AMARHOLO

NguDavid Swanson, World Beyond War

 

IZIHLOKO ZAMAZIKO

Incwadi ezayo ye-Eduardo Galeano, Hunter of Stories, unezivakalisi ezihlanu okanye ezilishumi kwiphepha ngalinye-iphepha ngalinye ibali elincinci, indibaniselwano yazo inomdla kwaye inamandla. I-Galeano ibandakanya ibali lomchasi wemfazwe owakhetha ukufa kunokuba abulale, kunye ne-Iraqi eyaxela kwangaphambili kwaye yabuhlungu kwangaphambili ukuphangwa kweMyuziyam ka-2003, kunye nebali lowayesakuba ngumqhubi wenqwelomoya u-Brandon Bryant oyekile emva kokubulala umntwana kwaye uxokisiwe ukuba umntwana ebeyinja, ndingasathethi ke ngebali le-World War I truces. Onke la ngamabali ayinyani, amanye amatsha kwaye amanye aqhelekile, onke abhalwe kakuhle kwenye indawo, kodwa uGaleano akazikhathazi ngamaxwebhu alapha. Uxelela nje amabali-ngokulula kakhulu, uxelela amabali. Undikhuthaza ukuba ndibonelele ngoku kulandelayo, kwaye ndikhangele ezinye. Ukuba unemibono ngezona ziganeko zibalaseleyo zokubalisela ezihambelana nale patheni, nceda undazise. Amabali angezantsi ayathetha, hayi ukubonisa yonke imiba yemfazwe okanye uxolo, kungaphantsi kokugubungela yonke imbali yemfazwe noxolo. Akukho sidingo sokundithumela uluhlu olupheleleyo lwamawaka kunye nezigidi zamabali angafakwanga apha. Amabali angezantsi enzelwe ukukhuthaza ukubuza malunga nokucinga ngemfazwe. Ndithumelele ii-anecdotes ezilungileyo eziqhubela phambili le projekthi nceda.

 

ZINYE AMA-BLANKETS NE-DIE

UJeffrey Amherst, oyalela imikhosi yase-Bhritane eMntla Melika, kamva waba yiNkosi, kunye nendoda egama lingu-Amherst, eMassachusetts, wabhala oku kwileta eyibhalele umntu ophantsi kwakhe: izizwe zamaNdiya? Ngesi sihlandlo kufuneka sisebenzise onke amaqhinga esinawo ukuwanciphisa. ” Ngaphandle kombungu omncinci, u-Amherst ucebise ukuba "azame zonke ezinye iindlela ezinokuthi zisebenzise ukongeza olu Rhulumente luSebenzayo." Ucele ukuba "amanyathelo athathwe njengoko eza kuzisa ukupheliswa okupheleleyo kwezi zizwe zaseIndiya." Wayenethemba "lokubeka eyona ndlela isebenzayo kuBuntu babo." Izicwangciso zakhe zenziwa ngokusebenzisa iingubo kunye neetshefu. Ukupheliswa okupheleleyo akuzange kufezekiswe. Kumakhulu eminyaka kamva, kuhlala kuyinto eqhelekileyo kumalungu omkhosi wase-US ukuthi amazwe ahlaselweyo “aliLizwe laseIndiya.” Kwi-2017, uMongameli uDonald Trump wacebisa "ukutshabalalisa ngokupheleleyo" kwaye uSenator John McCain wacebisa "ukutshabalalisa" iNorth Korea.

 

INDLELA YOKWENZEKA KUNYE NENKQUBO YENKQUBO YENKQUBO EPHAKILEYO, NGAPHANDLE NABO ABAKHO

Ukususela kwi-1683 ukuya kwi-1755 yase-Yurophu abahlali be-Europe babengenayo imfazwe enkulu kunye neentlanga zendalo, ngokungafani nakwezinye iikoloni zaseBrithani. IPennsylvania yayinobukhoboka, yayinemali enkulu kunye nezinye izijeziso eziyingozi, yayinobudlova. Kodwa wakhetha ukuba angayisebenzisi imfazwe, kungekhona ukuthabatha umhlaba ngaphandle kokufuneka ukuba ube ngumvuzo kuphela, kwaye ungabi nxinxela kubantu abemi bomthonyama ngendlela eyaqhutyelwa ngayo i-opium kwiChina kunye nezibhamu kunye neeplani ngoku ziqhutywe kwiidemon . Kwi-1710, iTuscaroras yaseNorth Carolina yathumela izithunywa ePennsylvania zicela imvume yokuhlala apho. Yonke imali eyayingasetyenziselwa amabutho, iinqaba, kunye nezixhobo zasePennsylvania zazifumaneka, ukuba zibe ngcono okanye zibi, ukwakha iPhiladelphia (khumbula ukuba igama lithetha ntoni) kwaye uhlakulele i-koloni. Ikholoni yayinabantu abangama-4,000 kwiminyaka ye-3, kwaye i-1776 Philadelphia idlulile eBoston naseNew York ngobukhulu. Ngako ke, ngelixa iindawo eziphambili zosuku zilwa nokulawula ilizwekazi, elinye iqela labantu laligatya ingcamango yokuba imfazwe iyimfuneko, kwaye yaphumelela ngokukhawuleza kunabo bonke abavakalisi babo ababenokuthi babekho. (Siyabonga kuJohn Reuwer ngeli bali.)

 

UKUKHATHA UMSEBENZI

Kwakungo-Matshi 23, 1775, kwaye indoda esisityebi, emhlophe eyayinabantu abaninzi njengamakhoboka yayinikela intetho kwicawa eseRichmond, eVirginia. Into ayithethileyo ayibhalwanga, kodwa siyazi ukuba wathetha kakubi ngolawulo lwaseNgilane. Ingxelo kwiveki elandelayo yendoda eyayizimase le ntetho isixelela ukuba isithethi sabiza uKing George III, "Tyrant, isidenge, unodoli, kunye nesixhobo." Esi sithethi sinokuba sithathe nje inguquko, njengakwezinye iimeko, okanye sinokuyithetha esidlangalaleni. Kananjalo mhlawumbi wathetha ngalo mhla, njengoko wenzayo kwabanye ngaphambi nasemva, ngemfuneko yokulwa nemvukelo yamakhoboka kunye nokumelana nayo nayiphi na imizamo yase-Bhritane yokukhulula abantu ebukhobokeni, kunye nesidingo sokuhlasela amaMelika aseMelika entshona. , apho le ndoda yayisenza imali eninzi ngengqikelelo yomhlaba. Kwiminyaka engamashumi amane anesibini kamva, kwapapashwa isicatshulwa esathathwa njengale ntetho, sathi saqokelelwa kwizikhumbuzo zamashumi eminyaka ubudala zacela isandla esenziwe ngesandla, kunye nokuyilwa kwayo. Isithethi sokuqala sasiswelekile kudala. Kodwa ngoku sifunde ukuba wayethethile ngokuchasene nokukhotyokiswa yiNgilane, kwaye mhlawumbi wazikhulula kubukhoboka obungabonakaliyo. Amagama awafakwa emlonyeni wakhe afaka la: “Andazi ukuba yeyiphi ikhondo abanye abangathatha; kodwa mna ndikhululeni, okanye ndibulale. ” Akukho rekhodi likaPatrick Henry emva koko esengozini yokufa; akazange abone isenzo sokulwa. Wenza, nangona kunjalo, umkhankaso ngokuchasene nokuqinisekiswa koMgaqo-siseko wase-US. Isikhalo sakhe sokudumisa imfazwe eyayinqwenelwa ikakhulu ngabantu abakwaneleyo, sanele, nangona kunjalo, ukumbeka kwinqanaba lokuba abe nguBawo oQalayo onobuqhawe wohlobo abantu baseCanada nase-Australia ekufuneka bazisole kakhulu ngokusilela kwabo. (Enkosi kuRay Raphael ngeli bali.)

 

INGABE I-RUBICON?

