nguRichard Falk, World BEYOND War, UEpreli 29, 2021
IZOYONGISO KUMTHETHO WAMAZWE NGAMAZWE KUNYE NOMTHETHO WEHLABATHI
Iidrones ezixhobileyo kusenokwenzeka ukuba sesona sixhobo sinzima songezwa kwisixhobo sokwenza imfazwe ukusukela kwibhombu yeathom, kunye nembono yenkqubo yehlabathir, inokujika ibe yingozi ngakumbi kwiimpembelelo zayo kunye neziphumo. Oku kunokubonakala kuyinto engaqhelekanga, i-alarmist, kunye nengxelo ekhulayo yenkxalabo. Emva kwayo yonke loo nto, ibhombu yeathom ekusetyenzisweni kwayo kokuqala yazibonakalisa ikwazi ukutshabalalisa izixeko ziphela, isasaza i-radioactivity ebulalayo naphi na apho umoya wayithwala khona, isoyikisa ikamva lempucuko, kwaye yade yabeka esichengeni ukusinda kweentlobo. Itshintshe kakhulu ubume bemfazwe yeqhinga, kwaye iya kuqhubeka ikhathaza ikamva lomntu kude kube sekupheleni kwexesha.
Nangona kunjalo, ngaphandle kokungabi nangqiqo kunye neengqondo zemfazwe ezichaza ukungafuni kobudemon kweenkokeli zopolitiko ukusebenza ngokunyanisekileyo ekupheliseni izixhobo zenyukliya, sisixhobo esingazange sisetyenziswe kwiminyaka engama-76 ukususela oko saqala ukukhutshelwa kubemi abakhohlakeleyo. IHiroshima kunye neNagasaki.[1] Ngaphaya koko, ukuzuza ukungasetyenziswa bekuyinto ephambili esemthethweni, yokuziphatha, kunye nobulumko ehlala iphambili yeenkokeli kunye nabacwangcisi bemfazwe ukusukela oko ibhombu yokuqala yabangela uloyiko olungathethekiyo kunye nokubandezeleka kumaJapan angendawo awayekho ngaloo mini kwezo zixeko zibhuqiweyo. .
The iodolo yesibini miqobo ebekwe kumashumi eminyaka engenelelayo ukunqanda imfazwe yenyukliya, okanye ubuncinci ukunciphisa umngcipheko wokwenzeka kwayo, nangona ikude nobudenge, kwaye kusenokwenzeka ukuba ayinakugcinwa ixesha elide, ibihambelana nenkqubo yocwangco yehlabathi eye yavela ukuze isebenze inqununu yabelana ngemidla yamazwe emimandla.[2] Endaweni yokugcina esi sixhobo sokugqibela sentshabalalo enkulu ukuze kuxhamle indawo yedabi kunye noloyiso lomkhosi, izixhobo zenyukliya ziye zavalelwa ubukhulu becala kwiindima zazo zokuthintela kunye nokunyanzela idiplomacy, ethi nangona ingekho semthethweni, inengxaki yokuziphatha, kwaye ithandabuzeka ngomkhosi, icingela ukuba isakhelo songquzulwano olukhulu lwamazwe ngamazwe. ilinganiselwe kunxibelelwano olunobundlobongela lwemimandla ezimeleyo.[3]
Ukomeleza le miqobo luhlengahlengiso oluhambelanayo oluphunyezwa ngendlela yezivumelwano zolawulo lwezixhobo kunye nokungonakali. Ulawulo lwezixhobo olusekwe kwiminqweno yezixhobo zenyukliya eziphambili, iUnited States neRussia, zifuna uzinzo olongezelelekileyo ngokunciphisa inani lezixhobo zenyukliya, ukuxela kwangaphambili izinto ezintsha eziphazamisayo nezinexabiso eliphezulu, kunye nokuphepha iinkqubo zezixhobo ezibiza kakhulu ezinganikezeli naluphi na uthintelo olukhulu. okanye inzuzo yeqhinga.[4] Ngokuchaseneyo nolawulo lwezixhobo, ukunganwenwa kwezixhobo kucingela kwaye kubethelele umlinganiselo othe nkqo wolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi, ugunyazisa ulwakhiwo lwezomthetho olumbaxa-mbili olubekwe ngaphezulu kwingcinga yomthetho kunye nethe tyaba yokulingana kwamazwe.
Ulawulo lokunganyangeki kakuhle luye lwavumela iqela elincinci, elanda kancinci lamazwe ukuba liphathe kwaye liphuhlise izixhobo zenyukliya, kwaye lenze izoyikiso zenyukliya, ngelixa lithintela i-186 eseleyo okanye amazwe ukuba angazifumane, okanye ade afumane amandla okuvelisa izixhobo zenyukliya.[5] Le ethos yokungabikho kwande iphinde ibekwe emngciphekweni ngonxibelelwano kwi-geopolitics, okukhokelela kwimigangatho ephindwe kabini, ukunyanzeliswa okukhethiweyo, kunye neenkqubo zobulungu obungenasizathu, njengoko kubonakaliswa yingqiqo yemfazwe yokuthintela ekuxhomekeke kuyo ngokunxulumene ne-Iraq kunye ne-Iran ngoku, kunye nendawo yokuthuthuzela ekuthuleni. kwindawo eyaziwayo yakwaSirayeli, kodwa ingavunywanga ngokusemthethweni, izixhobo zenyukliya.
La mava ngezixhobo zenyukliya axelela izinto ezininzi malunga nomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nocwangco lwehlabathi oluseka imvelaphi eluncedo yokuthathela ingqalelo uluhlu olwahlukileyo lwemicelimngeni kunye nezilingo ezoyikisayo ezivela kwindaleko ekhawulezileyo yeedrones zasemkhosini kunye nokusasazeka kwazo kumazwe angaphezu kwe-100 kunye neqela elingengorhulumente. abadlali. Okokuqala, ukungafuni kunye/okanye ukungakwazi koorhulumente abalawulayo-amazwe aseWestphalian athe nkqo-ukuphelisa ezi zixhobo zokugqibela zentshabalalo enkulu kunye nokufikelela kwihlabathi elingenazo izixhobo zenyukliya ngaphandle kweziphumo zabo ze-apocalyptic. Intando yezopolitiko efunekayo ayizange yakheke, kwaye emva kwexesha iye yehla.[6] Kukho iinkcazo ezininzi ezinikezelweyo ngenxa yokungakwazi ukukhupha uluntu kule Achilles Ukuphilisa ucwangco lwehlabathi, ukususela kuloyiko lokukopela, ukungakwazi ukukhupha iteknoloji, ibango lokhuseleko oluphezulu xa ukunqandwa kunye nokulawula okucwangcisiweyo kuthelekiswa nokuchithwa kwezixhobo, a uthango ngokuchasene nokuvela kotshaba olukhohlakeleyo nolufuna ukuzibulala, imvakalelo enxilisayo yamandla okugqibela, ukuzithemba ukugcina iprojekthi yolawulo lwehlabathi, kunye nodumo oluza nokuba yinxalenye yeqela elikhethekileyo elizimanya kunye namazwe azimeleyo azimeleyo.[7]
Okwesibini, iingcamango zokunqanda kunye nokungaphumeleli kunokudityaniswa kunye neempawu ezintle kunye nokucinga okuye kwalawula isithethe sokwenyani kwezopolitiko esihlala sichaza indlela abantu abaphezulu bakarhulumente bacinga kwaye benze ngayo yonke imbali yocwangco lwehlabathi.[8] Umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe awusebenzi ekulawuleni amabhongo eqhinga kunye nokuziphatha kwamazwe awomeleleyo, kodwa unokunyanzeliswa ngokunyanzeliswa kwamanye amazwe ngenxa yeenjongo zelizwe nezopolitiko, ezibandakanya uzinzo lwenkqubo.
Okwesithathu, umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe wemfazwe uye wavumela izixhobo ezitsha kunye namaqhinga anikezela uncedo olubalulekileyo lomkhosi kwilizwe elizimeleyo, ulungelelaniswa ngokucela 'ukhuseleko' kunye 'nemfuneko yomkhosi' ukushenxisa nayiphi na imiqobo yezomthetho neyokuziphatha emi endleleni.[9] Okwesine, ngenxa yokwanda kokungathembani, ukhuseleko lulungelelaniswe ukujongana neyona meko imbi kakhulu okanye ekufutshane neyona meko imbi kakhulu, yona ngokwayo ingunobangela omkhulu ukungazithembi kunye neentlekele zamazwe ngamazwe. Ezi seti zine zolungelelwaniso, nangona zingenako ukucalula kunye nomzekelo, zibonelela ngemvelaphi yokuqonda ukuba kutheni iinzame ezidlulileyo kwiinkulungwane zokulawula ukubhenela emfazweni, izixhobo, kunye nokuziphatha kobutshaba ziye zaba neziphumo ezidanisa ngolo hlobo, ngaphandle kobuchule obucengayo nobuqhetseba. iingxoxo ezixhasa imida engqongqo kwinkqubo yemfazwe.[10]
IINGXELO EZIXHASAYO: CHIAROSCURO GEOPOLITICS[11]
Iidrones, njengeenkqubo ezitsha zezixhobo eziphendula kwizoyikiso zokhuseleko lwangoku, zinenani leempawu ezenza zibonakale zinzima kakhulu ukuzilawula, ngenxa yobume bongquzulwano lwezopolitiko lwangoku. Oku kubandakanya ngakumbi izoyikiso ezibangelwa ngabadlali abangengabo karhulumente, uphuhliso lweendlela zobunqolobi ezingengabo urhulumente kunye norhulumente osongela amandla awona mazwe makhulu ukugcina ukhuseleko lommandla, kunye nokungakwazi okanye ukungafuni koorhulumente abaninzi ukuthintela ukusetyenziswa komhlaba wabo. ukuqalisa uhlaselo lwamazwe ngamazwe nakwilizwe elinamandla. Ngokwembono yelizwe elithathela ingqalelo ezinye iindlela zalo zasemkhosini kwimeko yangoku yehlabathi, iidrones zibonakala zinomtsalane ngakumbi, kwaye inkuthazo ebonakalayo yokuba nempahla, uphuhliso, nokusetyenziswa kwayo inkulu kakhulu kunento yokwenza nezixhobo zenyukliya.
