IINQUBA ZINYE ZOMTHETHO

Ingongoma elula, kodwa ibalulekileyo, kunye neyayinakunakwa. Ingaba ucinga ukuba imfazwe ethile ilungile kwaye ilungile (kwaye ndiyathemba ukuba awusoze wacinga ukuba emva kokufunda izahluko ze-11 zangaphambili) inyaniso ihleli ukuba imfazwe ayikho mthethweni. Ukwenene ukukhusela ilizwe xa kuhlaselwa ngumthetho, kodwa oko kwenzeka kuphela xa elinye ilizwe liye lahlaselwa, kwaye akumele lisetyenziswe njengelungelo lokuxhoba imfazwe ebanzi engaqeshwanga ngokwenene.

Akufuneki ukuthetha, ingxabano yokuziphatha enamandla ingenziwa ukukhetha umgaqo womthetho kumthetho wabalawuli. Ukuba abo bamandla banokwenza into abayithandayo, abaninzi bethu abayithandi into abayenzayo. Eminye imithetho ayilunganga ukuba xa ihlawulwa kubantu abaqhelekileyo, kufuneka iphulwe. Kodwa ukuvumela abo baphethe urhulumente ngobundlobongela obukhulu kunye nokubulala ngokuchasene nomthetho kukugweba zonke iintlwengulo ezincinci, kuba akukho kusetyenziswa kakubi kakubi. Kuyaqondakala ukuba abaxhasi bemfazwe baya kunqanda okanye "baphinde baphendule" umthetho ngaphandle kokutshintsha ngokufanelekileyo umgaqo ngokusebenzisa inkqubo yowiso-mthetho, kodwa akusikhuseli ngokuziphatha.

Kwimiba emininzi yase-US, kwakucetyiswa ukuba abemi bakwazi ukukholelwa, kwaye bavame ukukholelwa, ukuba uMthetho-siseko wase-United States wawuvimbele imfazwe enobudlova. Njengoko sibonile kwisahluko ezimbini, iCongress yamemezela i-1846-1848 War kwiMexico ukuba "yayingekho mfuneko kwaye ayihambisani nomgaqo-siseko ngokuqalwa ngumongameli waseUnited States." ICongress yayikhuphe isimemezelo semfazwe, kodwa kamva yayikholelwa ukuba umongameli wayebaxokise . (UMongameli uTolrow Wilson uza kuthumela imikhosi ekulweni neMexico ngaphandle kokubhengezwa.) Akubonakali kukuxoka kweCongress njengento engekho mthethweni kwi-1840s, kodwa kunoko ukuqaliswa kwemfazwe engeyomfuneko okanye imfazwe.

Njengommeli-jikelele uGeneral Lord Peter Goldsmith waxwayisa uNkulumbuso waseBrithani uTony Blair ngo-Matshi 2003, "Ukunyanzelwa komthetho kulwaphulo mthetho phantsi komthetho wesizwe wamazwe owenza ngokuzenzekelayo inxalenye yomthetho wasekhaya," ngoko ke, "ulwaphulo-mthetho lwasemhlabeni lulwaphulo-mthetho oluqatshelwa ngumthetho oqhelekileyo ukutshutshiswa kwiinkantolo zase-UK. "Umthetho wase-US usuquke kumthetho oqhelekileyo wesiNgesi, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States iyaqaphela iziganeko kunye nezithethe ezisekelwe kulo. Umthetho wase-US kwi-1840 yayisondele kwiingcambu zawo kwisiqhelo esivamile saseNgesi kunomthetho wase-US namhlanje, kunye nomthetho osemthethweni wawungaphantsi kophuhliso ngokubanzi, ngoko kwakungokwemvelo ukuba iCongress ithathe isikhundla sokuqalisa imfazwe engadingekanga yayingekho mthethweni ngaphandle kokufuna ukuba ngakumbi.

Enyanisweni, ngaphambi kokunika iCongress igunya elilodwa lokuvakalisa imfazwe, uMgaqo-siseko unikezela iCongress amandla oku "kuchaza nokuhlwaya iPracies kunye namaFeloni azinikele kwiiLwandle eziPhakamileyo, kunye nezoTyala ezichasene noMthetho weZizwe". kubonakala kubonisa ukuba iUnited States yayilindeleke ukuba ilandele "uMthetho weZizwe." Kwi-1840, akukho nxalenye yeCongress yayiya kuba neengxaki zokubonisa ukuba iUnited States yayingekho ngokwayo iboshwe "nguMthetho weZizwe." Ngelo xesha kwimbali, oko kwakuthetha umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, apho ukuqaliswa kwemfazwe enobudlova bekude kuthatyathwa njengecala elibi kakhulu.