Abantu bomthonyama belizwe lakhe bambiza ngokuba nguConotocaurious, oko kuthetha ukuba uMtshabalalisi weDolophu. Wayeyindoda ecebileyo kwilizwekazi lakhe, kwaye wayelawula ngokuqatha kubalwi bakhe. Abo babengaziphathi kakuhle babedla ngokunikwa imivumbo eli-100 ngesabhokhwe. Ukuzimisela ukuzama ukongeza isohlwayo ukuya kwimivimbo engama-500. Wakhokelela kwimvukelo enxamnye norhulumente osemthethweni, kwaye inguquko yeza nokuwela umlambo. Kwakungobusuku beKrisimesi xa wayechwechwela amajoni akhe ngaphesheya komlambo obanzi kwaye wabatshatisa kwinkampu yoozwilakhe yamajoni karhulumente. Abavukeli, okanye into iSebe lezoRhulumente laseMelika namhlanje elizakubiza ngokuba ngabanqolobi, babulala abangama-22, balimala abangama-83, bathabatha malunga namabanjwa angama-900, kunye nokuthatha izinto ababezisebenzisa. Abahlaseli baphulukana ne-5 benzakala kwaye i-0 iswelekile emfazweni, nangona babini babhubha ngenxa yokuba sesichengeni sokubanda ngexesha lomngcelele. Phakathi kweqela labalweli benkululeko okanye abanqolobi (khetha ixesha lakho, kodwa ulisebenzise nakwabahlali baseIraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Libya, Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia, Sudan, Niger, Philippines, njalo njalo) yayinguJames Madison, James Monroe, UJohn Marshall, u-Aaron Burr, u-Alexander Hamilton, kunye nenkokheli yabo egama lingu George Washington. Kwiminyaka engamakhulu amabini anamashumi amathathu anesihlanu kamva ilitye lesikhumbuzo elikhulu le-phallic e-Washington laqhekeka kwinyikima, enokubangelwa kukuqhekeka, ngelixa urhulumente waseka kuloo mfazwe ye-Delaware-River-crossing kudala, yalwa iimfazwe kwiindawo ezahlukeneyo kwihlabathi liphela, ukugcina ubukho bomkhosi kumazwe angama-175.

 

UKUPHATHWA KWEMISEBENZI

Ekupheleni kweminyaka yoo-1700 ilizwe lalilawulwa ebukhobokeni. Ubukhoboka yayiqhelekile. Uninzi lwabantu emhlabeni babesebukhobokeni okanye beserfdom. Ngaphambi kokuphela kweminyaka ye-1800 ubukhoboka babukhutshiwe phantse kuyo yonke indawo, kwaye bancitshiswa kakhulu kubukho bayo. Uninzi lweendawo zehlabathi eziphelileyo okanye ezithathe amanyathelo okuphelisa ubukhoboka kwaye urhwebo lwamakhoboka lwenze njalo ngaphandle kweemfazwe zamakhaya, ziqhutywa ngumbutho wokungabinabundlobongela ongenabundlobongela kunye nokuvukelwa kwamakhoboka. I-United States yanciphisa ngokuphawulekayo ubukhoboka ngeendleko ezingama-750,000 ezifileyo, iidolophu zatshiswa, ukulwa kwempi, kwaye kubonakala ngathi inzondo engapheliyo. Ukucebisa ukuba enye ikhosi ibinokwenzeka ihlala ihlangatyezwa yinyani yendlela abantu ebekufanele ukuba bacinge ngayo kwaye baziphathe ngayo, ngamanye amagama, ukujongela phantsi igama elithi "kunokwenzeka." Ubunzima ngokungummangaliso nangona yayikukuwenza, kwakukho umntu owayenombono. Ukusukela ngo-1856 ukuya ku-1860 u-Elihu Burritt wakhuthaza isicwangciso sokuthintela imfazwe yamakhaya ngokuhlawulwa kwenkululeko, okanye ukuthengwa kwenkululeko yabantu ababengamakhoboka ngurhulumente, umzekelo owawubekwe ngamaNgesi eWest Indies, kunye nendlela eya kuthi isetyenziselwe iWashington. , DC, kodwa hayi lonke elaseMelika, ngo-1862. UBurritt wayehamba rhoqo, kulo lonke ilizwe, ethetha. Waququzelela indibano enkulu eyayibanjelwe eCleveland. Wamisela abaxhasi ababalulekileyo. Wahlela iincwadana. NgoJuni 20, 2013, i Atlantic wapapasha into ebizwa ngokuba "Hayi, uLincoln Wayenakukwazi 'Ukuthengwa Ngezigqila'." Kutheni? Ewe, abanini bekhoboka abafuni ukuthengisa. Linyani ngokwenene. Abazange, kungekhona. Kodwa Atlantic ijolise kwenye ingxoxo, eyile yokuba ibiza kuba ibiza kakhulu, ixabisa kangange- $ 3 yezigidigidi (ngo-1860s imali). Nangona kunjalo, ukuba ufunda ngokusondeleyo-kulula ukuyiphosa-umbhali uyavuma ukuba imfazwe ibiza ngaphezulu kokuphindwe kabini kunoko. Iindleko zokukhulula abantu zazingenakufikeleleka. Kodwa iindleko eziphindwe kabini kunokubulala abantu, zihamba phantse zingabonwa- ngokungathi ibhajethi yePentagon yangoku.

 

ABAKHULU BABASEBENZI BA-ARYAN

Umgqugquzeli odumileyo nowaziwayo weemfazwe kumdyarho wase-Aryan wayenempahla yakhe yemfazwe eyenzelwe yena ngokukhethekileyo yi-Brooks Brothers. Kwimbono yakhe yelizwe, ama-Aryan ayevela eMiddle East esiya eJamani kwaye esuka apho esiya eNgilane ngohlobo lwama-Anglo-Saxons, awayefudukele ngasentshona ngaphesheya kweNyakatho Melika ukuya kwiPasifiki, apho babeza kuza ekugqibeleni (kwaye isakulangazelela) ukoyiswa kwento ebizwa ngokuba yi-Iran ngoku. Kwintetho yakhe eyayise-Oxford ngo-1910, lo ka-Aryan wayenxibe kakuhle waphikisa “uloyiso lobuhlanga,” esithi ukuvumela amalungu abantu aboyisiweyo ukuba aphile kwakucotha inkqubela phambili kugqatso. Igama lakhe yayinguTeddy Roosevelt.

 

IIMISEBENZI ZEMIHLABA YEMFAR

Ngomnyaka we-1614 iJapan yayinqumle ukusuka eNtshona, nto leyo eyakhokelela kwinkulungwane yoxolo nokuchuma kunye nokuqhakaza kobugcisa nenkcubeko yaseJapan. Ngo-1853 uMkhosi wamanzi wase-US wanyanzela iJapan ukuba ivulele abathengisi base-US, abavangeli basemazweni, kunye nokulwa. AmaJapan afunde ubuhlanga baseMelika kwaye amkela iqhinga lokujongana nayo. Bafuna ukuzijongela ngokwabo kwaye bazibonakalise njengohlanga olwahlukileyo oluphezulu kunabo bonke abantu baseAsia. Baba ngama-Aryan ahloniphekileyo. Ukuswela uthixo omnye okanye uthixo woloyiso, baqulunqa umlawuli wobuthixo oboleka kakhulu kwinkcubeko yobuKristu. Banxiba kwaye batya njengamaMelika kwaye bathumela abafundi babo ukuba bayokufunda eMelika. AmaJapan kwakudla ngokubhekiswa kuwo kwelaseUnited States “njengeeYankees zeMpuma Ekude.” Ngo-1872 umkhosi wase-US waqala ukuqeqesha amaJapan ngendlela yokoyisa ezinye izizwe, eneliso eTaiwan. UCharles LeGendre wacebisa iMonroe Doctrine yeAsia, ngumgaqo-nkqubo waseJapan olawula iAsia ngendlela i-United States eyayilawula ngayo ubume bayo. I-Japan yaseka i-Bureau of Savage Affairs kwaye yasungula amagama amatsha anjenge koronii (koloni). Ukuthetha eJapan kwaqala ukugxila kuxanduva lwamaJapan ukwenza impucuko. Ngo-1873, iJapan yahlasela iTaiwan “nabacebisi” bayo baseMelika. Kwaye kwafika iKorea.