I-Drones ayibizi kangako kwiindlela zazo zangoku xa kuthelekiswa neenqwelomoya zokulwa eziqhutywa ngabantu, ziphantse zawuphelisa ngokupheleleyo nawuphi na umngcipheko wokwenzakala kumhlaseli, ngakumbi ngokunxulumene nemfazwe echasene nabadlali abangengabo urhulumente, ekujoliswe kuko elwandle, okanye kumazwe akude, banamandla uqalise uqhankqalazo ngokuchanekileyo nakwezona ndawo zikude kakhulu zokufihla ekunzima ukufikelela kuzo imikhosi yasemhlabeni, zinokujolisa ngokuchanekileyo ngokwesiseko solwazi oluthembekileyo oluqokelelwe ngokusetyenziswa kweedrones zokucupha kunye nesakhono sokuva kunye nokukroba, ukusetyenziswa kwazo kunokuba kwezopolitiko kulawulwa ukuqinisekisa ukuzithiba kunye nohlobo olutsha lwenkqubo efanelekileyo evavanya ukufaneleka kokujoliswe kuko kwiinkqubo zovavanyo olwenziwa emva kweengcango ezivaliweyo, kunye nokwenzakala ngokuthe ngqo okwenziwe kunye nokutshatyalaliswa okubangelwa yi-drones yinto encinci xa kuthelekiswa nezinye iindlela zokulwa nabanqolobi kunye neentlobo ezahlukeneyo imfazwe ye-asymmetric. Enyanisweni, kutheni ukusetyenziswa kweedrones akufanele kuthathwe njengohlobo olunokuziphatha, olunengqiqo, kunye nolusemthethweni lwemfazwe eguqula umgaqo-nkqubo we-American counterterrorist ube yimodeli yokulawula ungquzulwano oluxanduva kunokuba ugxekwe kwaye ukhale ngokubhukuqa umthetho wobuntu wamazwe ngamazwe?[12]
Kukho amabali amabini aphikisanayo, aneenguqu ezininzi nganye, ehlalutya umgangatho obalulekileyo (umthetho, ukuziphatha) umgangatho wemfazwe ye-drone, kunye nendima yayo ebalaseleyo ekuphumezeni amaqhinga okubulala okujoliswe kuyo abantu abakhethiweyo. Kwelinye icala lencoko yababini, 'ngabantwana bokukhanya' abathi benza konke okusemandleni abo ukunciphisa iindleko kunye nobukhulu bemfazwe ngelixa bekhusela uluntu lwaseMelika kubundlobongela bamagqabantshintshi umsebenzi wabo ikukusebenzisa ubundlobongela ukubulala abaninzi. abemi kangangoko kunokwenzeka. Kwelinye icala, 'ngabantwana bobumnyama' abachazwa ngokugxekayo njengababandakanyeka kulwaphulo-mthetho lolona hlobo lubekekileyo lokubulala abantu abathile, kubandakanywa nabemi baseMelika, ngaphandle kokuzenza ngathi bayaphendula ngeempazamo zesigwebo kunye nokuhlaselwa okugqithisileyo. Ngokwenyani, omabini la mabali abonisa imfazwe njengendlela yokuzikhethela yokubulala ngokulandelelana phantsi kwenkxaso karhulumente, ugwetyelo olusemthethweni lokubulawa kwesishwankathelo ngaphandle kwezityholo okanye ngaphandle komgaqo-siseko okanye uxanduva naxa ekujoliswe kuko ngummi waseMelika.[13]
Ukuthelekiswa kokusetyenziswa kwedrone kunye nezixhobo zenyukliya kutyhilwa kwesi silungiselelo, ngokunjalo. Akuzange kubekho mzamo wokuxhasa indima yempucuko enokuthi yenziwe ngokugrogrisa kunye nokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zenyukliya, ngaphaya kwengxabano exhokonxayo, engenakuze ibonakaliswe, ukuba ubukho bazo nje buthintele iMfazwe Yomlomo ukuba ibe yiMfazwe yeHlabathi yesiThathu. Ibango elinjalo, ukuba lithembeke konke konke, lixhomekeke kwinkolelo ye-amoral yokuba ukusetyenziswa kwabo okwenyani kuya kuba yintlekele kumacala omabini, kubandakanywa nabasebenzisi, ngelixa isoyikiso sokusetyenziswa sasifanelekile ukuthothisa ukuthatha umngcipheko kunye nokucatshukiswa ngumchasi.[14] Ngokwahlukileyo, ngeedrones, imeko efanelekileyo yokuqinisekisa izixhobo inxulumene ngokukodwa nokusetyenziswa kokwenyani xa kuthelekiswa nezinye iindlela zamaqhinga emfazwe eqhelekileyo yokuqhushumba kwebhombu emoyeni okanye uhlaselo lwasemhlabeni.
“ABANTWANA BOKUKHANYA”
Abantwana benguqu ekhanyayo yemfazwe yedrone banikwa ubume be-canonical nguMongameli uBarack Obama intetho eyanikelwa, ngokufanelekileyo, kwiYunivesithi yoKhuselo yeSizwe, ngoMeyi 23, 2013.[15] U-Obama uwagxininise amazwi akhe kwisikhokelo esinikwe urhulumente kwisithuba seenkulungwane ezimbini apho imeko yemfazwe iye yatshintsha kakhulu kumatyeli aliqela kodwa kucingelwa ukuba ayinakuze ijongele phantsi ukuthembeka kwimigaqo yokusekwa kweriphabliki ebhalwe kuMgaqo-siseko, “owayesebenza njenge. ikhampasi yethu kulo lonke uhlobo utshintsho. . . . Imigaqo yoMgaqo-siseko iye yamelana nazo zonke iimfazwe, kwaye yonke imfazwe ifikelele esiphelweni.”
Ngokuchasene nale mvelaphi, u-Obama uyaqhubeka nentetho engathandekiyo ezuzwe njengomongameli waseBush, ukuba uhlaselo lwe-9/11 luqalise Imfazwe kunokuba wenze into enkulu ulwaphulo-mthetho. Ngamazwi akhe, “Olu yayiludidi olwahlukileyo lwemfazwe. Akukho mkhosi weza kunxweme lwethu, yaye umkhosi wethu wawungengowona mkhosi uphambili. Kunoko, iqela labanqolobi leza lize kubulala abantu abaninzi kangangoko lalinako.” Akukho mzamo wokujongana nombuzo wokuba kutheni le nto ixhokonxa inokuthi iphathwe ngcono njengolwaphulo-mthetho, obelunokusebenza ngokuchasene nokuphehlelela iimfazwe zangaphambili ze-9/11 'zanaphakade' ngokuchasene ne-Afghanistan ne-Iraq. Endaweni yoko, u-Obama unikezela ngelizwi elibi, kunye nebango eliphikisayo lokuba umceli mngeni "yayikukulungelelanisa imigaqo-nkqubo yethu kunye nomthetho."[16]
Ngokuka-Obama, isoyikiso esenziwe yi-al-Qaeda kwiminyaka elishumi edlulileyo sehlile kakhulu, nangona singakhange sinyamalale, nto leyo eyenza ibe “lixesha lokuzibuza imibuzo enzima-malunga nobume bezoyikiso zanamhlanje kunye nendlela ekufuneka sihlangabezane nazo. Ewe kunjalo, ityhila ukuba impumelelo yolu hlobo lwemfazwe ibingeloloyiso lwedabi okanye indawo yokuhlala, kodwa ukubulawa ngo-2011 kwenkokeli edumileyo ye-al-Qaeda, u-Osama bin Laden, kwindawo engeyiyo yokulwa. indawo yokuzimela enentsingiselo encinci yokusebenza kwiphulo elibanzi lokuchasana nabanqolobi. U-Obama uvakalise le mvakalelo yokufezekiswa ngokwamagama abethayo kuluhlu lokubulala: “Namhlanje, u-Osama bin Laden ufile, kwaye ngokunjalo noninzi lwabalawuli bakhe abaphambili.” Esi siphumo ayisosiphumo, njengeemfazwe ezidlulileyo, zokuhlangana komkhosi, kodwa sisiphumo seenkqubo zokubulala ekujoliswe kuzo ngokungekho mthethweni kunye nemisebenzi yemikhosi ekhethekileyo enyhasha amalungelo awongamileyo kwamanye amazwe angenayo imvume yawo esemthethweni.
Kukule meko apho intetho ka-Obama iguqukela kwimpikiswano eveliswa kukuthembela kwiidrones, ukusetyenziswa kwayo okuye kwanda kakhulu ukusukela oko u-Obama wafika kwi-White House ngo-2009. ukwenza ngoku kuya kuchaza uhlobo lwesizwe-kunye nehlabathi-esilushiyela abantwana bethu. . . . Ke iMelika ikwisiphambuka sendlela. Kufuneka sichaze uhlobo kunye nobungakanani balo mzabalazo, kungenjalo uya kusichaza. " Kwiinzame zokuphinda kugxininise kumzabalazo ochasene nobunqolobi behlabathi, u-Obama unikezela ngolwimi olwamkelekileyo lokuthoba: “. . . kufuneka siwuchaze umzamo wethu kungekhona 'njengemfazwe yehlabathi lonke yobugrogrisi,' kodwa njengothotho lwemigudu eqhubekayo, ekujoliswe kuyo yokudiliza uthungelwano olukhethekileyo lwabangoontamo-lukhuni abasongela iMelika.” Nangona kunjalo akukho ngcaciso inikiweyo malunga nokuba kutheni le mizabalazo yolawulo lwezopolitiko kwiindawo ezikude ezifana neYemen, iSomalia, iMali, kunye neePhilippines kufuneka zithathelwe ingqalelo iindawo zokulwa ngokwembono yokhuseleko lwesizwe ngaphandle kokuba ukufikelela kwehlabathi kwesicwangciso esikhulu saseMelika sibandakanya. ilizwe ngalinye kwiplanethi. Ngokuqinisekileyo, ukwazisa amandla omkhosi waseMelika kwinto ebonakala ngathi yimizabalazo yokulawula ubomi bezopolitiko bangaphakathi kuthotho lwamazwe angaphandle akudali zizathu kumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe wokubhenela emfazweni okanye ukoyikisa kunye nokusetyenziswa kwamandla ezizwe ngezizwe.
Ayikuko ukuba u-Obama akabi naluvelwano kwezi zinto zixhalabisayo[17], kodwa kukungazimiselanga kwakhe ukuphonononga iinyani zekhonkrithi zento eyenziwayo egameni laseMelika eyenza ukuba umfanekiso wakhe oqaqambileyo wemfazwe yedrone uphazamise kwaye ulahlekisa. U-Obama uqinisekisa ukuba “[a] yinyani kwiimfazwe zangaphambili, obu buchwephesha butsha buphakamisa imibuzo enzulu—malunga nokuba ngubani ekujoliswe kuwo, kwaye kutheni, malunga nokwenzakala kwabantu, kunye nomngcipheko wokudala iintshaba ezintsha; malunga nokuba semthethweni kolu qhankqalazo phantsi komthetho wase-US kunye nomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe; malunga nokuphendula kunye nokuziphatha. "[18] Ewe, le yeminye yemiba, kodwa iimpendulo ezinikeziweyo zingcono kancinci kunokuphepha nje ngokuphandle kwenkxalabo yomthetho neyokuziphatha ephakanyisiweyo. Ingxoxo esisiseko ebekwe phambili kukuba imfazwe yedrone ibekho ngempumelelo kwaye zomthetho, kwaye ibangela amaxhoba ambalwa kunezinye iindlela zomkhosi. Ezi mpikiswano ziphantsi kwamathandabuzo aqatha angazange asonjululwe ngokwemigaqo ebambekayo enokufaneleka ukuba u-Obama wayeyithetha ngenene into ayithethileyo malunga nokujongana nemibuzo enzima.[19]
Ukukhusela kwakhe ukuba semthethweni kufana nendlela epheleleyo. ICongress yanika isiGqeba esiLawulayo ngokubanzi, igunya elingathintelwanga ukuba lisebenzise onke amandla ayimfuneko ukulungisa izoyikiso eziveliswe emva kohlaselo lwe-9/11, ngaloo ndlela yanelisa iimfuno zomgaqo-siseko wasekhaya zokwahlulwa kwamagunya. Ngamazwe ngamazwe, u-Obama ubeka ezinye iingxabano malunga nelungelo le-United States lokuzikhusela ngaphambi kokuba athi, "Ke le yimfazwe efanelekileyo-imfazwe eqhutywe ngokulinganayo, ekugqibeleni, kunye nokuzikhusela." Kulapha apho wayenokuthi abuze imibuzo ethandabuzayo malunga nohlaselo lweWorld Trade Center kunye nePentagon njengoko kuthathwa 'njengezenzo zemfazwe' kunezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho olunobunzulu obunjengobo 'bulwaphulo-mthetho eluntwini.' Kwakukho iindlela ezizezinye zokubhenela emfazweni ezikhatshwa libango lokuzikhusela kuthungelwano lwabanqolobi bezizwe ngezizwe ekubonakala ngathi i-al Qaeda isenokuba yayikhe yaphononongwa, nokuba ayizange yamkelwe, ngo-2001. umzamo ukusukela ngo-2013 wawunokuphinda uwuphakamise umbuzo osisiseko okanye, ngokuthozama, ukuthothisa isenzo somnqolobi ukusuka emfazweni ukuya kumlo wehlabathi wokulwa nolwaphulo-mthetho lwamazwe ngamazwe oluqhubela phambili ngomoya wentsebenziswano wokwenene phakathi koorhulumente ngendlela ehlonipha umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, kuquka ne-UN Charter..
