi.”
[37] John W. Dower, “Uhlelo lwe-San Francisco: Okwedlule, Okwamanje, Ikusasa e-US-Japan-China Relations, " I-Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus 12:8:2 (23 February 2014)
[38] Atwood,"Korea? Bekuhlala Kumayelana Ne-China!" I-CounterPunch.
[39] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, ingxenye ethi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isigaba sesi-6.
[40] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, ingxenye ethi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isigaba sesi-9.
[41] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 1, isigaba sesi-3.
[42] Ukubamba, INorth Korea: Elinye Izwe, Isahluko 4, isigaba sesi-2.
[43] Cumings, "Umlando Wokubulala WaseKorea," Ukubukezwa Kwezincwadi zaseLondon 39:10 (18 May 2017).
[44] Ukubamba, Indawo yaseKorea elangeni: Umlando wanamuhla, P. 238.
[45] Ukubamba, Impi yaseKorea, Isahluko 5, “Izihlubuki ZakwaCheju.”
[46] Ukubamba, I-North Korea: Elinye Izwe, Isahluko 2, isigaba esithi “American Nuclear Threats”, isigaba sokugcina.
[47] UBruce Cumings, "Umlando Obulalayo WaseKorea," Ukubukezwa Kwezincwadi zaseLondon (18 May 2017). Lesi isihloko esihle kakhulu sikaCumings esifushane kodwa esiphelele, esifushane ngomlando wase-Korea njengoba sihlobene nenkinga yamanje.
[48] I-Bulletin ye-Atomic Scientists
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UJoseph Essertier ungusolwazi osebenza eNagoya Institute of Technology eJapan.