 

YONKE IMPAZAMO YASEKOREA

IKorea neJapan zazingazi nto ngaphandle koxolo kangangeenkulungwane. Ukufika kwamaJapan ngeenqanawa zase-US, benxibe iimpahla zase-US, bethetha ngukumkani wabo wobuthixo, kwaye becebisa isivumelwano "sobudlelwane," amaKorea acinga ukuba amaJapan aphulukene nengqondo, kwaye abaxelele ukuba balahleke, besazi ukuba i-China ikhona Umqolo waseKorea. Kodwa amaJapan athetha iChina ukuba ivumele iKorea ukuba ityikitye isivumelwano, ngaphandle kokucacisela amaTshayina okanye amaKorea oko kuthethwa ngumnqophiso kwinguqulelo yesiNgesi. Ngo-1894 i-Japan yabhengeza imfazwe ne-China, imfazwe apho izixhobo zase-US zazithwala usuku. I-China yanikela nge-Taiwan kunye ne-Liaodong Peninsula, yahlawula ityala elikhulu, yabhengeza i-Korea ezimeleyo, kwaye yanika i-Japan amalungelo afanayo kurhwebo e-China awayenayo amazwe ase-US kunye ne-Europe. IJapan yaphumelela, de i-China yacenga iRussia, i-France ne-Jamani ukuba iphikise ubunini be-Liaodong yase-Japan. IJapan yanikezela kwaye iRussia yayibamba. IJapan yaziva ingcatshiwe ngamaKristu amhlophe. Ngo-1904, uMongameli Teddy Roosevelt wayevuyiswa kukuhlaselwa kweJapan kwiinqanawa zaseRashiya. Njengoko amaJapan aphinda alwa neAsia njengama-Aryan ahloniphekileyo, uRovelvelt wasika ngokufihlakeleyo nangokungavisisaniyo nomgaqo-siseko, evuma iMonroe Doctrine yaseJapan eAsia kwaye wanika iJapan Korea njenge koronii. Ukanti uRoosevelt waxhasa ukwala kweRussia ukuhlawula iJapan i-dime, kwaye wala ukwenza iMonroe Doctrine yakhe yaseJapan. IJapan yaqala ukucaphuka ngokunzulu kumcebisi wayo. (Enkosi kuJames Bradley ngeli bali.)

 

ISISHWANKATHELO ESIKHULUMENTE ESIPHEPHA

UAbdul Ghaffar Khan, okanye uBacha Khan, wazalelwa eNdiya elawulwa yiBrithani kwi-1890 kwintsapho ephathekayo yomhlaba. I-Bacha Khan iphambili ebomini yobuncwane ukuze kuvelwe umbutho ongekho mthethweni, obizwa ngokuba yi-"Red Shirt Movement", eyayizinikezele ukuzimela kwe-Indiya. UKhan wadibana noMohandas Gandhi, iqela lokungathobeli komthetho, kunye noKhan waba ngumcebisi wakhe osondeleyo, obangela ukuba ubuhlobo obude bude bude bude buze bube nokubulawa kukaGandhi kwi-1948. UBacha Khan wasebenzisa ukungahloneli komntu ongekho mthethweni ukufumana amalungelo ePastuns ePakistan, yaye wabanjwa ezininzi ngezihlandlo zakhe zobungqina. NjengomSilamsi, uKhan wasebenzisa inkolo yakhe njengomoya okhuthazayo wokukhuthaza uluntu okhululekileyo noluxolweni, apho abemi abahluphekayo baza kunikwa uncedo baze bavunyelwe ukunyuka kwezoqoqosho. UBushe baseBrithani besaba izenzo zikaGandhi kunye noBacha Khan, njengoko kuboniswe xa kukho uxolo lwe-200, ababhikishi abangekho mkhosi babulawa ngamapolisa aseBrithani. I-Massacre e-Kissa Khani Bazaar ibonise ubuqhetseba beenkolonti zaseBritani kwaye yabonisa isizathu sokuba uBacha Khan alwe nokuzimela. Kwintetho kwi-1985, uBacha Khan wathi, "Ndikholwa kukungabi nonyanzelo kwaye ndithi akukho uxolo okanye uxolo luya kuhla kwehlabathi kuze kube yinto engacaluliyo, kuba ukungabi nonyanzelo luyintando kwaye luba nesibindi kubantu."

 

UKUKHUBA NESIPAIN

"Khumbula iMaine kunye nesihogo neSpain!" Eso yaba sisikhalo seentatheli ezityheli zowe-1898 ezazityhola ukuqhuma nokutshona kwe USS Maine kwizibuko laseHavana kwiSpanish. ISpain yacebisa ukuba imbambano malunga nokuba yintoni ebangele ukuqhushumba ngaphakathi okanye kufutshane nenqanawa ithunyelwe kumntu wesithathu kulamlo. ISpain izibophelele ekuthobeleni nasiphi na isigqibo kunye nokwenza naluphi na uhlengahlengiso olufunekayo. Esihogweni ngaloo nto! Urhulumente wase-US wakhetha ukuya emfazweni-imfazwe eCuba, kwiiPhilippines, nakwiziqithi ezahlukeneyo zePasifiki. Namhlanje, i USS Maine isasazeka ngokubanzi njengendawo engcwele, kunye nesitrasi esisodwa kwisiboniso e-Arlington, eVirginia, kunye nesinye kwi-US Naval Academy e-Annapolis, eMad Maryland, kunye neengwembe ezivela kwiinqanawa eziboniswe eVirginia, ePennsylvania, eMassachusetts (2), kunye neMaine, kunye nezibhamu, abaxhamli, ezinye iindawo kunye neeplats ezenziwe ngokunyanzelisa iinqanawa ngoku ngoku kubonakalisa ubuncinane kwiindawo ze-84 kwezinye i-United States. Ayaziwa ukuba ukuthinta le mihla yokuncedisa kunceda omnye ekukholweni ukuthengiswa kweemfazwe zakutshanje.

 

KUKHULULELA AMAFILIPPINES

Ezinye iiPhilippines zafa ngosuku lokuqala lokulwa nabancedisi babo baseMelika kunokuba amaMelika ayeza kufa afeza iilwandle zaseNormandy. Kwiintsuku ezalandelayo, abaninzi basePhilippines bafumanisa ukuba banesidingo sokupaka amanzi. Amajoni ase-US ePhilippines ahlabelela ingoma encinane emnandi ngokubonelela ngamanzi eMaphilippines. Nantsi ivesi:

"Owupompe kuye aze avuke njengebhokisi lokudlala.
Isidenge senza ukuba inkululeko ayiyonto exabisekileyo.
Kodwa siza kuyenza ukuba ambone ubuhle bayo kungekudala.
Ukumemeza ukulwa kwenkululeko. "

Ngaba loo nto ingahluleka ukusebenza?

 

SUNKEN SHIPS LOOSEN LIPS

IJamani yawacima ELusitania - isenzo esibi sokubulala abantu abaninzi. Inkqubo ye- ELusitania bebephethe izixhobo kunye nemikhosi yaseBrithani - esinye isenzo esibi kakhulu sokubulala abantu. Eyona nto inobungozi, nangona kunjalo, kwakukho ubuxoki obuchazwe ngako konke. IJamani yashicilele izilumkiso kwiMaphephandaba eNew York nakwamaphephandaba e-United States. Ezi zi lumkiso zashicilelwe ngqo kwiintengiso zokuhamba ngomkhumbi ELusitania kwaye isayinwe yi-ambassy yaseJamani. Amaphephandaba abhale imibhalo malunga nezilumkiso. Inkampani yaseCunard yayibuziwe malunga nezilumkiso. Umongameli wangaphambili ELusitania sele sele sele ishiyeke - ngenxa yokuxinezeleka kokuhamba ngento eyenziwa yiJamani kwiindawo zemfazwe. Ngaloo nto uWinston Churchill ucatshulwa njengokuba uthe "Kubaluleke kakhulu ukutsala ukuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe kwiindawo zethu eziselunxwemeni ngethemba ikakhulukazi lokubandakanya iUnited States neJamani." Wayephantsi komyalelo wakhe ukuba ukukhuselwa komkhosi waseBrithani kwakunganikezelwa ELusitania, nangona iCunard echazile ukuba yayibala kulo khuselo. USobhala welizwe lika-US uWilliam Jennings uBryan utyeshile ngenxa yokungaphumeleli kwe-US. Oko ELusitania bephethe izixhobo kunye nemikhosi ekuncediseni iBrithani kwimfazwe ngokumelene neJamani yaxhaswa yiJamani kunye nabanye ababukeleyo, kwaye yayiyinyaniso. Nangona kunjalo urhulumente wase-United States uthe, kwaye iincwadi zaseburhulumenteni zase-US zithetha ngoku, ukuba abangenacala ELusitania wahlaselwa ngaphandle kwesixwayiso, isenzo esityholwa ukuba sivumele ukungena kwimfazwe.