U-Obama usilele ukulixhakamfula elo thuba. Endaweni yoko, ubonise iseti yeempendulo ezikhohlisayo kwizigxeko eziphambili zoluntu ngemfazwe yedrone njengengqikelelo kunye nokusebenza. U-Obama uthi, ngaphandle kobungqina obukhulayo obuchasene noko, ukusetyenziswa kwe-drone kunyanzeliswa "yinkqubo-sikhokelo elawula ukusetyenziswa kwethu kwamandla ngokuchasene nabanqolobi-igxininisa kwizikhokelo ezicacileyo, ukubeka iliso kunye nokuphendula ngoku kufakwe kwiSikhokelo soMgaqo-nkqubo kaMongameli." Ilandele imigca efanayo naleyo yathathwa nguJohn Brennan kwintetho eyayiseHarvard Law School kunyaka okanye ngaphambili. UBrennan ngelo xesha wayesebenza njengomcebisi oyintloko ka-Obama wokuchasana nobunqolobi. Ugxininise ukuzinikela kukaRhulumente wase-US ekubambeleleni kulawulo lomthetho kunye nemilinganiselo yedemokhrasi eye yanika uluntu lwaseMelika isimo sayo esahlukileyo: “Ndiye ndahlakulela uxabiso olunzulu ngendima edlalwa ziinqobo zethu ezisemgangathweni, ngakumbi ulawulo lomthetho. ukugcina ilizwe lethu likhuselekile.”[20] U-Brennan, ngelixa ebanga ukuba wenza konke okunokwenziwa ukukhusela abantu baseMelika kwezi zoyikiso ezivela ngaphandle nangaphakathi, uqinisekisile abaphulaphuli bakhe besikolo somthetho ngendlela equka "ukubambelela kumthetho womthetho" kuzo zonke izenzo, ekhankanya ngokucacileyo " izenzo ezifihlakeleyo.” Kodwa okuthethwayo apha ngokucacileyo kukungayeki ukusetyenziswa kwamandla okuthintelwa ngumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, kodwa kuphela kukuba imisebenzi efihlakeleyo ethe yaba yinxalenye enkulu 'yemfazwe yobugrogrisi' ka-Obama ayigqithi “kumagunya esiwanikwe yiCongress. ” Ngobuchule bobuqili bengqondo, uBrennan uchonga ulawulo lomthetho kuphela lwasekhaya igunya lomthetho ngelixa libonakala lilungelelanisa ukusetyenziswa kwamandla kumazwe ahlukeneyo angaphandle. Xa kufikwa kumba wokufaneleka komthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, uBrennan uthembele kulwakhiwo oluzimeleyo kunye nolwakhiwo olubambeneyo lwengqiqo yomthetho ukuphikisa ukuba umntu unokujoliswa ekubeni ajongwe njengesoyikiso nokuba ukude kwindawo ebizwa ngokuba 'yithafa ledabi elishushu,' oko kukuthi. , naphi na emhlabeni ekunokuba yinxalenye yendawo yemfazwe esemthethweni.[21] Ibango elinjalo likhohlisa ngokunzulu njengoko ukusetyenziswa kwedrone kumazwe afana neYemen neSomalia akude nje kuphela kwindawo yedabi eshushu; Ungquzulwano lwabo lunqunyanyisiwe ngokupheleleyo, kwaye oko kubizwa ngokuba 'lugwayimbo lokutyikitya' lubaphatha njengento ekujoliswe kuyo abantu abarhanelayo kwimeko yabo ethile yangaphandle.
Ibango likamongameli ka-Obama kukuba i-drones ijolise kuphela kwabo babeka isoyikiso, ukuba kuthatyathelwa inyameko enkulu ukunqanda umonakalo owenziwe ngabantu, kwaye inkqubo enjalo ivelisa ukwenzakala okuncinci kunye nentshabalalo kunokuba bekuya kuvela kwiindlela zangaphambili kwezo zoyikiso ezixhomekeke kuzo. itekhnoloji ye-cruder yenqwelomoya kunye neebhutsi phantsi. U-Obama uphendule umbuzo ongathandekiyo wokuba ingaba kungaphakathi kwesi sigunyaziso ukujolisa kubemi baseMelika abasebenza ngokwezopolitiko ngelixa bekwilizwe langaphandle. U-Obama wasebenzisa imeko ka-Anwar Awlaki, umshumayeli wamaSilamsi, ukuchaza isizathu esibambekayo kwisigqibo sokumbulala, esalatha kwizityholo zokunxibelelana kwakhe neenzame ezininzi zokuzama ubunqolobi eUnited States: “. . . xa ummi wase-US esiya phesheya ukuya kulwa imfazwe neMelika. . . ubumi akufunekanga busebenze njengekhaka kunokuba umdubuli odubula isihlwele esimsulwa kufuneka akhuselwe kwiqela le-swat. "[22] Nangona kunjalo ingcaciso enjalo ayiphenduli kubagxeki malunga nokuba kutheni phambi kokubulawa kungekho zityholo ezichasene no-Awlaki zabekwa phambi kohlobo oluthile lwequmrhu lenkundla, elivumela ukhuselo olumiselwe yinkundla, ukuqinisekisa ukuba 'inkqubo efanelekileyo' phakathi kweqela elithatha isigqibo malunga nokujoliswe kuko. hayi nje isitampu serabha seCIA kunye neengcebiso zePentagon, kwaye ngokuqinisekileyo kutheni kungenakubakho ukuvezwa kwe-post-facto epheleleyo yobungqina kunye nengqiqo.[23]
Okuphazamisa ngakumbi, kuba icebisa ukholo olubi, yayikukusilela kuka-Obama ukuzisa eyona drone inengxaki ekujolise kuyo iqela labantu abancinci kwindawo eyahlukileyo yeYemen kunokuba idrone yancamathela uAnwar Awlaki. Iqela elijoliswe kuyo laliquka unyana ka-Awlaki oneminyaka eyi-16 ubudala, u-Abdulrahman Awlaki, umzala, kunye nabanye abantwana abahlanu ngelixa belungiselela i-barbecue yomoya ovulekileyo ngo-Oktobha 14, 2011, kwiiveki ezintathu emva kokuba i-drone yabulala uyise ka-Abdulrahman. Utatomkhulu ka-Abdulrahman, odumileyo waseYemeni owayesakuba ngumphathiswa wekhabhinethi kunye nomongameli weyunivesithi, ubalisa ngeenzame zakhe ezityhafisayo zokucela umngeni kwiinkundla zaseMelika ukuxhomekeka kolu luhlu lwabatshayiweyo kunye nokungabikho koxanduva lokuphendula nakwiimeko ezinzima ngolo hlobo. Lolu hlobo lwesehlo esibonisa ukuba kutheni lonke ibango lokusebenza kweedrones liphantsi kwe mnyama ilifu lokungakholwa. U-Awlaki omncinci kubonakala ngathi ulixhoba lento ebhalwe kwi-jargon yasemkhosini 'njengogwayimbo lokutyikitya,' oko kukuthi, uluhlu lwababethileyo olwenziwe ngabantu abachongiweyo kodwa lubandakanya iqela iCIA okanye iPentagon abahlalutyi abalifumana bekrokrela ngokwaneleyo ukuba bathethelele ukubulawa kwabo. ukuphelisa. Ngokucacileyo, u-Obama akazange athethe ngogwayimbo kwintetho yakhe, kwaye ke akanakubophelela urhulumente ukuba aphelise ukujolisa. Oku kujongela phantsi ibango lakhe lonke lokuba ujoliso luqhutywa ngoxanduva phantsi kolwalathiso lwakhe kwaye lwenziwa ngendlela enobulumko kakhulu ethintela iithagethi kwabo babizwa ngokuba 'ngabantu bexabiso eliphezulu' ababeka izoyikiso ngokuthe ngqo kukhuseleko lwase-US kunye nokulungiselela naluphi na uhlaselo ukuze luphelise. kangangoko kunokwenzeka umonakalo ongangqalanga kubemi. Olu hlobo lokuqiqa luyakhohlisa nokuba lwamkelwe ngokwemiqathango yalo njengogwayimbo lwedrone kunye nezoyikiso ngokwendalo yazo zisasaza uloyiko olunzulu kuluntu luphela, kwaye ngenxa yoko nokuba umntu omnye ekujoliswe kuye uyabulawa okanye wenzakele, impembelelo yogwayimbo ivakala kakhulu. ngokubanzi esithubeni, kwaye ixesha elide ekuhambeni kwexesha. Uloyiko lombuso lubanzi ngokungenakuthintelwa koko kujoliswe kuko okuvunyiweyo ngaphandle kokuba umntu ekujoliswe kuye uhlala yedwa emaphandleni.
Kukho eminye imiba emibini kwintetho ka-Obama efuna ingqwalasela. Ingcinga yakhe ephambili yeyokubeka phambili ukukhusela abantu baseMelika kuzo zonke izoyikiso, kubandakanya abo basekhaya ngohlobo oluboniswe ngokudubula kweFort Hood kunye nokudubula kweBoston Marathon, ukanti uqinisekisa ukuba akukho mongameli waseMelika kufuneka "abeke iidrones ezixhobileyo ngaphezulu". Umhlaba waseMelika. "[24] Okokuqala, kuthekani ukuba kukho ukhuseleko okanye unyanzeliso oluyimfuneko? Okwesibini, kukho imvume ebonakala ngathi inikezelwe, ubuncinci ngokucokisekileyo, kwiidrones ezingaxhobanga, okuthetha ukubekw' esweni kumoya wemisebenzi yasekhaya yabantu abarhanelwayo.
Indlela ka-Obama yokuvuma ukuba oonozakuzaku baseMelika bajongene nezoyikiso zokhuseleko ezidlula ezo ajongene nazo ngamanye amazwe ibonakala ithandabuzeka, icacisa ukuba “[t]ixabiso lakhe lelona lizwe linamandla ehlabathini, ngakumbi njengoko imfazwe yotshintsho ihlasela ilizwe lama-Arabhu. ” Kwakhona ukutsalwa okungacacanga akukaze kuvelise ikhonkrithi: kutheni oozakuzaku baseMelika bekhethwa? Ngaba izikhalazo zabo ezisemthethweni ngokuchasene ne-United States, ezinokuthi ukuba zisusiwe, ziya kuphucula ukhuseleko lwaseMelika nangaphezulu kunokwenza i-ambassade ibe ziinqaba kunye nokuhlaselwa kwe-drone naphi na kwiplanethi ngaphandle kokuba umongameli ongaphenduliyo asayine? Ngaba amabango omkhosi waseMelika kunye nothungelwano lwehlabathi lweziseko zomkhosi kunye nobukho baselwandle bufanelekile kuvavanyo olusemthethweni lwezoyikiso okanye ukusetyenziswa kwamandla ehlabathi? Kuthekani ngenkqubo yokucupha yehlabathi edizwe kumaxwebhu karhulumente akhutshwe ngu-Edward Snowden?
Kwakhona ama-abstractions alungile, ngamanye amaxesha ade acacise, kwi-plane yabo efihliweyo yentetho, ngaphandle kokuba kwaye kude kube kuthelekiswa nemithetho yekhonkrithi yemigaqo-nkqubo, egutyungelwe ebumnyameni, oko kukuthi, ukuvinjwa kokukhanya. Kwiitoni ezikhuthazayo, emva kokubonelela ngengqiqo yokuqhubeka nendlela yexesha lemfazwe, u-Obama uyaqaphela ekupheleni kwentetho yakhe ukuba le mfazwe "njengazo zonke iimfazwe, kufuneka iphele. Nantso into ecetyiswa yimbali, yiloo nto ifunwa yidemokhrasi yethu.” Uqukumbela ngokuchulumacha okunyanzelekileyo kokuthand’ izwe: “Bayiyo ke loo nto abantu baseMelika—abazimiseleyo, yaye abamele konakala ngabo.” UBrennan wakhetha phantse amagama afanayo ekuqukumbeleni intetho yakhe yeSikole Somthetho saseHarvard: “Njengabantu, njengesizwe, asinako—kwaye akufuneki—sinikezele kwisilingo sokubekela bucala imithetho nemilinganiselo yethu yokuziphatha xa sijongene nezoyikiso kukhuseleko lwethu… ngcono kunoko. SingamaMelika.”[25] Inqaku elibuhlungu kukuba i-abstractions yi-decoys. Into esiyenzileyo egameni lokhuseleko yile nto kanye u-Obama noBrennan bathi masingaze siyenze ngokubhekiselele kumthetho kunye nemilinganiselo yelizwe, kwaye iimvakalelo ezinjalo ziye zaphindwa kutshanje nguBiden noBlinken. Lo mkhwa wamagosa aphezulu aseMelika ekuthandeni umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe uthintelwe ngokupheleleyo ekuphunyezweni komgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle xa kuziwa 'kukhuseleko' okanye iqhinga elikhulu. Siyazixelela kwaye sifundise abanye ukuba basibandakanye ekujongeni ilizwe elilawulwa ngumthetho, ukanti indlela esiziphatha ngayo icebisa iipatheni ezisekwe kwingqiqo kunye nemfihlo.