Ngethamsanqa, ngoku ukuba sinesivumelwano esinxamnye nemibutho eyahlukeneyo esichasayo ngokucacileyo imfazwe enobudlova, asisadingeki ukuba siqaphele oko uMgaqo-siseko wase-US uthi ngemfazwe. Isiqendu VI soMthetho-siseko sichaza ngoku:

"Lo mGaqo-siseko, kunye neMithetho ye-United States eya kwenziwa ngoKuququzelela; kunye nayo yonke imisebenzi eyenziweyo, okanye iya kwenziwa, phantsi kweGunya le-United States, iya kuba nguMthetho ophezulu weMhlaba; kunye nabaGwebi kuwo onke amazwe baya kubotshwa kuyo, nayiphi na into eYiMgaqo-siseko okanye iMithetho yeliphi na iRhulumente kwiNkcenkcesho ngaphandle kwayo. "[italics yongezwa]

Ngoko, ukuba iUnited States yayiza kwenza umnqophiso owawuvimbela imfazwe, imfazwe yayingekho mthethweni phantsi komthetho ophakamileyo welizwe. I-United States yenzeni oku, ubuncinane kabini, kwizivumelwano eziseleyo namhlanje njengenxalenye yomthetho wethu ophezulu: iKellogg-Briand Pact kunye neMqulu weZizwe eziManyeneyo.

Icandelo: SIQHUBILE NONKE INKONZO KWI1928

Kwi-1928, iNtetho yeSenate yaseUnited States, elo liziko elikuloo mihla linokufumana iipesenti ezintathu zamalungu ayo ukuvota ngokuxhaswa ngemali yokunyuka kwemfazwe okanye ukuqhubeka, kuvotelwe i-85 ku-1 ukubopha iUnited States kwisivumelwano apho eboshwe kwaye "siyakugweba ukubuyela kwimfazwe isisombululo seengxabano zamazwe ngamazwe, kwaye siyilahle, njengesixhobo somgaqo-nkqubo welizwe kwiimeko [zethu] kunye" nezinye iintlanga. Le yiKellogg-Briand Pact. Iyalulahla kwaye ilahla yonke imfazwe. UNobhala welizwe wase-United States, uFrank Kellogg, walahla isiphakamiso saseFransi sokunciphisa ukuvinjelwa kwiimfazwe zobudlova. Wabhalela i-ambassador yesiFrentshi ukuba ukuba isivumelwano,

". . . behamba kunye neenkcazo zegama elithi 'ulwabizo' kunye namazwi kunye neziqinisekiso ezichaza xa iintlanga ziza kulungelelwa ukulwa nemfazwe, isiphumo saso sinobuthathaka kakhulu kwaye ixabiso layo elifanelekileyo liqiniseke ngokuqinisekileyo koxolo lokutshatyalaliswa. "

Umnqophiso wasayinwa kunye nokuvinjelwa kwawo yonke imfazwe ifakiwe, kwaye yavunyelwana yiintlanga ezininzi. U-Kellogg wanikezwa i-Nobel Peace Prize kwi-1929, ibhaso eliye laphendulwa yilo elidlulileyo kwi-Theodore Roosevelt noWolrow Wilson.

Nangona kunjalo, xa iSeti yaseUnited States ivumelanise umnqophiso, yongezelela ezimbini zokugcina. Okokuqala, iUnited States yayingeke iyanyanzelekile ukuba iminyanzelo ngokubamba inxaxheba kulabo abaphulaphule. Efanelekileyo. Ukuthi ga, kuhle. Ukuba imfazwe ivaliwe, akunakwenzeka ukuba isizwe singacelwa ukuba siye empini ukunyanzelisa ukuvalwa. Kodwa iindlela zakudala zokucinga zifa nzima, kwaye ukuphindaphinda kunzima kakhulu kunokuba kuchithe igazi.

Noko ke, ukugcinwa kwesibini kukuba, umnqophiso kufuneka ungaphuli ilungelo leMelika lokuzikhusela. Ngoko, apho, imfazwe yahlala inyawo emnyango. Ilungelo lomdabu lokuzikhusela xa lihlaselwa ligcinwe, kwaye kwakhiwa umda onokuthi kwaye unokwandiswa ngokungenangqiqo.