 

LINDA OKUQHUBILEYO

Ngokukodwa kwihora le-11th yosuku lwe-11th lwenyanga ye-11th, kwi-1918, abantu baseYurophu ngokukhawuleza bayeka ukudubula izibhamu. Kwada kwaloo mzuzwana, babulala baze bathathe iinqwelo, behla bekhala, bekhala baze bafe. Emva koko bayeka, ngexesha. Kwakungenjalo ukuba babediniwe okanye beza kwiingqondo zabo. Bobabini ngaphambi nangemva kwe11 ntsimbi babemlandela nje imiyalelo. Isivumelwano seArmsistice esiphelile iMfazwe Yehlabathi I samisa i-11 yehorityhulam nje ngokuyeka ixesha. UHenry Nicholas uJohn Gunther wayezalwe eBaltimore, Maryland, kubazali ababefudukela eJamani. NgoSeptemba 1917 wayequlunqwe ukuba ancede abulale amaJamani. Xa ebhala ekhaya evela eYurophu ukuchaza indlela eyayibuhlungu ngayo imfazwe kunye nokukhuthaza abanye ukuba baphephe ukubhalwa, wayechithwe (kunye neleta ebhaliweyo). Wayexelele abahlobo bakhe abaza kuzibonakalisa. Kwi-5: I-00 i-11 / 11 / 1918 i-Armistice isayinwe. Njengomhla wokugqibela we-11: I-00 iyakusondela, uHenry wasukuma, ngokuchasene nemiyalelo, kwaye ngesibindi wagxotha ibhononet yakhe kumjelo amabini aseJamani. AmaJamani ayayazi i-Armistice kwaye azama ukumshukumisa. Wayelokhu esondela aze athabathe. Xa esondele, umfuthane omncinci wompu womlilo wawuphelile ubomi bakhe kwi10: 59 nguHenry wayengowokugqibela wamadoda e-11,000 ukuba abulawe okanye aphulwe phakathi kokusayinwa kwe-Armistice kunye nokusebenza kwayo. UHenry Gunther wanikwa isikhundla sakhe, kodwa kungekhona ubomi bakhe.

 

USUKU LOMSEBENZI

Unyaka ngamnye, kwiminyaka emininzi, kukho isikhumbuzo ngoNovemba 11th. I-Congress Yase-US ibiza ngokuba yi-Armistice Day iholide "yokuphucula uxolo ngokuthanda okuhle kunye nokuqonda phakathi kweentlanga," usuku "olunikezelwe kubangelwa uxolo lwehlabathi." Xa iicawa zibeka iibell zabo kwi-11: 00, yiloo nto ababeyithethayo. Kwakuyiholide yoxolo, kwaye yahlala ixesha elide njengoko igalelo loxolo lwenziwa.

 

INKQUBO YOKWENZA

Igqwetha laseChicago eligama linguSalmon Levinson lalinombono. Ukuba ungayinqanda i-dueling, kutheni ungavali imfazwe? Wakha umbutho odumileyo owenza kanye loo nto. Kude kube ngu-1928, imfazwe yayisemthethweni. Ukupheliswa kwayo, kusetyenziswa onke amazwe atyebileyo emhlabeni ukusayina kunye nokuqinisekisa isivumelwano seKellogg-Briand, yayiyeyona ndaba inkulu yeendaba yowe-1928. Iimfazwe zazithintelwe. Emva kweMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, abo bangaphumelelanga batshutshiswa ngolwaphulo-mthetho olutsha. Iintlanga ezicebileyo azange ziphinde ziye emfazweni. Uloyiso kunye nekoloniyalizim sele zaphela. Ukuzuza kommandla ngemfazwe kwabuyiselwa kwimida ye-1928. Inani lamazwe emhlabeni likhawuleze laphindeka, njengoko kwaba kukhuselekile ukuhlala njengelizwe elincinci. Kodwa ukupheliswa kwemfazwe akuzange kuhambisane nokupheliswa kwezixhobo. Ngapha koko, ukuxhotyiswa ngezimali kunye nenkxaso mali yeentshaba ezizayo zaba lishishini elikhulayo ukusukela ngala mhla ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Umthetho wajijwa eNuremberg naseTokyo, nakwiManyano yeZizwe eziManyeneyo, ukuba kuthintelwe kuphela iimfazwe ezigwenxa nezingagunyaziswanga yi-UN. Abathengisi bezixhobo abahlanu abakhulu kunye nabenzi bemfazwe banikwe amandla e-veto kwiBhunga lezoKhuseleko. Imithetho engapheliyo yenzelwe iimfazwe ezifanelekileyo. Umbono wokuba imfazwe yayilityala ngabom. Ukuba nabani na uyayithetha kule mihla, impendulo yeyokuba kukho imfazwe kwaye ke ayilolwaphulo-mthetho olubonakala lusebenza kuphela kule meko hayi ngolunye ulwaphulo-mthetho, olukhoyo okanye akukho sizathu sokwenza ulwaphulo-mthetho.

 

UKUKHULULELA OKUQALA / UKUSEBENZISWA NGOKWENZA

Ngama-1930, umkhosi wase-US wanda waya ePacific. Ngo-Matshi 1935, uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt wanika i-Wake Island kwi-US Navy kwaye wanika iPan Am Airways imvume yokwakha i-Wake Island, Midway Island naseGuam. Abaphathi-mkhosi baseJapan babhengeza ukuba baphazamisekile kwaye bayijonga le migaqo yeenqwelo-moya njengesisongelo. Ngokunjalo nabaphembeleli boxolo eMelika. Ngenyanga elandelayo, uRoosevelt wayecwangcise imidlalo yemfazwe kunye nokuhamba kufutshane neIleutian Islands kunye neMidway Island. Ngenyanga elandelayo, amatshantliziyo oxolo ayematsha eNew York ekhuthaza ubuhlobo neJapan. UNorman Thomas wabhala ngo-1935: “Indoda yaseMarsya eyabona indlela amadoda ahlupheka ngayo kwimfazwe yokugqibela nendlela abaxakeke ngayo belungiselela umlo olandelayo, nabaziyo ukuba uzakuba mbi kakhulu, bebeza kugqiba kwelokuba wayejonge abahlali indawo yokhuseleko. ' I-US yayikholelwa ukuba ukuhlaselwa kweJapan eHawaii kuya kuqala ngokuphumelela isiqithi saseNi'ihau, apho iinqwelomoya ziya kuthi ziye kuhlasela ezinye iziqithi. Umkhosi Womoya wase-US u-Lt. Col. Gerald Brant waya kusapho lakwa Robinson, olwaluphethe i-Ni'ihau nangoku. Ubacele ukuba balime imisele ukunqumla esiqithini kwigridi, ukuze kungabikho luncedo kwiinqwelomoya. Phakathi kowe-1933 nowe-1937, amadoda amathathu aseNi'ihau asika imisele ngamakhuba atsalwa ngoondlebende okanye ngamahashe ayila. Umkhosi wamanzi wase-US wachitha iminyaka embalwa elandelayo esenza izicwangciso zokulwa neJapan, ingxelo kaMatshi 8, 1939, eyachaza “imfazwe ehlaselayo yexesha elide.” Njengoko kwafumanekayo, amaJapan ayengenazicwangciso zokusebenzisa i-Ni'ihau, kodwa xa inqwelomoya yaseJapan eyayisakuba yinxalenye yokuhlaselwa kwePearl Harbour kwafuneka ifike ngokukhawuleza, yafika eNi'ihau ngaphandle kwayo yonke imizamo oondlebende namahashe.

 