“ABANTWANA BOBUMNYAMA”
Ukujikela kwibali eliphikisayo apho ubunyani bemfazwe yedrone bubonakaliswa ngendlela eyahlukileyo ngokupheleleyo. Oku akuthethi ukugatywa ngokupheleleyo kwemfazwe ye-drone, kodwa igxininisa ukuba amaqhinga anjalo kunye nokuphunyezwa kwawo okwangoku akuxelwanga ngokufanelekileyo okanye ngokunyanisekileyo, kwaye ngenxa yoko, akunakulungelelaniswa ngokulula nomgaqo-siseko okanye umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe okanye kunye nemigangatho yokuziphatha ekhoyo. Abagxeki bentetho eqhelekileyo yaseWashington banokuba netyala lokucinga ukuba akukho ndlela yokunciphisa ukuthembela kwi-drones ngendlela enovakalelo kwimida yomthetho kunye nokuziphatha endaweni yokuhlala kuphela kwiindlela ezixhaphazayo neziyingozi. apho iidrones ziye zasetyenziswa kwaye zisetyenziswa nguRhulumente wase-US. Ngamanye amazwi, ukuba ubuxoki obusisiseko babantwana be-pro-drone bentetho yokukhanya kukugcina ingqwalasela kwinqanaba elingabonakaliyo elingahoywayo imiceli mngeni ekhoyo eyenziwa ziipateni zokwenyani kunye nezinokwenzeka zokusebenzisa, ubuxoki obuxhasayo babantwana bobumnyama bume. ukunciphisa amagqabantshintshi abo kwinqanaba lekhonkrithi elityeshela uxinzelelo olusemthethweni lokhuseleko olukhuthaza ukuthembela kwiidrones kunye nabalingane babo kwi-domain 'yemisebenzi ekhethekileyo' kunye nomnombo onokulandelwa emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, ukuba akunjalo ngaphambili. Intetho efanelekileyo kwi-drones iya kubandakanya i-synthesis eyathatha i-akhawunti yezizathu zokhuseleko ngelixa iqaphela ingxabano eqhelekileyo yokwenza imfazwe engenamda kunokuba ichaze isoyikiso njengenye yolwaphulo-mthetho olungenamda, kunye nexhala malunga neziphumo zokuqinisekisa ukuthembela kwi-robotic. Iindlela zongquzulwano apho unxibelelwano lwabantu kunye nezenzo zemfazwe lwaphukile okanye lunikezelwa kude.
Oku kulungelelaniswa kwizisongelo ezivela kubadlali abangabalulekanga ngokungathandabuzekiyo ukuba uDick Cheney wayebhekiselele kuyo xa wathi ngokukrakra wanikela uluvo lwakhe lokuba iUnited States iphinde ibuyisele ukhuseleko kwihlabathi le-9/11 lifuna izenzo 'kwicala elimnyama.' Abasasazi bokuqala bentetho 'yabantwana bobumnyama' babengonwabanga ekwamkeleni kwabo lo mfanekiso-ngqondweni kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo ekhaphayo. Inene, uCheney wachaza ukuchas' umthetho okusengqiqweni kudliwanondlebe ngoSeptemba 16, 2001. Ukudibanisa i-Press: “Kufuneka sisebenze, nangona kunjalo, uhlobo lwecala elimnyama, ukuba uyathanda. Kufuneka sichithe ixesha kwithunzi lehlabathi lezobuntlola . . . Lihlabathi elisebenza kulo aba bantu, kwaye kuya kubaluleka kuthi ukuba sisebenzise naziphi na iindlela esinazo, ukufezekisa injongo yethu. ”[26] Oku kwakuthetha ntoni ngexesha lokwenyani kukuthembela ekuthuthunjisweni, kwiindawo ezimnyama kumazwe angaphandle, kunye noluhlu lokubulala, kunye nokubekwa ecaleni kwezithintelo zomthetho okanye ukulungelelaniswa kwemimiselo esemthethweni ehambelana nayo ngaphandle kokumila ukuze kuqinisekiswe imigaqo-nkqubo.[27] Oku kuthetha ukuthembela 'kwiindawo ezimnyama' kuthotho lwamazwe anobubele anokuthi avumele iCIA ukuba iqhube awayo amaziko okugocagoca asimahla kwizithintelo zolawulo lwesizwe, kwaye bekungayi kubakho mibuzo iphakanyiswayo. Oku kukhokelele 'kwinguqulelo engaqhelekanga,' ukudluliselwa kwabarhanelwa koorhulumente abaya kubandakanyeka kwintuthumbo engaphaya koko kwakwamkelekile 'njengokuncinwa okuphuculweyo' phantsi koncedo oluthe ngqo lwaseMelika. Izizathu ezicacileyo zikaDonald Rumsfeld zokwandiswa okukhulu kweNkqubo yoFikelelo oluKhethekileyo yePentagon yoLawulo oluKhethekileyo lokuSebenza (JSOC) ngokuyinxenye yayikukuphepha ukuxhomekeka ngakumbi kwiCIA kuba amanyathelo amnyama ayekumazwi akhe "ekugwetyweni lokufa."[28] Xa PBS TV documentary Ngaphambili ibonise umfanekiso wayo wemfazwe yobugrogrisi eyayanyaniswa nomongameli we-neoconservative kaGeorge W. Bush ngo-2008, yakhetha isihloko esithi "Icala Elimnyama," njengoko wenzayo uJane Mayer ekugxekeni kwakhe ngokukrakra amaqhinga asetyenziswe ngabayili beCheney / Rumsfeld impendulo karhulumente ku9/11.[29] Ayimangalisi into yokuba uCheney wayebonakala ekhululekile ngokuphoswa njengomntu wobubi kwinkcubeko edumileyo ngendlela Star Wars umlinganiswa kaDarth Vader.[30]
Njengoko yaziwa ngoku, i-9/11 yaququzelela isisombululo sangaphambili sikaCheney kunye noRumsfeld sokugxila kumagunya emfazwe kumongameli kunye nokucwangcisa amandla aseMelika kwihlabathi jikelele ngesiseko samathuba obuchule asemva kweMfazwe ebandayo kunye nezinto eziphambili ngaphandle kokujonga imida yelizwe. ulongamo okanye izithintelo zomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Injongo yabo yayikukukhokela inguqu kwimicimbi yezomkhosi eyayiza kuzisa imfazwe kwi-21st Inkulungwane, nto leyo ethetha ukunciphisa izixhobo eziqhelekileyo kunye namaqhinga, nto leyo evelise iingxwelerha kunye nenkcaso yezopolitiko yasekhaya kumgaqo-nkqubo ondlongondlongo wamazwe angaphandle, kunye nokuxhomekeka kubuchule obutsha betekhnoloji obunokuba namandla otyando ukoyisa naluphi na utshaba naphi na emhlabeni. I-9/11 ekuqaleni yayiyi-puzzle njengoko isicwangciso-qhinga esikhulu se-neocon sasiyilwa ukuphumeza uloyiso olukhawulezayo noluncinci ngokuchasene noorhulumente bamazwe angaphandle abanobutshaba ngomzekelo weMfazwe yeGulf ngo-1991, kodwa ngokunyuka kokuvuma ukuba namabhongo ezopolitiko ekunyanzeliseni uhlobo lwezopolitiko. iziphumo ezinokuthi ziphucule ulawulo lwe-US lwehlabathi. Into ebingalindelwanga, nangona kunjalo, kwaye yabetha uloyiko ezintliziyweni ezininzi, kukuba abona badlali bezopolitiko abanobutshaba baya kuba ngabadlali abangengabo urhulumente abanamandla abo asasazeke kwiindawo ezininzi kwaye abanalo uhlobo lwesiseko sommandla esinokujoliswa kuwo. ukuziphindezela (kwaye ngenxa yoko, akukho phantsi kothintelo). Ukuziqhelanisa nolo hlobo lwesisongelo sokhuseleko yeyona nto izise amaqhinga ecala elimnyama ngaphambili naphakathi, njengoko ubukrelekrele bomntu babubalulekile, abona benzi bobubi banokuzifihla naphi na kubandakanywa ne-United States. Ngenxa yokuba ubukho babo babusoloko budibana nabemi, bekuya kufuneka ukuba kubekho ubundlobongela obungakhethi buso okanye ukuchaneka okufunyenwe ngokubulala okujoliswe kuko.
Kulapha apho imisebenzi ekhethekileyo, efana nokubulawa kuka-Osama Bin Laden, ingumfuziselo, kunye nemfazwe yedrone kaninzi yaba licebo kunye neendlela zokuzikhethela. Kwaye kulapha apho umnqolobi, nangona egutyungelwe yingubo yobumnyama, ngokwakhe uba luhlobo olusemthethweni lobunqolobi oluvunywe ngokusemthethweni. I-extremest yezopolitiko eqhuma izakhiwo zikawonkewonke ayifani ngokungafaniyo nomsebenzi karhulumente oqalisa i-drone okanye uhamba nomsebenzi wokubulala, nangona u-extremest engenzi ibango lokujolisa ngokuchanekileyo kwaye wenqaba ukwamkela naluphi na uxanduva lokubulala ngokungakhethi.
Ukusabela kwinqanaba lokuqhubeka elibonakaliswe ngumongameli ka-Obama ngaphandle kokuxhomekeka kwintetho 'yabantwana bokukhanya', abagxeki benkululeko baye bathanda ukugxila ukuziphatha yombuso njengoko ibonakaliswe ngokuthembela kwayo kumaqhinga ecala elimnyama. Ababhali abafana noJeremy Scahill noMark Mazetti baxoxa ngezinga apho iimpawu ezibalulekileyo zeCheney/Rumsfeld worldview ziye zagcinwa, zade zandiswa, ngexesha lobumongameli baka-Obama: imfazwe emthunzini; ibala ledabi lehlabathi; ukubekw' esweni kwabarhanelwa abachazwa ukuba babandakanya nabani na, kuyo yonke indawo; uluvo lwesoyikiso esisemnyango njengaye nabani na (kubandakanywa abemi baseMelika) ngaphakathi okanye ngaphandle kwelizwe; ukukhawulezisa ukuthembela kugwayimbo lwedrone njengoko kugunyaziswe ngumongameli; kunye nokubulawa okujoliswe kuko 'njengethafa ledabi' okwavunywa ngu-Obama ekhomba ekugwetyweni kuka-Osama Bin Laden njengeyona ndawo iphakamileyo yempumelelo yakhe kumlo ochasene ne-al-Qaeda namahlakani ayo.
Kukho izilungiso ezithile ekuqhutyweni kwemfazwe yobugrogrisi: ugxininiso lubekwe kwiintshaba ezingengorhulumente, kunye nokungenelela kokuguqula ulawulo ngokuchasene nabadlali belizwe abanobutshaba kuyaphetshwa ukuba kunokwenzeka; Intuthumbo njengeqhinga ityhalelwa nzulu ebumnyameni, nto leyo ethetha ukuba yaliwe kodwa ayipheli. (umzekelo, impikiswano yokondla ngenkani eGuantánamo.) Ngamanye amazwi, abantwana bobumnyama basalawula ungquzulwano 'lokwenyani', oko kungqinwe ngokumangalisayo ziimpendulo ezirhabaxa zika-Obama kumakhwekhwetha afana no-Chelsea Manning no-Edward Snowden. Intetho yenkululeko yabantwana bokukhanya iyazola uluntu lwaseMelika, kodwa ibaleka imiceli mngeni esisiseko ebhekiswa kumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi ngamaqhinga aqhubekayo endlela ka-Obama kwimfazwe eqhubekayo ekuphenduleni i-9/11 (oko kukuthi, ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, ukwabelana ngokuthe ngqo nombono weCheney wokuba iyakuba yimpazamo enkulu ukuphatha 'ubunqolobi' njengolwaphulo-mthetho kunokuba 'njengemfazwe.').
II-DRONES NEKUKAMVA LOLUYALELO LWEHLABATHI
Ingxoxo ephambili malunga nemfazwe yedrone igxile kwimiba yesitayile kunye nemfihlo, kwaye ijongela phantsi imiba yezinto. Bobabini abantwana bokukhanya (abamele umongameli ka-Obama kunye nabaxhasi benkululeko) kunye nabantwana bobumnyama (i-Cheney / Rumsfeld cabal) bangabameli abangabalulekanga bokusetyenziswa komkhosi we-drones, betyeshela iingxaki zezixhobo ezinjalo kunye namaqhinga avela kwimbono yomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nehlabathi. umyalelo. Ukugxininisa le mbambano, iimbekiselo zentshayelelo kwizixhobo zenyukliya zibalulekile. Kwiidrones, imbono yokunyanzelwa komyalelo wokuqala wedrones esekwe kuthintelo olungenamiqathango kunye nokuthotywa kwezixhobo zokuqinisekisa ukuba ukungabi nanto kubonakala kungaphandle kwengxoxo. Ngenxa yokunyuka kwabadlali bezopolitiko abangekho bakarhulumente abanee-ajenda zamazwe ngamazwe, ukusetyenziswa komkhosi we-drones, kunye. amandla abo okuthengisa izixhobo, mkhulu kangangokuba nayiphi na iprojekthi efuna ukuvalwa kwabo kweli nqanaba ayinakwenzeka.