Xa kukho nawuphi na uhlaselo oluza kuhlaselwa, luya kuzikhusela, lukhuni okanye lenye. Ingozi ngokubeka loo mthethweni kumthetho kukuba, njengokuba uKellogg ebonwa ngaphambili, ukunyanzeliswa kwengcamango yokuba imfazwe ayikho mthethweni. Ingxabano ingenziwa ngenxaxheba kwe-US kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II phantsi kwesi sigqibo, umzekelo, ngokusekelwe ekuhlaselweni kweJapan kwiPearl Harbor, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ukuxhatshazwa nokuthanda ukuba kuhlaselwa njani. Imfazwe neJamani ingaxhomekeka ngokuhlaselwa kweJapan, ngokunjalo ukululalwa kwangaphambili kwendawo. Nangona kunjalo, iimfazwe zobundlobongela - yiloo nto esiyibonile kwizahluko eziphambili kwiimfazwe ezininzi zase-US ukuba ziye zazingekho mthethweni e-United States ukususela kwi-1928.

Ukongeza, kwi-1945, iUnited States yaba ngumbutho kwi-Charter United Nations, ehlala isasebenza nanamhlanje njengengxenye "yomthetho ophakamileyo welizwe." I-United States yayisishukumisela ukudala indalo ye-UN Charter. Iquka le miqolo:

"Onke Amalungu aya kulungisa iingxabano zabo ngamazwe ngamaxolo anokuthula ngendlela enokuthi uxolo kunye nokhuseleko lwamazwe ngamazwe, alungelanga.

"Wonke amalungu aya kugxininisa ubudlelwane bawo bamazwe ngamazwe besongelo okanye ukusetyenziswa kwamandla kummandla wokuzimela okanye ukuzimela kwezopolitiko kwanoma yiphina imeko, okanye nayiphi na enye indlela engavumelani neMigomo yeZizwe eziManyeneyo."

Oku kuza kubonakala ngathi yi-Kellogg-Briand Pact entsha kunye neyona ndlela yokuqala yokuzama ukudala umbutho wokunyanzelisa. Kwaye kunjalo. Kodwa i-Charter yeZizwe eziManyeneyo iqulethe ezimbini ngaphandle kokuvinjelwa kwemfazwe. Okokuqala kukuzikhusela. Nayi inxalenye yeSiqendu 51:

"Akukho nto kwi-Charter yangoku iya kuphazamisa ilungelo elizimeleyo lokuzikhusela okanye ukuzikhusela ngokubambisana (sic) ukuba ukuhlaselwa okuxhobileyo kuvela kwiLungu leZizwe eziManyeneyo, de kube iBhunga lezoKhuseleko lichithe amanyathelo afunekayo ukuze kugcinwe uxolo kunye nokhuseleko lwamazwe ngamazwe."

Ngenxa yoko, i-Charter ye-UN iqulethe inqobo yelungelo elincinci nelincinci ukuba iSenate yase-US iqhotyoshelwe kwi-Kellogg-Briand Pact. Yongeza enye. I-Charter icacisa ukuba iBhunga lezoKhuseleko lwe-UN lingakhetha ukugunyazisa ukusebenzisa amandla. Oku kunciphisa ngakumbi ukuqonda ukuba imfazwe ayikho mthethweni, ngokwenza iimfazwe ezithile zomthetho. Eminye imfazwe, ngokokuqala, ichanekile ngamabango okusemthethweni. Abaqulunqi be-2003 ukuhlasela e-Iraq bathi babegunyazwe yiZizwe eziManyeneyo, nangona iZizwe eziManyeneyo zingavumelani.

IBhunga lezoKhuseleko lwe-UN ligunyaze iMfazwe yaseKorea, kodwa ngenxa yokuba i-USSR yayingumfana weCandelo loKhuseleko ngelo xesha kunye neChina yayimelwe nguRhulumente waseKuomintang eTaiwan. Amagunya aseNtshona awakhusela i-ambassador yombuso omtsha waseTshayina ukususa isihlalo saseTshayina njengelungu elisigxina leBhunga lezoKhuseleko, kwaye amaRashiya ayengumfana onqumle iBhunga. Ukuba ama-Soviet kunye nabaseTshayina bebekhona, akukho ndlela i-United Nations eyayingayenza ngayo inxaxheba kwimfazwe ekugqibeleni yayitshabalalisa ininzi yaseKorea.