UKUSEBENZA ISIGABA SESIGABA I

Nge-18 ka-Agasti ka-1941, Inkulumbuso uWinston Churchill wadibana nekhabinethi yakhe e-10 Downing Street, endlwini yakhe. U-Churchill uxelele ikhabinethi yakhe, ngokwemizuzu: "Umongameli [wase-US] uthe uzokulwa kodwa akazukuyibhengeza." Ukongeza, "Yonke into yayenzelwa ukunyanzela isehlo." Abasasazi baseBritane babephikisana ukusukela ubuncinci ngo-1938 ngokusebenzisa iJapan ukuzisa i-United States emfazweni. Kwinkomfa yeAtlantic ngoAgasti 12, 1941, uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt waqinisekisa uChurchill ukuba i-United States izakuzisa uxinzelelo lwezoqoqosho eJapan. Kwisithuba seveki, iBhodi yoKhuselo lezoQoqosho yayisele ifumene isohlwayo kwezoqoqosho. NgoSeptemba 3, 1941, iSebe Lezaseburhulumenteni laseMelika lathumela iJapan kwelokuba livume umgaqo "wokungaphazanyiswa kwemeko ekuyiyo ePacific." I-Allied blockade inqunyulwe malunga ne-75% yorhwebo oluqhelekileyo eJapan ngokwe ENew York Times. NgoSeptemba 1941 umshicileli waseJapan wachazela ukuba iUnited States iqalile ukuthumela ioli kwiJapan ekude ifike eRashiya. IJapan, amaphephandaba ayo athi, wayefa ukufa ngokukhawuleza "kwimfazwe yezoqoqosho." Imemorandam yo-Oktobha 1940 nguLieutenant Commander Arthur H. UMcCollum wayebizele ukuba izenzo ezisibhozo uMcCollum azibikezele ziza kubangela amaJapan ukuba ahlasele, kuquka ukulungiselela ukusetyenziswa kweziseko zaseBrithani eSingapore kunye nokusetyenziswa kweziseko zaseDutch kwinto ngoku eyi-Indonesia, ekuncedeni urhulumente waseTshayina, ukuthumela ukwahlula kwexesha elide, iintambo ezinzima eziya kwiiPhilippines okanye zaseSingapore, zithumela iinqanawa ezimbini zee-marine "ukuya kwiMpuma," zigcina amandla amakhulu eWawaii, zixininisa ukuba amaDatshi ayalila ioli yamaJapane, kwaye ihlaseleyo yonke intengiso kunye neJapane. Ngomhla emva kweMemo kaMcCollum, iSebe likaRhulumente lixelele amaMerika ukuba aphume kwilizwe elikude, kwaye uRoosevelt wayala ukuba iinqanawa zigcinwe eHawaii ngenxa yokuchaswa ngokukrakra kwe-Admiral James O. URichardson owathetha uMongameli esithi "Kungekudala emva koko amaJapane ayenze isenzo esiphezulu ngokumelene ne-United States kwaye isizwe siya kukulungele ukungena kwimfazwe." Ekupheleni kukaOktobha, i-1941, US u-Edgar Mower uthetha nomntu waseManila ogama lingu-Ernest Johnson, ilungu leKhomishoni yaseMaritime, owathi ulindele ukuba "IJaps iyakuthatha iManila ngaphambi kokuba ndiphume." Xa uMower wathetha ngokumangaliswa, uJohnson waphendula wathi "Ngaba awukwazi Inqwelo yeJaf iye yafudukela empumalanga, mhlawumbi ihlasela iinqwelo zethu ePearl Harbour? "NgoNovemba 3, i-1941, i-US Unozakuzaku uzame - hayi okwesihlandlo sokuqala - ukuba afumane into ngethambo likaRhulumente, athumele ucingo olude kwiSebe likaRhulumente elumkisa ngelithi ezohlwayo zoqoqosho zinokunyanzela i-Japan ukuba yenze "i-hara-kiri yesizwe". Ubhale wathi: "Ungquzulwano ngezixhobo kunye ne-United States lunokuza ngesiquphe esiyingozi." Ngomhla kaNovemba 15, 1941, uMphathi wezoMkhosi uGeorge Marshall wathetha namajelo eendaba wathi: “Silungiselela umlo ohlasela iJapan.” Kwiintsuku ezilishumi kamva uNobhala Wezomkhosi uHenry Stimson wabhala kwidayari yakhe ukuba wayedibene kwiOval Office noMarshall, uMongameli Roosevelt, uNobhala woMkhosi wamanzi uFrank Knox, uAdmiral Harold Stark, kunye noNobhala welizwe uCordell Hull. URovelvelt wayebaxelele ukuba amaJapane aya kuhlasela kungekudala, mhlawumbi ngoMvulo ozayo. I-United States yaphule iikhowudi zaseJapan. KwakuyiHull eyalimaza iJapane iyancipha kwi-press, eyabangela ngoNovemba 30, i-1941, umxholo othi "iMeyi yaseJapan ibetha ngaphezu kweveki." Isigidimi sikaHarold Stark sathumela kwi-Admiral Husband Kimmel ngoNovemba 28, 1941, funda, " IZINDAWO ZINGAKHUMBI UKUBA ZIQONDE UKUBA ZIKHUMBULWE IZINYAKA ZASE-UNITED STATES UKUNCEDA UKUBA IJAPAN IQOLELE UMTHETHO WOKUQALA WOKUQALA. "UJoseph Rochefort, umgcini weCandelo loLwazi loNxibelelwano lwe-Navy, owayengumsebenzi wokuhluleka ukuthetha nePearl Harbor, wayeza kuthi:" Kwakuyixabiso elincinci lokuhlawula ukuhlanganisa umhlaba. "Kwaye ngoNovemba 28, i-1941, i-Vice Admiral William F. ENew York Times wayexelele ukuqeqeshwa kwe-China yamandla ase-China, kunye nokubonelelwa "kweemfazwe ezininzi kunye neebhomu zebhomu" e-United States. "Ukubethelwa kwamabhomu aseJapan kulindelwe" funda intloko. NgoJulayi, iBhodi yamaQumrhu oLwandle-i-Joint Army-Navy avumile icebo elibizwa ngokuthi yiJB 355 kwisibhamu saseJapan. Inkampani yangaphambili yayiza kuthengisa iindiza ze-Amerika ukuba ziqhutywe ngamavolontiya aseMelika. URovelvelt wamukelwa, kunye neChina uchwepheshe waseLunch Lauchlin Currie, ngamazwi kaNicholson Baker, "wathinjwa nguMadame Chaing Kai-Shek noClaire Chennault incwadi eyincenga ukuba ivakalwe yiintlola zaseJapan." I-1st yaseMelika Volunteer Group (AVG) yaseTshayina I-Air Force, eyaziwa nangokuthi i-Flying Tigers, yaqhubela phambili ngokuqashwa nokuqeqesha ngokukhawuleza, yabonelelwa eChina ngaphambi kwePearl Harbour, kwaye yabona kuqala ukulwa ngoDisemba 20, 1941. UMarshall kamva wavuma kwiNgqungquthela ukuba iikhowudi zaseJapan zaphulwa, ukuba iUnited States yaqalisa izivumelwano ze-Anglo-Dutch-Amamerika ezinyathelo elihlangeneyo malunga neJapane kwaye zaziqalisa phambi kwePearl Harbor, kwaye ukuba i-United States yayinike amagosa omkhosi wayo ukuba I-China ngenjongo yokulwa phambi kwePearl Harbor. UHenry Luce ubomi iphephancwadi ngoJulayi 20, i-1942, ebhekiselwa "kwiShayina apho i-US eyayibuyisele kuyo i-ultimatum eyayisePearl Harbor."

 

I-PEACE VS. HOLOCAUST

UJessie Wallace Hughan, umseki we-War Resisters League, wayexhalabile kakhulu ngo-1942 ngamabali ezicwangciso zamaNazi, engasagxili ekugxothweni kwamaJuda kodwa ejonge kwizicwangciso zokubabulala. U-Hughan wayekholelwa ekubeni olu phuhliso lubonakala ngathi "lolwendalo, ngokwembono yabo yezifo," kwaye inokwenzeka xa kuthe kwaqhubeka iMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi. "Kubonakala ngathi ekuphela kwendlela yokusindisa amawaka kwaye mhlawumbi izigidi zamaJuda aseYurophu kwintshabalalo," ubhale watsho, "kukuba urhulumente wethu asasaze isithembiso" somkhosi phantsi kwemeko yokuba iincinci zaseYurophu zingaphazanyiswa. . . . Ingayinto embi ukuba kwiinyanga ezintandathu ukusukela ngoku sinokufumanisa ukuba esi sisongelo senzekile ngaphandle kokuba senze nesimbo sokuyithintela. ” Xa iingqikelelo zakhe zazaliseka kakuhle kuphela ngo-1943, wabhalela iSebe likaRhulumente wase-US kunye ENew York Times: "Izigidi ezibini [amaYuda] sele zife" kwaye "ezizigidi ezibini ezingakumbi ziya kubulawa ukuphela kwemfazwe." Ulumkise ngelithi ukuphumelela kwezomkhosi ngokuchasene neJamani kungakhokelela ekuqhubekeni kwamaYuda. Uloyiso aluyi kubasindisa, kuba abantu abafileyo abanakukhululwa, ubhale watsho. (Enkosi kuLawrence Wittner ngeli bali.)