Imeko efanayo ibhekiselele kwizithintelo zodidi lwesibini ezinxulumene nolawulo ekusasazeni kwazo xa kuthelekiswa nendlela yokungaqhawuki. Iidrones sele zigcwele kakhulu, itekhnoloji iqhelekile, intengiso idlamkile kakhulu, kunye nokusetyenziswa okubonakalayo koluhlu lwamazwe kukhulu kakhulu ukuba kucingelwa ukuba naliphi na ilizwe elibalulekileyo elizimeleyo okanye umdlali ongengowelizwe one-ajenda yezopolitiko egqithileyo angakuyeka izibonelelo ezinxulumene noko. ngokuba needrones, nangona ukuthunyelwa kweedrones zohlaselo kunokusala ixesha elifutshane ngokuxhomekeke kwimbono yezoyikiso zokhuseleko ngoorhulumente abohlukeneyo. Ke ngoko, okona kulungileyo kunokuthenjwa ngeli xesha kuvunyelwana ngezikhokelo ezinxulumene nokusetyenziswa, oko kunokubizwa ngokuba yimiqobo yolungelelwaniso lwesithathu olufana nendlela umthetho wemfazwe othe ngokwesithethe wachaphazela ngayo ukuziphatha kwemfazwe ngendlela. esemngciphekweni kwiimbono eziguqukayo 'zemfuneko yomkhosi' njengoko izixhobo kunye neenguqulelo zobuchule zizisa utshintsho kwiindlela zemfazwe.
Imiba yolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi nayo iye yabaleka kwingxoxo-mpikiswano eqhubekayo malunga nokusetyenziswa kweedrones, engazange ikhankanywe kwintetho ka-Obama kaMeyi 23.rd, kwaye ivunyiwe kuphela ngokungathanga ngqo kwimbono yeCheney/Rumsfeld ye-post-9/11 yendawo yemfazwe. Ngamafutshane, unyango lohlaselo lwe-9/11 'njengezenzo zemfazwe' kunokuba 'ulwaphulo-mthetho' lunokubaluleka okuhlala ixesha elide kunohlaselo ngokwalo. Ikhokelela phantse ngokungacingelwanga ekujongeni umhlaba njengethafa ledabi lehlabathi, kunye nemfazwe engenasiphelo sokwenyani njengoko bekunjalo kwiimfazwe ezidlulileyo. Enyanisweni, ithobela ingqiqo yemfazwe engapheliyo, kunye nokwamkelwa okuhambelanayo nombono wokuba wonke umntu, kuquka abemi kunye nabahlali, ziintshaba ezinokuthi zibe khona. Le ngqiqo yeemfazwe zanaphakade iphikisiwe ngokuzibophelela kuka-Biden ukurhoxisa imikhosi yaseMelika e-Afghanistan emva kweminyaka engama-20 yokubandakanyeka emkhosini okunexabiso elikhulu kunye nokungenasiqhamo ngesikhumbuzo se-9/11. Abaphathi bezopolitiko abasekunene kunye nabaphezulu bezomkhosi bacebisa ngokuchasene nelo nyathelo, kwaye uBiden uzishiyele igumbi lokubuyela umva kwezinye iindlela ngaphandle kweebhutsi emhlabeni.
Kuba ukuchongwa kwezisongelo zokhuseleko kuphenjelelwa yindibano yobuntlola, eyenziwa ngokufihlakeleyo, ubungangamsha obunikwe ekukhuseleni isizwe kunye nabemi baso bunika iinkokeli zezopolitiko kunye nabaphathi abangaphendulekiyo imvume yokubulala, ukunyanzelisa isohlwayo esiqatha ngaphandle kokungenelela. inkqubo yamanyathelo okumangalela, ukutshutshisa, kunye nokuxoxwa kwetyala. Njengoko ixesha lihamba, le ndibano yogunyaziso yamagunya karhulumente njengoko isiya isiba yesiqhelo ijongela phantsi zombini ukuba nokwenzeka 'koxolo' kunye 'nedemokhrasi,' kwaye imisela 'ilizwe elinzulu' njengenkqubo esemgangathweni yokusebenza kulawulo lwangoku. Ukuba inxulunyaniswe nokudityaniswa kwemali eyinkunzi kunye nemali kwiipateni ze-plutocratic zempembelelo, ukuvela kwezinto ezintsha ezahlukeneyo ze-fascism kuphantse kube yinto engenakuthintelwa, nokuba injani imilo yenkqubo yokhuseleko yehlabathi.[31] Ngamanye amazwi, iidrones zomeleza ezinye iindlela zolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi ezonakalisa amalungelo oluntu, ubulungisa behlabathi, kunye nokukhuselwa kwemidla yabantu kububanzi behlabathi. Le mikhwa ibandakanya utyalo-mali olukhulu kwiinkqubo zokucupha ezifihlakeleyo zehlabathi eziphonononga ubomi babucala babemi basekhaya, uluhlu olubanzi lwabantu abaphesheya, kunye neentshukumo zozakuzo zoorhulumente bamazwe angaphandle kwisiseko esinabileyo nesingenelelayo kunobuntlola bemveli. Imidla yecandelo labucala ekunyuseni izinga lokuthengwa kwezixhobo kunye nokuthengisa kumazwe angaphandle idala amakhonkco karhulumente/asekuhlaleni athethelela uhlahlo lwabiwo-mali lokhuselo oluphezulu, izoyikiso zokhuseleko ezibaxiweyo, kunye nokugcina umkhosi wehlabathi utyhafisa lonke uphuhliso lwendawo yokuhlala kunye noxolo oluzinzileyo.
I-DRONE WARFARE KUNYE NOMTHETHO WESIZWE: UKUNCIPHA UKUBUYISA
Kukho iziphumo ezithile ezithile zemfazwe yedrone eyenza uxinzelelo kwiinzame zomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ukunyanzelisa ukusetyenziswa kwamandla kunye nokulawula ukuziphatha kwemfazwe. Ezi ziye zaxoxwa ngabanye 'abantwana bokukhanya' abagxeki bemigaqo-nkqubo esemthethweni malunga nomda wokusetyenziswa okuvumelekileyo kweedrones. Enyanisweni, i-drones ayiceli mngeni ngokwe-se, kodwa kuphela indlela yabo yokugunyazisa kunye nemithetho yokuzibandakanya ehambelana nokusetyenziswa.
Ukubhenela eMfazweni
Owona mzamo uphambili wemithetho yanamhlanje yezizwe ngezizwe ibikukungangeni emfazweni ukucombulula ungquzulwano lwezizwe ngezizwe oluvela phakathi kwamazwe azimeleyo. Kwimiba emininzi, eso senzo sibe yimpumelelo kubudlelwane phakathi kwamazwe amakhulu ngokunxulumene ngamazwe iimfazwe ngokwahlukileyo lwangaphakathi iimfazwe. Ukonakala kwemfazwe, ukuncipha kokubaluleka kokwandiswa kwemihlaba, kunye nokunyuka koqoqosho lwehlabathi jikelele kuqinisekisa ukuba le ngcamango yemfazwe njengenyathelo lokugqibela yimpumelelo ebalulekileyo yesigaba samva nje socwangco lwehlabathi. Ukuphumelela okunjalo ngoku kusemngciphekweni ngenxa yokunyuka kobundlobongela obungenaburhulumente kunye nokuphendula ngendlela ye-drones kunye nemikhosi ekhethekileyo esebenza ngaphandle kokujonga imida. Oku kuthetha ukuthini ukuba imfazwe yamazwe ngamazwe iya ingasebenzi kakuhle, kwaye isimo sengqondo semfazwe sitshintshelwa kwiimfazwe ezintsha ezenziwa lilizwe lehlabathi ngokuchasene nabadlali bezopolitiko abangekho phantsi. Kwaye ezi mfazwe, ubukhulu becala ziqhutywa ngasemva kwekhuselo elishinyeneyo, kunye nemingcipheko ephantsi yokwenzakala kwicala elixhomekeke kuhlaselo lwe-drone, yenze impinda ingabi yingxaki kangako ngaphambili: uluntu akufuneki luqiniseke, Imvume yeCongressional inokufezekiswa kwiiseshini eziyimfihlo, kwaye akukho kwenzakala emkhosini wase-US okanye ukwahluka okukhulu kwezixhobo. Ezi mfazwe zicala-nye zomlinganiswa ongalinganiyo ziye zifikeleleke kwaye zilula, nangona zingenzeki kubantu abaphantsi kobundlobongela obunoburhalarhume babadlali bezopolitiko abagqithisileyo. Olu vavanyo luphela ngokukhawuleza ngenxa yokwanda ngokukhawuleza kwezixhobo ze-drone, kubandakanywa nabadlali abangabalwi kunye nophuhliso olukhawulezayo lwetekhnoloji yedrone.
Kwiimeko zamva nje, i-Azerbajan isebenzise iidrones zohlaselo ngokufanelekileyo ngokuchasene neitanki zase-Armenia ngo-2020 ukuqhambuka kwemfazwe kwi-enclave yaseNagorno-Karabakh. I-Houthis iphendule ngokungenelela kweSaudi Arabia eYemen ngohlaselo olubi lwe-drone ngoSeptemba 14, 2019 kwibala leOyile yeKhurais kunye neendawo ezibanzi zokusetyenzwa kweoyile ye-Aqaiq. Kubonakala ngathi bonke abadlali abaphambili kuMbindi Mpuma ngoku banedrones njengenxalenye yezixhobo zabo zezixhobo. Ngaphandle kwamathandabuzo, umdyarho weengalo obandakanya iindidi ezahlukeneyo zeedrones sele uqhuba, kwaye unokuba nomkhuhlane, ukuba akunjalo.
State Terror
Bekusoloko kukho utyekelo oluthile kumaqhinga emfazwe ukubandakanya ukuthembela okucacileyo kubugrogrisi bombuso, oko kukuthi, umkhosi ojoliswe kubemi basekuhlaleni. Ukuqhushumbiswa kwebhombu ngokungakhethiyo kwizixeko zaseJamani naseJapan ngexesha lokugqibela leMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi yenye yezona meko zinzima kakhulu, kodwa iibhloko zaseJamani kwizixeko zaseSoviet, iirokhethi zadutyulwa kwizixeko zamaNgesi, kunye nokunyuka kwemfazwe yangaphantsi kolwandle ngokuchasene neenqanawa ezithwele ukutya kunye noluntu. ukubonelela kubemi beminye imizekelo ebalaseleyo. Nangona kunjalo uhlobo 'lweemfazwe ezimdaka' ezathi zaqhutywa emva kwe-9/11 zamkela ukoyikwa kwelizwe njengesiseko sokuziphatha kwecala elimnyama kwinzame zokutshabalalisa inethiwekhi ye-al-Qaeda, kwaye ngenene yenze ukutshatyalaliswa okubizwa ngokuba bubugrogrisi bothungelwano lwehlabathi okanye lwengingqi. ukufikelela. Njengoko imisebenzi yaseMelika eYemen naseSomalia icebisa, imbono 'yokufikelela kwihlabathi' iye yathatyathelw' indawo ziintshukumo ezixhobileyo okanye amaqela anesazisi se-jihadist nokuba umda wamabhongo abo uvalelwe kwimida yelizwe, ungabasoyikisi, ukufuphi okanye ngenye indlela, Ukhuseleko lwelizwe laseMelika ukuba lukhuliswe ngokwemiqathango yommandla wemveli.
Le ngxabano phakathi kokuphatha 'abanqolobi' abanxamnye nombuso njengolona hlobo lolwaphulo-mthetho luxhoma ukhuseleko lomthetho ngelixa bebanga ukuba babandakanyeka kwiindlela ezithelekisekayo zobundlobongela kukuhlutha umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe igunya lawo eliqhelekileyo. Kude kube iCheney/Rumsfeld yamkele imfazwe eyimfihlo ngokubulawa, iUnited States ayizange ilandele ukwamkelwa kukaSirayeli koloyiko lokulwa nochaso oluxhobileyo oluye lwavela kwithunzi lomgaqo-nkqubo we-Israel ukuya kubungqina obucacileyo bokuba semthethweni ngo-2000 (emva kweminyaka yokulahlwa). ). Ukongeza kulwamkelo lobuchule lwendlela yobunqolobi ekwenzeni buthathaka utshaba, kukho ukoyikisa uluntu luphela okuyindawo yohlaselo lwedrone. Oko kukuthi, ayingomntu okanye iqela ekujoliswe kulo kuphela, kodwa amava okuba noqhankqalazo olunjalo lwedrone, oludala unxunguphalo olumandla kunye nokuphazamiseka okukhulu kuluntu oluthe lwahlaselwa.[32]
Ukubulala okuJoliswe
Zombini umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe wamalungelo oluntu kunye nomthetho wemfazwe wamazwe ngamazwe uyakuthintela ukubulawa kwabantu ngaphandle kwenkundla.[33] Ukugxininisa kwenziwa ukuba ukujoliswa okunjalo kusemthethweni ukuba isongelo sibonwa njengento ebalulekileyo kwaye sisondele, njengoko kunqunywe yinkqubo eyimfihlo, engaxhomekeke kwiinkqubo ze-post-facto zophando kunye nokuphendula okunokwenzeka. Ukuthembela kwinkqubo enjalo yokwenziwa ngokusemthethweni kwezenzo ezinxulumene nemfazwe ye-drone kunye nemisebenzi ekhethekileyo yenza iindidi ezimbini zomonakalo kumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe: (1) ibeka ukubulala okujoliswe kuyo ngaphaya kokufikelela komthetho, kwaye ixhomekeke kwingqiqo engahlaziywa ngurhulumente. amagosa, kubandakanywa ukuxabisa izisongelo (isizathu esisisiseko sesinye 'sokusithemba'); kwaye (2) lusitshabalalisa kakhulu isithintelo sokujolisa abantu abangabandakanyekanga kumaphulo okulwa, kwaye kwangaxeshanye sisusa iingxoxo zenkqubo efanelekileyo yokuba abo batyholwa ngolwaphulo-mthetho banelungelo lokucinga ukuba msulwa nelungelo lokuzikhusela.
Ngenxa yoko, umahluko phakathi kwemithetho yesiNtu yezizwe ngezizwe phakathi kwezinto ekujoliswe kuzo zomkhosi nezingezizo ezomkhosi wenziwa buthathaka kwaye iinzame zamalungelo oluntu zokukhusela ukuba msulwa kwabantu azihoywa kwaphela. Kwakhona, ingxabano esisiseko yokuba ukubulala okujoliswe kuko ngaphandle kwenkundla kwenziwa ngokucokisekileyo kwaye kujongwe isoyikiso esisondelayo njengoko ukuxhasa ibango 'lokuba nengqiqo' akunakuhlaziywa ngenxa yemfihlo ejikeleze oku kusetyenziswa kweedrones, kunye novavanyo oluzimeleyo oluzimeleyo lweepatheni zokwenyani. ukusetyenziswa ziintatheli nabanye abawaxhasi amabango karhulumente okuziphatha ngoxanduva. Oko kukuthi, nokuba ingxabano yamkelwe ukuba umthetho wemfazwe kunye nomthetho wamalungelo oluntu kufuneka ugobe ngokumalunga neveli yezoyikiso zokhuseleko ezizayo, akukho nto ibonisa ukuba imiqobo enjalo iye yabonwa okanye iya kujongwa ekusebenzeni. Ikhrayitheriya yokusondela, nokuba itolikwa ngokholo oluhle, idume ngokuzithoba.
Ukwandisa Ukuzikhusela
Eyona ngxoxo isisiseko malunga nemfazwe ye-drone kukuba kunikwe ubume bezoyikiso ezibangelwa ngabashicileli bezopolitiko abalandela ii-ajenda zamazwe ngamazwe kwaye zibekwe naphi na naphi na, amaqhinga okuthintela kufuneka agunyaziswe njengenxalenye yelungelo lendalo lokuzikhusela. Amaqhinga asebenzayo asekelwe kwimpindezelo kwimeko apho uthintelo lungaphumeleli
engasebenziyo, nanjengoko amandla atshabalalisayo abathathi-nxaxheba abangekho phantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente ebeka izoyikiso ezinkulu kuxolo nokhuseleko lwawona mazwe awomeleleyo, ugwayimbo lwangaphambi koko luyimfuneko kwaye lufanelekile. Ukuzithoba okunjalo kutyhutyha imbono yesoyikiso, kwaye njengoko kusetyenziswa ngokunxulumene nemfazwe yedrone, kujongela phantsi umzamo wonke wokunciphisa ukusetyenziswa kwamandla kumazwe ngamazwe kumabango okhuselo azimiseleyo anokuthi aqwalaselwe ngokubhekiselele kwingqiqo kwaye ngokunxulumene nemigaqo yenjongo equlethwe kwiSiqendu 51 yoMqulu we-UN. Owona mnqweno uphambili woMqulu yayikukukhawulela kangangoko kunokwenzeka umda wokuzikhusela phantsi komthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Ukulahlwa kolu mzamo kubonisa imbuyekezo engavunywanga kwindlela engundoqo ye-Pre-Charter yokuqalisa imfazwe yamazwe azimeleyo.[34]
Ingqiqo yokuphindaphindana
Uphawu olubalulekileyo lomthetho wemfazwe ngumbono we-precedent kunye nokwamkelwa komgaqo-siseko wokuba into ebizwa ngokuba semthethweni ngumbuso ophetheyo ayinakuphikiswa kwilizwe elibuthathaka.[35] I-United States yaseka umzekelo onjalo ophikisanayo nonobungozi ngokubuyela kuvavanyo lwe-atmospheric yezixhobo zenyukliya, isilela ukuvakalisa izikhalazo xa amanye amazwe, kuquka iFransi, iSoviet Union, kunye neTshayina, kamva avavanya izixhobo zawo, ngaloo ndlela ehlonipha ingqiqo yokuphindaphinda. Ikwenzile oku nangona ngelo xesha amanye amazwe ayesenza uvavanyo lwemozulu i-United States yayinciphisa uvavanyo lwayo kwiindawo ezingaphantsi komhlaba ezineziphumo ezingonakalisi kangako zokusingqongileyo.
Ngeepateni zokusetyenziswa kwe-drone, nangona kunjalo, umhlaba unokuba nesiphithiphithi ukuba into efunwa yi-United States isemthethweni kwizenzo zayo nge-drones yenziwa ngamanye amazwe okanye imibutho yezopolitiko. Kuphela libango le-geopolitical yi-United States ngokumalunga nokusetyenziswa kwamandla okunokuthi kuqikelelwe kwixesha elizayo njengesiseko esizinzileyo socwangco lwehlabathi, kwaye ngenxa yoko, oko kuthetha ukukhatywa kweengcinga ze-Westphalian zokulingana ngokomthetho kwamazwe, njengoko. kunye nelungelo lamazwe lokuhlala bengathathi hlangothi ngokunxulumene neengxabano abangenanxaxheba kuzo. Ingxoxo-mpikiswano ye-drone ukuza kuthi ga ngoku ifakwe ngokungacacanga kwinkcubeko yezomthetho ethatha i-American ekhethekileyo. Ngokusasazeka kwezixhobo ze-drone olu hlobo lokhetho olukhethiweyo luvaliwe. Iimbono zaseWestphalian zocwangco ezisekelwe kumazwe azimeleyo zifuna ukuthotywa kwezixhobo ngokupheleleyo okanye kwenziwe kube lulwaphulo-mthetho ukusetyenziswa kwazo ngaphandle kweendawo zokulwa.
Ithafa leDabi leHlabathi
Kwimiba ebalulekileyo, iMfazwe yoMlomo yaguqula ihlabathi laba lithafa ledabi lehlabathi, kunye neCIA ilawula imisebenzi efihlakeleyo kumazwe angaphandle njengenxalenye yomzabalazo ochasene nokusasazeka kwempembelelo yobuKomanisi ('amaqhawe angenamida' okanye iyunifomu). Emva kwe-9/11 oku kudityaniswa kwehlabathi longquzulwano kwahlaziywa ngendlela ecace ngakumbi, kwaye ijolise ngakumbi kwizoyikiso zokhuseleko ezenziwa yinethiwekhi ye-al Qaeda eyabhengezwa ukuba isekelwe kumazwe angama-60. Njengoko izoyikiso ziphuma kwiziseko zokusebenza ezingezizo ezomhlaba, ubukrelekrele obusekhusini, ucupho oluntsonkothileyo, kunye nokuchongwa kwabantu abayingozi abaphila ubomi obuqhelekileyo 'kwiiseli zokulala' phakathi koluntu lwasekuhlaleni lwaba yeyona nto iphambili ekugxilwe kuyo umdla. Oorhulumente bangaphandle, ngakumbi iPakistan kunye neYemen, batyholwa ukuba banike imvume yabo eyimfihlo yogwayimbo lwe-drone kwindawo yabo, eyayingumxholo wokukhanyelwa ngumsindo kunye noqhanqalazo ngoorhulumente ababuzwayo. Iipateni ezinjalo 'zemvume' zitshabalalise ukuzimela geqe kwamazwe amaninzi azimeleyo, kwaye zadala ukungathembani okumandla kubudlelwane phakathi kukarhulumente nabantu. Ikwaphakamisa nemibuzo malunga noko kunokubizwa ngokuba 'kukumelwa ngokusemthethweni.' Kuyathandabuzeka ukuba olu hlobo ludidayo lwemvume engenakuphikwa ibonelela ngezizathu ezaneleyo zokokukhukuliseka kokuzimela kwezopolitiko kwamazwe azimeleyo.
Ibango laseMelika lelokuba linokhetho olusemthethweni lokusebenzisa iidrones ngokuchasene neethagethi ezibeka isoyikiso ukuba urhulumente wangaphandle akafuni okanye akakwazi ukuthatha inyathelo ngokwakhe ukususa isoyikiso, kunye nesiseko esisemthethweni sokuba urhulumente unento yokwenza. Isibophelelo sokungavumeli ummandla wayo ukuba usetyenziswe njengendawo yokuphehlelela ubundlobongela bamazwe ngamazwe. Oko kuya kucaca, nangona kunjalo, kukuba zombini ukudibanisa kwehlabathi kwingxabano, kunye nezisongelo kunye neempendulo, azihambelani nesakhiwo somthetho we-state-centric kunye nolawulo olusebenzayo lwehlabathi. Ukuba umyalelo womthetho uyaqhubeka phantsi kwezi meko, kufuneka ube yihlabathi jikelele, ngokunjalo, kodwa kukho ukuthanda kwezopolitiko okwaneleyo ukuseka kunye nokuxhobisa ngokwenene iinkqubo zehlabathi kunye namaziko anegunya elinjalo.
Kangangokuba, ekuphela kweendlela ezizezinye zibonakala ngathi lulawulo lwemo yezopolitiko olungagungqiyo lolo hlobo lukhoyo ngoku, okanye ulawulo lwelizwe jikelele olucacileyo oluyikhabayo ngendlela ecacileyo ingqiqo yokuphinda-phindena kunye nengcamango yomthetho yokulingana kwamazwe azimeleyo. Ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, akukho nanye kwezi ndlela ezinokusetyenziswa endaweni yeWestphalian esekiweyo okanye eya kwamkelwa ukuba ibhengeziwe. Amazwe amaninzi anokuphikisana, ngesizathu, ukuba ummandla wamazwe angaphandle usetyenziswa njengendawo ekhuselekileyo yeentshaba. ICuba inokubeka phambili impikiswano enjalo malunga ne-United States, kwaye kukungalingani kwamazwe ngaphezu kokuthintelwa komthetho, okugcina imisebenzi yokugxothwa yaseCuba eFlorida ikhululekile ekuhlaselweni.