 

Masizame ukuhlala sijolise

"U-Anthony Eden, unobhala ongaphandle waseBrithani, owayesetyenzwe nguChurchill ngokuphendula imibuzo malunga nababaleki, wathandana ngokugqithiseleyo ngenye yeendwendwe ezibalulekileyo, esithi yonke into eyenza ukukhululwa kwamaYuda esuka eHitler yayingenakwenzeka. Uhambo oluya eUnited States, i-Eden yamxelela ngokucacileyo uCordell Hull, unobhala wombuso, ukuba ubunzima bokubuza uHitler kumaYuda kukuba 'uHitler unokusithatha naluphi na umnikelo, kwaye akukho zikhephe ezaneleyo kunye neendlela zokuthutha ehlabathini ukuze ziphathe. ' Churchill wavuma. Wabhala ngokuphendula kwincwadi enye ecela ukuba, 'Nangona sifuna imvume yokurhoxisa onke amaYuda,' izithuthi zodwa ziveza ingxaki eyoba nzima ukuyicombulula. ' Ukuthunyelwa okwaneleyo nokuthutha? Kwiminyaka emibini ngaphambili, iBritish yayishiye malunga nama-340,000 amadoda avela e-Dunkirk ngeentsuku ezithoba. I-Air Force yase-US inamakhulu amaninzi eeplanethi ezintsha. Ngethuba nje nangesigxina esifanelekileyo, ii-Allied zikwazi ukuhamba ngeenqwelo kunye nokuthutha ababaleki kakhulu kwinani laseJamani. "(Ndiyabonga kwaye nicatshulwe kuNicholson Baker.)

 

ISICELO SOKUSETYENZISWA KWEVISA KA-ANNE FRANK

Inqanawa yeembacu ezingamaJuda ezivela eJamani zagxothwa eMiami ngoNogada woNxweme. I-US kunye namanye amazwe ala ukwamkela uninzi lweembacu ezingamaJuda, kwaye uninzi lwabantu base-US bayasixhasa eso sikhundla. I-US ayibandakanyekanga kwimizamo yozakuzo okanye yezomkhosi ukusindisa amaxhoba kwiinkampu zoxinaniso zamaNazi. Usapho luka-Anne Frank lwaliwe ii-visa zase-US.

 

UKUSINDA KWAKYOTO

Unobhala Wezomkhosi wase-US u-Henry Stimson ugcine u-Kyoto kuluhlu lweethagethi zeebhombu zenyukliya. IHiroshima kunye neNagasaki zazingengomkhosi okanye zingaphantsi komkhosi kunokuba yayinguKyoto. Kwaye zithathwa njengezindawo ezifanelekileyo ukubonisa iibhombu ezintsha. Kodwa iKyoto yayinentsingiselo yenkcubeko, kwaye kubonakala ngathi phakathi kwabo babuthandayo ubuhle bukaKyoto yayinguHenry Stimson, owayetyelele iKyoto. Ngokwazi kwethu, wayengazange aye eHiroshima okanye eNagasaki, eyayimbi kakhulu kubo.

 

KUNGANI KUNYE IZIBINI ZESIBINI?

Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, iikholoni ezimbini zaseMelika, emva kobusuku, ngo-Agasti 11, 1945, National Geographic imephu kwaye ikhethe indawo ekumantla enyakatho njengoko becinga ukuba bayayihamba nayo. Bakhetha ukulandelana kwamashumi amathathu nesibhozo. Benza umgca. Ngaloo ndlela baphinda kabili inani lamaKorea ehlabathini. Umntla wayeka ukufumana ukutya evela eMzantsi, kwaye uMzantsi wayeka ukufumana umbane ukusuka kuMntla. Umntla wafumana inkokheli ekhethiweyo yiSoviet Union, kwaye uMzantsi unyuliwe ngabanye, wangena eWashington, DC Yintoni engafanelekanga?

 

IMIBONO YAMANUREMBA OKUSUKA KWI-GUATEMALA

URobert Jackson, uMtshutshisi oyiNtloko waseMelika kumatyala amaNazi emfazwe kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho olunxulumene noko olwabanjwa eNuremberg, eJamani, emva kweMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, wamisela umgangatho kwihlabathi: “Ukuba izenzo ezithile zokwaphula izivumelwano lulwaphulo-mthetho, I-United States iyazenza okanye iJamani iyazenza, kwaye asizimiselanga ukubeka umthetho wezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho ngokuchasene nabanye esingazukufuna ukuba sibhenele kuzo. ” Phakathi kwetyala elaliqhutywa eNuremberg ngomnye woogqirha bamaNazi ababetyholwa ngokwenza amalinge nokubulala abantu abaninzi. Eli tyala laqala ngoDisemba 9, 1946, laya kutsho kuAgasti 20, 1947. Ubungqina obubalulekileyo obanikelwa yiAmerican Medical Association yayinguGqirha Andrew C. Ivy. Ucacisile ukuba isenzo sikagqirha samaNazi “lulwaphulo-mthetho kuba lwenziwa kumabanjwa ngaphandle kwemvume yawo nokungawahloniphi amalungelo abo. Zaziqhutywa ngenjongo yokuphepha iintlungu nokubandezeleka ngokungeyomfuneko. ” Ngo-Epreli 27, 1947, ENew York Times, umhleli wezenzululwazi welo phephandaba uWaldemar Kaempffert wabhala wathi ulingelo lomntu ngegcushuwa luya kuba luncedo kodwa “alunakwenzeka.” UGqirha John C. Cutler ufundile inqaku elifutshane. Ngelo xesha wayebandakanyeka ekunikezeni i-syphilis kumaxhoba angalindelekanga eGuatemala. Wayekwenza oku ngenkxaso-mali, ulwazi kunye nenkxaso yabaphathi bakhe kwiNkonzo yoLuntu yaseMelika. Ubize umnxeba Maxesha Inqaku likaDkt John F. Mahoney, umlawuli wakhe kwiLebhu yeeVenal Research Research (VDRL) yeNkonzo yezeMpilo kaRhulumente. UCucler wabhalela uMahoney ukuba ngokubhekiselele Maxesha inqaku, Umsebenzi kaCutler eGuatemala kufuneka ukhuselwe ngokufihlakeleyo. U-Cutler wayeye eGuatemala kuba wayekholelwa ukuba yindawo anokuhamba kuyo ngokosulela abantu nge-syphilis ngenjongo yokuzama unyango kunye ne-placebos. Wayengakholelwa ukuba angahamba ngezenzo ezinjalo eMelika. NgoFebruwari 1947, uCutler wayeqale ukosulela oonongogo ababhinqileyo ngegcushuwa kwaye ebasebenzisa ukosulela amadoda amaninzi. Ngo-Epreli waqala wosulela amadoda ngokuthe ngqo. Inkuthazo yayikukufumana iindlela ezingcono zokunyanga i-syphilis kumalungu omkhosi wase-US, ngokucacileyo eyayingacingi ukuphelisa ukusebenza kwayo ngenxa yokuba imfazwe iphelile kwaye kwasekwa iZizwe eziManyeneyo. Oogqirha abaninzi baseMelika ngeli xesha babecinga iKhowudi yaseNuremberg eyayiphuma kwizilingo zamaNazi “njengeyona khowudi ilungileyo kubantu abangaqhelekanga.” Amaninzi aqhubeka nokulinga kwabantu amashumi eminyaka.

 

UYENZA KANJANI I-LSD KWI-VILLAGE ENYE?

Nge-16 ka-Agasti ka-1951, ilali ethe cwaka yasePont Saint Esprit kuMlambo iRhone kuMazantsi eFrance yaqala ukushiywa ziingqondo. Abantu babethwa ziingqondo, impambano, nemibono, noloyiko. Indoda yakhala isithi isisu sayo sasityiwa ziinyoka. Wazama ukurhaxwa. Omnye wakhwaza esithi "ndiyindiza!" Uye waxhuma kwifestile yomgangatho wesibini waphuka yomibini imilenze. Nangona kunjalo, waphakama waqhubeka nokuzula-zula ejinga. Enye indoda yathi intliziyo yayo ibaleke iinyawo zayo. Amakhulu abantu achaphazelekile, uninzi lwasiwa kwindawo yokukhosela ngeebhatyi ezithe nkqo. Kusweleke abantu abahlanu. Kumashumi eminyaka kamva, umphandi wafumanisa amaxwebhu aseburhulumenteni e-US aqinisekisa ukuba i-CIA ibeke i-LSD kukutya kwalapha njengelinge. Mhlawumbi eyona ndlela ilula yokuva ukuxolisa ngesehlo esivela kwi-CIA iya kuba kukuzama i-LSD.

 

NGABANI O MSEBENZI?

U Mohammad Mossadegh, owaziwayo, owayengumongameli okhethwe ngentando yenkululeko wase-Iran, wavakashela iUnited States kunye neZizwe eziManyeneyo kwi-1951. Wayebuza ngeBeller Bell eBhiladelphia. Wayenguye ixesha Umntu owayephephancwadi ngo-1952. Abaninzi babemhlonela, nangona babemkrokrela. Abanye babemthanda kwaye bemthanda. Kodwa wayekholelwa ukuba i-Iran kufuneka izuze ngeoyile yayo, kunokuba iqumrhu lase-Bhritane lityebe ngeendleko zeIran. Oku kwangqineka kungamkelekanga. I-Bhritane yagaya i-CIA, ngemvume kaMongameli u-Dwight Eisenhower, yokubhukuqa uMossadegh ngo-1953. Umsebenzi wawukhokelwa ngumzukulwana ka-Teddy Roosevelt, u-Kermit Roosevelt Jr. uzwilakhe okhohlakeleyo kodwa umthengi olungileyo wezixhobo kude kube ngo-1979, xa wagxothwa ngohlaziyo lwaseIran. Esoyika enye inyathelo lase-US, ama-Irani athabatha indawo yozakuzo yase-US apho kwakusungulwe khona u-1953. Abavukeli babamba abasebenzi bozakuzo base-US njengabathumbi. Umgqatswa kaMongameli wase-US u-Ronald Reagan wenze isivumelwano nabantu base-Irani ukuba bangabakhululi abo babanjiweyo ngexa u-Jimmy Carter wayengumongameli. Bakhululwa ngomhla wokumiselwa kukaReagan. I-Iran yayingomnye woorhulumente abangama-36 abebhukuqwe yi-United States ukusukela ngeMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, ngelo xesha i-United States izame ukubulala ngaphezulu kweenkokheli ezingama-50 yaphosa iibhombu kumazwe angaphezu kwama-30. Ukubuyela umva kuqhushululu lwaseIran - Oko kukuthi, iziphumo ezingathandekiyo kwiminyaka elandelayo, iziphumo ezibonakala ngathi azenzeki kwaye zingenangqondo kubabukeli abangaziswanga - bekuyinto eqhelekileyo kuyo yonke le misebenzi.

 

INGABE UZA KUVANISA UKUQALA?

Ngexesha nasemva kweMfazwe yaseKorea yowe-1950 ukuya kowe-1953, i-United States yayinengxaki apho isisombululo yayikukushukuma kwengqondo-ingeyiyo eyokwenyani ingqondo, kodwa indalo kunye nokusasazwa komqondo wobuchopho. Kwaba luncedo kakhulu ekusasazeni malunga nombono wokuba amaTshayina ayenako ukwenza izinto i-CIA eyayiphupha ngazo kuphela kwaye izifunile, ezinje ngokudalwa kwabagqatswa baseManchurian, abantu abadweliswe njengoomatshini. Ngokukodwa, kuye kwanyanzeleka ukuba kuqinisekiswe abantu ukuba amaTshayina anokucima ingqondo yomnye umntu kwaye ayitshintshe ngebali lamabali aqanjiweyo anokukholelwa ngokunyanisekileyo. Lo mdlalo, ongenakwenzeka kwihlabathi lokwenyani, wawubizwa ngokuba kukuhlanjwa kwengqondo. Kodwa kutheni yayifuneka? Ewe, imikhosi yase-US eyayibanjwe njengamabanjwa ngexesha lemfazwe, yayithethile izinto ezoyikekayo ngolwaphulo-mthetho ababekhe bazenza. Kwaye ngoku babekhululekile kwaye babuyele emakhaya bengavumi ukuphika ubungqina babo. Ngexesha leMfazwe yaseKorea, i-United States yabhombisa phantse yonke iNorth Korea kunye ne-South entle, yabulala izigidi zabantu. Yehla isixa esikhulu seNapalm. Kwaqhushumba amadama, iibhlorho, iilali, izindlu. Oku konke-ukubulawa kwabantu abaninzi. Kodwa bekukho into urhulumente wase-US ebengafuni kwaziwa, into ethathwa njengengekho mthethweni kolu hlanya luphangaleleyo. Ngoku siyazi ukuba i-United States yehle i-China kunye ne-North Korea izinambuzane kunye neentsiba ezithwele i-anthrax, ikholera, i-encephalitis, kunye nesibetho se-bubonic. Oku bekufanele ukuba kuyimfihlo ngelo xesha, kwaye impendulo yamaTshayina yokugonya ngobuninzi kunye nokupheliswa kwezinambuzane kusenokuba negalelo ekusileleni kweprojekthi ngokubanzi (amakhulu abulawa, kodwa hayi izigidi). Kodwa amalungu omkhosi wase-US athathwe njengamabanjwa ngamaTshayina avuma ukuba ayekade eyinxalenye yawo, kwaye avuma esidlangalaleni ukubuyela kwabo eMelika. Kwafunyanwa ngokukhawuleza, kuye wonk 'ubani, ukuba le miphefumlo ihluphekileyo yayingamaxhoba okuhlamba ingqondo.

 

INDLELA YABASEBETETHI ABASEBENZA NGAYO IGAMA

Kanye ukuya kwiMfazwe yaseKorea, iUnited States yabhiyozela uSuku lweArmistice. Emva koko iCongress yajika uSuku lweArmistice lwaba lusuku lwamaVeterans. Usuku loxolo lwaba lusuku apho amaqela amaVeterans for Peace ahlala ekhutshelwa ngaphandle kwimfazwe yokukhuthaza usuku loMkhosi wamaVeterans. Ayitshintshanga nje imini. Amagqala aguqulwa aba zizipapasho zentengiso yeemfazwe, kunye nemeko yemfazwe esisigxina, ethengiswa eluntwini ngokungathi konke oko kuluncedo lwabantu abancinci abathunyelwe ukuyokufumana i-PTSD, ukulimala kwengqondo, ukonakala kokuziphatha, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha ukunqunyulwa kunye namanye amacebo abonakalayo kokungaphakathi.

 

LAPHO UKUNYULWA KWE-LYME KUKHULU?

Ngaphantsi kweekhilomitha ezi-2 ukusuka empuma yeLong Island kuhlala iPlum Island, apho urhulumente wase-US esebenze ngezixhobo zebhayiloji, kubandakanya izixhobo ezibandakanya izinambuzane ezigulayo ezinokwehliswa kwiinqwelomoya (mhlawumbi zangaphandle). Esinye sezinambuzane ngamakhalane. Ixhama lidada liye kwisiqithi iPlum. Iintaka zibhabhela kwisiqithi iPlum. NgoJulayi ka-1975, isifo esingazange sabonwa mntu e-United States ngaphambili, savela e-Old Lyme, e-Connecticut, kumantla e-Plum Island. IPlum Island yazama i-Lone Star tick, eyayinendawo yokuhlala ngelo xesha eTexas. Nangona kunjalo i-Lone Star tick yavela eNew York naseConnecticut, yosulela abantu abanesifo seLyme- kwaye ibabulala. I-Lone Star tick ngoku ixhaphake eNew York, eConnecticut naseNew Jersey. Esi sifo sisasazeka ngokukhawuleza. Umthombo wayo wawuyimfihlakalo, kwaye kubuntatheli baseMelika busaphathwa ngoluhlobo unanamhla. Kodwa iPlum Island ibibambe ilabhoratri yemfazwe yentsholongwane apho urhulumente wase-US wazisa khona izazinzulu zangaphambili zamaNazi zentsholongwane ngeminyaka yoo-1940 ukuba zisebenze kwakulo msebenzi mnye wobubi komqeshi owahlukileyo. Oku kubandakanya intloko yenkqubo yemfazwe yamaNazi eyayisebenze ngokuthe ngqo kuHeinrich Himmler. KwisiQithi sePlum ezi nzulu-lwazi zihlala ziqhuba iimvavanyo zazo ngaphandle. Amadokhumenti arekhode ukuvavanywa kwangaphandle kunye neengqayi ezigulayo kwi-1950s. Ngaphandle kwendawo yangaphakathi, apho abathathi-nxaxheba bavuma ukuvavanya ngamagqabha, abazange batywinwe ngokuqinile. Uze uvavanye iilwanyana ezixutywe kunye nezilwanyana zasendle, vavanya iintaka kunye neentaka zasendle. Ngama-1990, ukuphela kwempuma ye-Long Island bekuyeyona nto ingakumbi kwi-Lyme isifo. Ukuba udwebe ingqungquthela ejikeleze indawo yehlabathi echaphazeleke kakhulu ngesifo seLyme, isikhulu saloo mbuthano kwakuyiPlum Island. (Siyabonga kuMichael Carroll kweli bali.)