Imfazwe yecala elinye
Umlo weDrone uqhubela phambili amaqhinga ohlukeneyo emfazwe angekho mngcipheko womntu kwicala elinamandla ngakumbi kwetekhnoloji kunye nobuchwephesha kungquzulwano oluxhobileyo, kwaye bathathelwe ingqalelo yamva nje ngenxa yamaqhinga kunye nezixhobo eziqeshwe ngu-Israyeli kunye ne-United States. Ipatheni yemfazwe ecalanye ibe nesiphumo sokuba imithwalo yemfazwe ifuduselwe kumchasi kangangoko kunokwenzeka. Ukusa kumlinganiselo othile, olo tshintsho lubonisa uhlobo lwemfazwe efuna ukukhusela icala likabani kangangoko kunokwenzeka ekufeni nasekutshatyalalisweni, ngoxa ibangela umonakalo omkhulu kwelinye icala. Yintoni eyahlukileyo kwiziganeko zamva nje zokungenelela komkhosi kunye nokuchasana nobunqolobi, iithiyetha ezimbini eziphambili zokulwa, kukucala elinye lamanani abantu abenzakeleyo. Uthotho lwezenzo zomkhosi lubonisa le pateni: Imfazwe yeGulf(1991); Imfazwe ye-NATO yaseKosovo(1999); Uhlaselo lwase-Iraq (2003); Imfazwe ye-NATO yaseLibya (2011); kunye nemisebenzi yomkhosi wamaSirayeli ngokuchasene neLebhanon neGaza (2006; 2008-09; 2012; 2014). Ukusetyenziswa okwandayo kweedrones zohlaselo e-Afghanistan ngumzekelo ogqibeleleyo wemfazwe esecaleni, ukususa abasebenzi abasebenza ngedrone kwindawo yedabi ngokupheleleyo, beqhuba ugwayimbo ngemiyalelo ekhutshwe kwikomkhulu elisebenza kude (umz. eNevada). Ukuchaswa kwentuthumbo njengeqhinga elamkelekileyo lemfazwe okanye ukuthotyelwa komthetho ngokuyinxenye kubonakalisa ukuma kwicala elinye lobudlelwane phakathi komthuthumbisi nexhoba njengoluchasayo ngokokuziphatha nangokomthetho ngaphandle kweengxoxo zenkululeko ezibanga ukuba ukuthuthunjiswa akusebenzi kwaye akukho mthethweni.[36] Iseti efanayo yokusabela kwimfazwe ye-drone ikhona, kubandakanya ingxabano yenkululeko yokuba umsindo kunye nengqumbo yabemi abaphantsi kohlaselo lwe-drone ikhuthaza ukwanda kolu hlobo lwezopolitiko olugqithileyo olusetyenziswa ngokuchaseneyo, kunye nokwahlukanisa oorhulumente bangaphandle.
Ngokuqinisekileyo, ngokusasazeka kwezixhobo ze-drone, iingenelo ze-asymmetry zikhawuleza zibe ngumphunga.
I-Futuristic Drone Warfare
Ngelixa abezopolitiko bezixakekise ukuphendula kwizoyikiso zangoko, abenzi bezixhobo kunye nabacwangcisi bePentagon bajonga imida yetekhnoloji yemfazwe yedrone. Le mida iyafana neengxelo zeentsomi zesayensi zemfazwe yerobhothi enezixhobo eziphucuke kakhulu, kunye noomatshini abakhulu bokubulala. Kukho amathuba eenqwelomoya ezinokuthi ziqhube imisebenzi yemfazwe kunye ne-arhente yabantu encinci, ukunxibelelana nomnye nomnye ukulungelelanisa uhlaselo olubulalayo kutshaba, olunokuthi luxhobe ngeedrones ezikhuselayo. Ukuxhomekeka kwiidrones kwiipatheni zangoku zemfazwe kunempembelelo engenakuthintelwa yokunikela ingqalelo kwinto enokwenziwa ukuphucula ukusebenza kunye nokuphuhlisa imisebenzi emitsha yasemkhosini. Enoba umfutho weteknoloji okhutshiweyo unokulawulwa okanye uvalwe ubonakala uyathandabuza, kwaye kwakhona ukuthelekiswa nobugcisa bomkhosi wenyukliya kuyafundisa. Nangona kunjalo kubalulekile ukukhumbula ukuba i-drones ithathwa ngokubanzi njengezixhobo ezisebenzisekayo, kubandakanywa nezizathu zomthetho nezokuziphatha, ngelixa izixhobo zenyukliya zithathwa njengezingasebenzisekiyo ngaphandle kokuba kucingelwa ukuba kwiimeko zokugqibela zokusinda. Uphuhliso lwakutsha nje oluphazamisayo luyanda intetho yokwaphula umthetho ongekho sikweni wokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zenyukliya ngokuyilwa kunye nophuhliso lweentloko zenyukliya ezilungiselelwe ukusetyenziswa ngokuchasene nezixhobo zenyukliya ezingaphantsi komhlaba okanye ulwakhiwo lolwandle.
INQAKU LOKUGQIBELA
Imigca emine yokugqiba ivela kolu vavanyo lulonke lwempembelelo yemfazwe yedrone, njengoko isenziwa yi-United States, kumthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nomyalelo wehlabathi. Okokuqala, akukho ngqiqweni ukuphelisa iidrones emfazweni ukuba nje ukhuseleko lwamazwe lusekwe kwinkqubo yokuzinceda emkhosini. Njengenkqubo yezixhobo, ngenxa yezoyikiso ezikhoyo ngoku ezenziwa ngabadlali abangengabo urhulumente kunye neenkumbulo ze-9/11, iidrones zithathwa njengezixhobo ezibalulekileyo. Nakweyiphi na imeko, amandla etekhnoloji kunye nenkuthazo yorhwebo inkulu kakhulu ukumisa ukuveliswa kunye nokusasazeka kweedrones.[37] Ngenxa yoko, loo miqobo yomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe womyalelo wokuqala njengothintelo olungenamiqathango lweedrones njengoko zamkelwe ngokunxulumene nezixhobo zebhayoloji kunye neekhemikhali, kwaye zicetywayo ngokunxulumene nezixhobo zenyukliya, azikholeleki.
Okwesibini, ingxoxo malunga nokuba semthethweni kwemfazwe yedrone iye yaqhutywa ngaphakathi kumxholo waseMelika apho umngcipheko wokumisela imizekelo kunye nobungozi bophuhliso lwetekhnoloji yexesha elizayo inikwa ingqalelo encinci. Le ngxoxo-mpikiswano iye yathatyathelwa kancinane ngakumbi ngokuthi iqhutywe ikakhulu phakathi kwabo baya kuwubekela bucala umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nabo bawunwebayo ukuze basebenze ngokutshintsha izinto eziphambili ngokhuseleko lwesizwe kumgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle waseMelika. Ngamanye amazwi, izibambiso ezisemthethweni zibekelwa bucala okanye zitolikwe njengokuvumela idrone ukuba isetyenziswe njengezixhobo 'ezisemthethweni'.
Okwesithathu, ingxoxo malunga needrones ibonakala ingakhathali kwimilinganiselo yehlabathi yokudala ibala ledabi lehlabathi kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwemvume yoorhulumente bangaphandle. Imizekelo esetwayo inokuthenjwa ngabadlali abahlukeneyo kwixesha elizayo ukuze baphumeze iinjongo ezichaseneyo nokugcina ucwangco lwezomthetho lwamazwe ngamazwe. Itekhnoloji yeDrone sele yande ukuya kuthi ga kumazwe angama-100 kunye nabadlali abaninzi abangengabo karhulumente.
Okwesine, ukwamkela ubugrogrisi bombuso ukulwa nabadlali abangengabo karhulumente kwenza imfazwe ibe luhlobo lobugrogrisi, kwaye ityekele ekwenzeni yonke imida kumandla ibonakale ingekho ngqiqweni, ukuba akukho ngqiqweni.
Kungenxa yale mvelaphi apho ingxoxo echaseneyo ne-intuitive ibekwe phambili nzulu kwisiphumo sokuba imfazwe ye-drone, kwaye inokuba, iyonakalisa ngakumbi umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nocwangco lwehlabathi kunemfazwe yenyukliya. Ingxabano enjalo ayenzelwanga ukucebisa ukuba ukuthembela kwizixhobo zenyukliya ngandlela thile kuya kuba ngcono kwikamva lomntu kunokwamkelwa kwengqiqo yokusetyenziswa kwedrone. Kuphela nje ukutsho ukuba ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, nangaliphi na izinga, umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe kunye nomyalelo wehlabathi baye bakwazi ukufumana ulawulo oluhambelanayo lwezithintelo ezifanelekileyo kwizixhobo zenyukliya eziye zagcina uxolo, kodwa azikwazanga ukwenza oko kwiidrones, kwaye akunakwenzeka ukwenza oko logama nje ingqondo yomkhosi yeemfazwe ezimdaka ivunyelwe ukulawula ukubunjwa komgaqo-nkqubo wokhuseleko wesizwe e-United States nakwezinye iindawo. Kusemva kwexesha, kwaye mhlawumbi bekuhlala kulilize, ukucinga ngolawulo olunganandeliyo lwetekhnoloji yedrone.
[*] Inguqulelo ehlaziyiweyo yesahluko epapashwe kuMarjorie Cohn, ed., Iidrones kunye neCala lokuBulala (Northampton, MA, 2015).
[1] Kodwa bona uphononongo oluqinisekileyo olubonisa ngokuqinisekileyo ukuba ukuphepha imfazwe yenyukliya ibingumcimbi wethamsanqa kunokuthintela okunengqiqo. UMartin J. Sherwin, Ukungcakaza ngeArmagedon: Nuclear Roulette ukusuka eHiroshima ukuya kwiCuban Missile
Intlekele, 1945-1962 (Knopf, 2020).
[2] Ngokusebenza kolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi olugxile kurhulumente, ukubona UHedley Bull, Umbutho weAnarchical: Uphononongo locwangco kwezopolitiko zehlabathi (Columbia Univ. Press, 2nd ed., 1995); URobert O. Keohane, Emva kweHegemony: Intsebenziswano kunye nokungahambelani kuqoqosho lwezopolitiko zehlabathi (Princeton Univ. Press, 1984); i-axis ethe nkqo yolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi ibonisa ukungalingani kwamazwe, kunye nendima ekhethekileyo edlalwa ngamazwe alawulayo; umgca othe tyaba uquka ingqiqo yomthetho wokulingana phakathi kwamazwe asisiseko somthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Izithintelo zomyalelo wokuqala zingabandakanya uthintelo lwezixhobo zenyukliya kunye nenkqubo eqalwayo neqinisekisiweyo yokuthotywa kwezixhobo eziphelisa izixhobo zenyukliya. Ukufumana izigxeko zokusilela kwediplomacy ukufezekisa imiqobo yomyalelo wokuqala, ukubona URichard Falk kunye noDavid Krieger, iNdlela eya kwiZero: iingxoxo ngeengozi zenyukliya (iParadigm, 2012); URichard Falk kunye noRobert Jay Lifton, Izixhobo ezingenakukhuselwa: Ityala lengqondo kunye nezopolitiko ngokuchasene nenyukliya (iincwadi ezisisiseko, i-1982); UJonathan Schell, Isiphelo Somhlaba (Knopf, 1982); EP Thompson, Ngaphaya kweMfazwe ebandayo: Ugqatso olutsha lweengalo kunye nokutshatyalaliswa kwenyukliya (Pantheon,1982). Bona kwakhona uStefan Andersson, ed., Kwizixhobo zeNyukliya: Ukukhutshwa kweNyukliya, ukukhutshwa kwemfazwe kunye nokuChithwa kwezixhobo: UBhalo olukhethiweyo lukaRichard Falk (ICambridge University Press, 2019).
[3] Ngengqiqo esemgangathweni yemfundiso yokuthintela eyadlala indima ngexesha leMfazwe yoMlomo, ngokukaJohn Mearsheimer, ukuthintela iMfazwe Yehlabathi III. Kwimbono yehlabathi exhasa ubunyani bezopolitiko obugqithisileyo, ukubona Mearsheimer, Intlekele yePolitiki yaMandla amakhulu (Norton, 2001); bona kwakho Mearsheimer, Buyela kwixesha elizayo, Ukhuseleko Lwezizwe Ngezizwe 15(No. 1):5-56 (1990). Kuyinyani ukuba kumazwe athile amancinci naphakathi, izixhobo zenyukliya zinokusebenza njengokulinganisa kwaye zisuse umda othe nkqo wolungelelwaniso lwehlabathi. Kukwakho nendima edlalwa zizixhobo zenyukliya kwidiplomacy esoyikiso eye yaphononongwa ngababhali abaninzi. khangela UAlexander George kunye noWillima Simons, u-ed., Imida yeDiplomacy yokuNyanzeliswa, (Westview Press, 2nd ed., 1994). Abanye ababhali batyhalela ingqiqo ekugqithiseni okothusayo ukuze bafumane iindlela zokuthatha ithuba elibonakalayo lobungangamsha baseMelika kwizixhobo zenyukliya. khangela Henry Kissinger, Izixhobo zeNyukliya kunye noMgaqo-nkqubo waNgaphandle (Doubleday, 1958); UHerman Kahn, kwiMfazwe yeThermonuclear (Princeton Univ. Press, 1960).
[4] Ulawulo lwezixhobo, nangona lunengqiqo yolawulo, lusoloko lukhaba nasiphi na isithintelo kwiinketho zokuqala zogwayimbo, kwaye ngaloo ndlela lwenza intandabuzo malunga nokuziphatha kunye negalelo elibonakalayo lemiqobo yomyalelo wesibini.