 

UKUQALA ISIGABA II

NgoJulayi 23, 2002, Inkulumbuso yase-Bhritane u-Tony Blair wadibana nekhabhinethi yakhe endlwini yakhe, e-10 Downing Street. Imizuzu yathathwa eyayiza kupapashwa ngo-Meyi ka-2005. Intlola yase-Bhritane ephezulu uSir Richard Dearlove waye wabuya nje entlanganisweni nentloko ye-CIA uGeorge Tenet. NgokweMizuzu ye-Downing Street, ingxelo kaDevelove imi ngolu hlobo lulandelayo. “Kubekho utshintsho kwisimo sengqondo. Amanyathelo omkhosi ngoku abonwa engenakuphepheka. UBush wayefuna ukususa uSaddam, ngokwenza isenzo somkhosi, kulungiswe ngokudibana kobunqolobi kunye ne-WMD. Kodwa ubukrelekrele kunye nenyani zazilungiswa zijikeleze umgaqo-nkqubo. I-NSC yayingenamonde kwindlela ye-UN, kwaye yayingenamdla wokupapasha izinto ezikwirekhodi yolawulo lwase-Iraq. Kwakungekho ncoko ingako eWashington malunga nemva kwemfazwe. ” Olu xwebhu, aluzange luphikiswe ngurhulumente wase-Bhritane, kwaye kamva lwaqinisekiswa neminye imithombo yolwazi, lwabonisa ukuba kwiinyanga ezisibhozo ngaphambi kokuhlasela i-Iraq, i-United States yathatha isigqibo sokwenza njalo. Okokuqala, nangona kunjalo, kuya kuza iinyanga ezisibhozo zokuba bazama ukunqanda imfazwe ngelixa besenza konke okusemandleni ukuze kuqale imfazwe.

 

INGABE SINOKUBA SINOKUBA SINYE IINGCWADI ZETHU?

NgoJanuwari 31, 2003, kwiinyanga ezintandathu emva kwentlanganiso yesitalato i-Downing, uMongameli George W. Bush kunye ne-Nkulumbuso u-Tony Blair badibana e-White House. U-Bush wacebisa ukupeyinta iinqwelomoya zase-US ukuba zibukeke njengeenqwelomoya zeZizwe eziManyeneyo, kwaye ubhabhe phezu kwe-Iraq ngethemba lokuba bazakudutyulwa, ukuze baqale imfazwe. Akubhalwanga ukuba uBlair uphendule ntoni kolu luvo. Siyazi ukuba uBlair ukhuthaze uBush ukuba azame ukugunyazisa imfazwe yeZizwe eziManyeneyo. UBush uphendule wathi “I-US iyakubeka ubunzima bayo ngokupheleleyo kwimizamo yokufumana esinye isisombululo kwaye 'iya kugqwetha iingalo' kwaye 'ide isoyikise'. Kodwa kuye kwafuneka ukuba xa sisilele ekugqibeleni, umkhosi uzakulandela. ” U-Blair wayenza yacaca into yokuba uya kuhamba, esithi "uqinile noMongameli kwaye ukulungele ukwenza nantoni na enokuthintela uSaddam." UBush noBlair baphuma kunye baya kudibana neentatheli kunye neekhamera. Baqinisekisa amajelo eendaba ukuba basebenzela ukuthintela imfazwe. Ingqungquthela yeendaba inokujongwa kwi-YouTube, ngabantu abanezisu ezomeleleyo.

 

HLAWULI UKUVELA KWE-SPAIN

Ubunqolobi bamanye amazwe buhlala bugxile ngokupheleleyo kwizizwe ezibandakanyeka kwiimfazwe zangaphandle kunye nemisebenzi. Ngo-Matshi 11, 2004, iibhombu zeAl Qaeda zabulala abantu abali-191 eMadrid, eSpain, kanye phambi konyulo apho elinye iqela lalikhankasela ukuthatha inxaxheba kweSpain kwimfazwe eyayikhokelwa yi-Iraq e-Iraq. Abantu baseSpain bavotela oonontlalontle emandleni, kwaye bayisusa yonke imikhosi yaseSpain eIraq ngoMeyi. Kwakungasekho zibhombu. Le mbali ime ngokuchaseneyo ne-Bhritane, i-United States, kunye namanye amazwe athe aphendula ngokubuyela umva ngemfazwe engakumbi, avelisa ngakumbi ukubuyela umva. Ngokuqhelekileyo kuthathwa njengokungafanelekanga ukuthathela ingqalelo umzekelo waseSpain, kwaye amajelo eendaba aseMelika ade akhulisa umkhwa wokunika ingxelo ngale mbali eSpain ngokungathi kwenzeka okwahlukileyo koko kwenzekileyo.

 

UFANELE AKHE NABANTU ABAKHULU

UMongameli uBarack Obama wachaza ngokucacileyo ENew York Times Phambi konyulo lwesibini ngo-2012 wajonga uluhlu lwamadoda, abafazi nabantwana ngooLwezibini, ekhetha ukuba ngoobani ababulale ngemijukujelwa evela kwiidrones. Uxelwe-kwaye akazange aphikisane nengxelo-watsho ngeli phulo lokhetho kwakhona ukuba "ulunge kakhulu ukubulala abantu." Kwiiveki ezimbini emva kokubulala indoda egama linguAnwar al-Awlaki njengesohlwayo sezinto awayezibhale wathi, u-Obama wabulala unyana ka-Awlaki oneminyaka eli-16 ubudala waseMelika u-Abdulrahman al-Awlaki. Umcebisi omkhulu wephulo lika-Obama kunye nowayengunobhala we-White House e-White House u-Robert Gibbs, xa ebuzwa malunga nokubulawa, uphendule wathi u-Abdulrahman "bekufanele ukuba [ebenaye] utata onoxanduva."

 

MOLWENI EKUSENI. UKUBA WENZA IVILLAGE YAM.

Nge-23 ka-Epreli 2013, ikomitana ye-Senate Judiciary Committee ye-US yokuva ngeedrones yayingeyonto yakho yesiqhelo yokwenza amadlingozi kunye nokumemeza. Elinye ingqina yayingumfana osuka e-Yemen, indawo kaMongameli u-Obama "owayephumelele emfazweni." UFarea Al-Muslimi wayecwangciselwe ukuba anike ubungqina okwexeshana, kodwa -njengoko izinto zazisenzeka - nje phambi kokuba kuviwe idrone yaseMelika ihlasela ilali yakhe. U-Al-Muslimi uchaze iziphumo-zonke ezimbi kubantu belali, kubantu base-Yemen, nase-United States kunye nomsebenzi wayo wokuphelisa bonke abantu abangalunganga emhlabeni ngaphandle kokuguqula nabaphi na abantu abalungileyo ngokuchasene nayo. U-Al-Muslimi wanyanzelisa ukuba iidrones zase-US zenze okungakumbi ekwakheni inkxaso yabanqolobi e-Yemen kunokuba abo babenqolobi bebengaphupha ngokuzenzela ngokwabo. Ngapha koko, kwiminyaka eyalandelayo, imeko e-Yemen yawohloka ngendlela ehambelana nokuqwalaselwe ngu-Muslimi, kodwa hayi ngezithethi ze-White House. Elinye ingqina kwityala elinye, uprofesa wezomthetho ogama linguRosa Brooks, ucacisele aMalungu eCongress ukuba "ukubetha kwe-drone" kuyinxalenye yemfazwe, kulungile, kodwa ukuba abayonxalenye yemfazwe, ke bayabulala. Kodwa ekubeni iimemo ezithi "zisemthethweni" ukubetha kwe-drone ziyimfihlo, utshilo uBrooks, asazi nokuba zilungile okanye ziyabulala. Ngaphandle kokuthetha, akukho mntu umbuzileyo ukuba yintoni enokumisela ngokusemthethweni imfazwe.

 

OKWENZA IJAPAN IYI-MILITARISM

Umkhosi wase-US obeka umkhosi we-Kellogg-Briand Pact owalela umlo kumgaqo-siseko wase-Japan, kwaye urhulumente wase-US ngokukhawuleza waqala ukunyanzela iJapan ukuba iwaphule. IJapan yenqabile ukuthumela imikhosi kwiimfazwe zase-US e-Korea nase-Vietnam. IJapan yathatha ubunini boMgaqo-siseko. Ngo-2017, nangona kunjalo, iNkulumbuso yaseJapan yayizimisele "ukutolika kwakhona" ukuthintela imfazwe njengemvume yokwenza iimfazwe ngokungenamda. UMongameli wase-United States uyawuxhasa lo mzamo. Emva kwayo yonke loo nto, yintoni enokuhamba gwenxa?