[5] Ulawulo lokungaphumeleli, oluqulethwe kwiSivumelwano seNuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) (729 UNTS 10485), ngumzekelo obalaseleyo wolungelelwaniso oluthe nkqo, oluvumela kuphela amazwe alawulayo ukuba agcine izixhobo zenyukliya, kwaye lolona hlobo luphambili oluthathiweyo yimiqobo yomyalelo wesibini. Kuyafaneleka ukuqaphela ukuba iNkundla yaMazwe ngaMazwe yoBulungisa kwiNgcebiso yayo ebalulekileyo ye-1996 inike uluvo ngokoluvo oluninzi lokuba ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zenyukliya kunokuba semthethweni, kodwa kuphela ukuba ukusinda kukarhulumente kwakusemngciphekweni ngokuthembekileyo. Kwinto ebonakala ililize, abagwebi babemanyene kwinkolelo yabo yokuba amazwe ezixhobo zenyukliya ayenesinyanzeliso esicacileyo esisemthethweni kwi-Art VI ye-NPT yokubandakanyeka kuthethathethwano lokuthotywa kwezixhobo, ecebisa into ethe tye esemthethweni enokuthi ingabi nampembelelo kwindlela yokuziphatha. . Izixhobo zenyukliya zithi, ngaphezu kwayo yonke i-United States, ithathe le ngxelo inegunya lokuthwala umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe njengento engenamsebenzi kwisimo sabo sengqondo malunga nendima yezixhobo zenyukliya kumgaqo-nkqubo wokhuseleko wesizwe.
[6] Umongameli u-Obama kwangethuba kubongameli bakhe wanika ithemba abo kudala befuna ukupheliswa kwezixhobo zenyukliya xa wayethetha exhasa ilizwe elingenazo izixhobo zenyukliya, kodwa wayibiyela ingxelo yakhe yombono ngeziqinisekiso ezifihlakeleyo ezenza ukuba kungenzeki ukuba kuqhutyekwe kude kakhulu. khangela UMongameli uBarack Obama, Amazwi kaMongameli uBarack Obama ePrague (Aprili 5, 2009); imbono yenkululeko yokwenene igxininisa ukuba ukuchithwa kwezixhobo zenyukliya yinjongo enqwenelekayo, kodwa akufuneki kwenzeke phambi kongquzulwano olungasonjululwanga lwamazwe ngamazwe. Akuzange kucaciswe ukuba ixesha liya kuba lilungile nini, elinomgangatho wemeko yengqondo ethintela iingxoxo ezinyanzelisayo ezingokokuziphatha, ezisemthethweni, nezopolitiko zokuthotywa kwezixhobo zenyukliya. Kwingxelo eqhelekileyo yembonakalo yenkululeko eqhelekileyo, ukubona UMichael O'Hanlon, Ityala lika-Sceptic's kwi-Nuclear Disarmament (Brookings, 2010).
[7] Phakathi kwabanye, ukubona URobert Jay Lifton, iSuperpower Syndrome: Ukujongana ngezikhondo zamehlo kweMelika kunye nehlabathi (Iincwadi zeSizwe, 2002); ukuxhasa ngokuthandabuzayo imeko ekhoyo ngoku yezixhobo zenyukliya, ukubona UJoseph Nye, iNuclear Ethics (Free Press, 1986).
[8] Kukho iindlela ezimbini ezigqithisekileyo ezibhekiselele kwi-normativity kwezopolitiko zehlabathi-isithethe saseKantian sokungabaza ngomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, kodwa ukuqinisekiswa kokuziphatha kwamazwe ngamazwe, ngokuchasene nesithethe sikaMachavellian sokubala kunye nokuziphatha okunomdla okukhabayo ukuziphatha kunye negunya elisemthethweni ekuziphatheni kukarhulumente. kwezopolitiko. Inkosi yangoku yendlela ka Machiavellian yayinguHenry Kissinger, indlela eyavunywa ngokuzingca eKissinger, iDiplomacy (uSimon & Schuster, 1994).
[9] Ngaphandle kokuthatha inxaxheba okwandisiweyo kuzo zonke iinkalo zobomi bamazwe ngamazwe, abathathi-nxaxheba abangengabo karhulumente bahlala bengaphandle kwesangqa sabadlali bezopolitiko baseWestphalia abamisela umda ubulungu kwiZizwe eziManyeneyo nakumaziko amaninzi ezizwe ngezizwe kumazwe azimeleyo.
[10] Ukubona ukuba umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe woluntu kunye nomthetho wemfazwe ngokubanzi unegalelo elibi kwintlalontle yoluntu njengoko bevame ukwenza imfazwe ibe liziko loluntu elamkelekileyo, ukubona Richard Wasserstrom, ed., Imfazwe Nokuziphatha (Wadsworth, 1970); bona kwakho URaymond Aron, Uxolo kunye neMfazwe: Ithiyori yobudlelwane bamazwe ngamazwe (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966); URichard Falk, uMyalelo wezoMthetho kwihlabathi elinobundlobongela (Princeton Univ. Press, 1968).
[11] I-Chiaroscuro idla ngokuchazwa njengonyango lokukhanya kunye nobumnyama kwipeyinti; ngokwengqiqo esetyenziswe apha ibhekiselele kwiiyantlukwano zokukhanya nobumnyama kwiimbono zendima yaseMelika yehlabathi.
[12] Ubunkokeli bezopolitiko bamazwe bugunyaziswe ngonyulo olukhululekileyo, umthetho kunye nocwangco, uphuhliso njengoko lulinganiswe ngamazinga okukhula, kunye nezakhono zezopolitiko zesigqeba, kubandakanya unxibelelwano noluntu, kwaye okwesibini kuphela ngokuthembeka kumthetho kunye nokuziphatha. Uqwalaselo olunjalo luchaneke ngakumbi xa lusetyenziswa kumgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle, kwaye ngakumbi nangakumbi, ukuba imeko yemfazwe iyayongamela.
[13] Kumboniso weklasikhi, ukubona Reinhold Niebuhr, Abantwana bokukhanya kunye nabantwana bobumnyama (Ababhali, i-1960).
[14] khangela Kissinger & Kahn, iNqaku lesi-2, abathi, phakathi kwabanye, baphikisana kwiimeko zeMfazwe yoMthandazo ukuba izixhobo zenyukliya zazifuneka njengesisombululo kwisityholo sokuphakama okuqhelekileyo kweSoviet Union ekukhuseleni iYurophu, nokuba iindleko zomntu nezomzimba zommandla. imfazwe yenyukliya yayilixabiso elamkelekileyo lokulihlawula. Oku kubonisa ukugabadela apho abantu abacinga ngokwenyani babekulungele ukuya egameni leenjongo zobuchule.
[15] UMongameli uBarack Obama, iiNtetho zikaMongameli kwiYunivesithi yoKhuselo yeSizwe (ngoMeyi 23, 2013) (imibhalo ebhaliweyo ifumaneka http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remarks-president-national -i-defense-yunivesithi).
[16] H. Bruce Franklin, Ikhosi yengozi: Ukusuka kwiMfazwe elungileyo ukuya kwiMfazwe engunaphakade (I-Rutgers University Press, 2018).
[17] ULisa Hajjar, I-Anatomy yePolisi yokuBulala ekuJoliswe kuyo yase-US, MERIP 264 (2012).
[18] Obama, Supra Inqaku 14.
[19] Umzekelo, akukho ngqalelo yokuphazamiseka koluntu lwezizwe, njengasePakistan, ngokusetyenziswa kweedrones okanye 'i-blowback' kumazwe anjengePakistan ukusuka kwinto ebonakala eluntwini njengokunyhashwa okucacileyo kolongamo lwesizwe. Ngomfanekiso obalulekileyo wempembelelo yemfazwe yedrone kuluntu lwezizwe, ukubona UAkbar Ahmed, iThe Thistle kunye neDrone: Imfazwe yaseMelika yobugrogrisi yaba yimfazwe yehlabathi lonke kubuSilamsi bezizwe (Brookings Inst. Press2013); kuvavanyo ngokubanzi lweendleko ze-blowback zokuxhomekeka kwiidrones, ukubona Scahill, Iimfazwe ezimdaka: Ihlabathi njengethafa ledabi (iiNcwadi zeSizwe, 2013); ngeendlela ezifanayo, ukubona UMark Mazzetti, Indlela yeKnife: I-CIA, umkhosi oyimfihlo, kunye nemfazwe ekupheleni komhlaba (Penguin, 2013).
[20] Ngaphambi kukaBrennan, yayinguHarold Koh, uMcebisi wezoMthetho kuNobhala kaRhulumente, owabeka ingqiqo esemthethweni yokuxhomekeka kwiidrones kwidilesi enikwe kwi-American Society of International Law, ngoMatshi 25, 2010.
[21] UJohn Brennan, Imigaqo-nkqubo yoLawulo luka-Obama kunye neZenzo (ngoSeptemba 16, 2012).
[22] Obama, Supra Inqaku 14.
[23] khangela UJeremy Scahill ekungabekwa-tyala kwe-al-Awlaki, iNqaku le-17.
[24] Obama, Supra Inqaku 14.
[25] ngaphezulu Inqaku 19.
[26] Dibana noShicilelo: Dick Cheney (Usasazo lukamabonwakude lwe-NBC ngoSeptemba 16, 2001), ifumaneka kwi http://www.fromthewilderness.com/timeline/2001/meetthepress091601.html.
[27] Ngemibhalo kunye nenkcazo malunga nokuthuthunjiswa ngexesha lobongameli bukaBush, ukubona UDavid Cole, ed., IiMemo zokuThuthukiswa: Ukulungelelanisa into engenakucingelwa (i-New Press, i-2009).
[28] khangela Scahill, Qaphela 17, loc. 1551.
[29] Jane Mayer, Icala Elimnyama (Doubleday, 2008); bona kwakho Laleh Khalili Ixesha kwi-Shadows: Ukuvalelwa kwi-counterinsurgencies (iStanford Univ. Press, 2013).
[30] Ngokubhekiselele koku, kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuba uRichard Perle, obalaseleyo kwihlabathi lee-neocons eliliputian wabizwa ngokuba 'yinkosana yobumnyama,' eyayiphathwa kumajelo eendaba njengenxalenye yemidlalo ehlekisayo, inxalenye engathandekiyo, kunye nenxalenye yembeko ngenxa yegama lakhe. impembelelo.
[31] Uhlalutyo ngale migca, ukubona USheldon Wolin, iDemokhrasi eBandakanyiweyo: IDemokhrasi eLawulwayo kunye neSpecter of Totalitarianism (Princeton Univ. Press, 2008).
[32] Ukufumana amaxwebhu aneenkcukacha, ukubona Ahmed, Qaphela 17.
[33] Emva kweengxoxo zeCawe kunye nePike Congressional kwi-1970s, uthotho lwemiyalelo yesigqeba lwakhutshwa ngoomongameli abalandelelanayo baseMelika bethintela nakuphi na ukubulawa kwenkokeli yezopolitiko yangaphandle. Jonga i-Executive Orders 11905 (1976), 12036 (1978), kunye ne-12333 (1981) yokumisela ngokusemthethweni. Ukubulawa kwabantu ngeDrone kuthathwa njengemiba yemfazwe kunokuba kubulawe ngokwengqiqo yale miyalelo yesigqeba, kodwa nokuba imigaqo-nkqubo iyahambelana okanye ayihambelani ngokuqinisekileyo.
[34] Ngokuchaneke ngakumbi, ukuthembela kwindlela yokubona imfazwe kukubuyela kwimeko yemfazwe kwezopolitiko zehlabathi ngaphambi kokwamkelwa kweSivumelwano seKellogg-Briand (ekwaziwa ngokuba yiPact of Paris) ngo-1928, eyaziwa ngokuba yi " Ukuyeka imfazwe njengesixhobo somgaqo-nkqubo wesizwe.”
[35] khangela UDavid Cole, Ilayisensi eyimfihlo yokubulala, NYR Blog (Sept 19, 2011, 5:30 PM), http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2011/sep/19/secret-license-kill/.
[36] Ukucacisa, ukubona URichard Falk, Intuthumbo, iMfazwe, kunye neMida yeLiberal Legality, in I-United States kunye neNtuthuko: Ukugonywa, ukuvalelwa, kunye nokuxhatshazwa kwe-119 (uMarjorie Cohn ed., I-NYU Press, i-2011).
[37] Ngengxoxo eluncedo kunye namaxwebhu, ukubona I-Medea Benjamin, i-Drone Warfare: Ukubulala ngokulawula okude (Verso, rev. ed., 2013).