Kuyacaca ukuba kuyacaca ukuba wenze izinto ngaphandle kwemfazwe yokuzikhusela. Awukwazi ukuxelela abantu abenqatshelwe ukulwa emva kokuhlaselwa. Kuthekani kuthi xa behlaselwa iminyaka okanye amashumi eminyaka kwangaphambili kwaye baye bahlala phantsi kwamandla angaphandle okanye kwamakholoni ngokumelene nentando yabo, nangona kungekho gonyamelo lwakutsha nje? Abaninzi bacinga ukuba iimfazwe zokukhululwa kwelizwe ziyakwandisa ngokomthetho ilungelo lokuzikhusela. Abantu base-Iraq okanye i-Afghanistan abalahlekelwa ilungelo labo lokulwa emva kokuhamba iminyaka eyaneleyo, ngaba? Kodwa isizwe esinokuthula asikwazi ngokusemthethweni ukutshatyalaliswa kweeminyaka-engamawaka okanye izikhalazo zobuhlanga njengezizathu zokulwa. Iintlanga ezininzi apho amabutho ase-US asele ngoku akwazi ukubethelela ngokusemthethweni iWashington. Ubandlululo kunye noJim Crow babengesizathu sokulwa. Ukungabi nonyango akusebenzi nje kuphela ukulungisa ukungekho sikweni; Kwakhona kuphela okukhethwa ngumthetho. Abantu abakwazi 'ukuzikhusela' ngemfazwe nanini na bafuna.

Oko abantu abakwenzayo ukulwa emva kokuhlaselwa okanye ukuhlala. Njengoko unokwenzeka, kutheni ungeke wenze okungafaniyo - njenge-Charter ye-UN - ukukhusela kwamanye amazwe, amancinci angakwazi ukuzimela? Emva koko, iUnited States yazikhulula eNgilani ixesha elide elidlulileyo, kwaye indlela kuphela yokusebenzisa le ngqiqo njengesizathu semfazwe ukuba "inkululeko" kwamanye amazwe ngokubhukuqa abalawuli babo nokuhlala kwabo. Ingcamango yokukhusela abanye ibonakala inengqiqo, kodwa - njengokuba uKellogg wabikezela - iindawo ezidibeneyo zikhokelela ekudidekeni nasekudidekeni kukuvumela ukuba kubekho ukukhululeka kunye nokukhulu kumgaqo kude kube yinto efikelelwa ngayo apho ingcamango yokuba ulawulo lukho konke kubonakala luhle.

Kwaye kunjalo. Umgaqo wukuthi imfazwe yinto yolwaphulo-mthetho. Kukho iminyango emincinci emfutshane kwi-Charter ye-UN, kwaye kulula ukubonisa ukuba nayiphi imfazwe ethile ayihlangabezananga nayiphi na imida.

Ngo-Agasti 31, 2010, xa uMongameli uBarack Obama wayecwangciselwe ukunika intetho malunga neMfazwe e-Iraq, i-blogger uJuan Cole yakha intetho ayicinga ukuba umongameli angathanda, kodwa ngokuqinisekileyo akazange anikwe:

"Amanye amazwe aseMerika, kunye nama-Iraqi ababukele le ntetho, ndize apha kulobu busuku ukuba ndingabonakali ukunqoba okanye ukulila ukulwayisa empini, kodwa ukuxolisa kwi-intliziyo yam ngentlanzana yezenzo ezingekho mthethweni kunye nokungaqondi kakuhle imigaqo elandelwa nguRhulumente waseUnited States of America, ngokuchasene nomthetho wasekhaya wase-US, izibophelelo zomhlaba wamazwe ngamazwe, kunye nombono we-America kunye ne-Iraq.

"IZizwe eziManyeneyo zenziwe kwi-1945 ekupheleni kweemfazwe ezinobundlobongela kunye nokuphendula kwabo, apho abantu abangaphezu kwezigidi ze-60 bafa. Injongo yalo kwakukunqanda ukuhlaselwa okunjalo okungekho sikweni, kwaye umqulu wayo wachaza ukuba kwiimfazwe ezizayo ziza kuqaliswa kuphela ngezizathu ezimbini. Omnye ukuzikhusela ngokucacileyo, xa ilizwe lihlaselwe. Esinye sinokugunyazwa kweBhunga lezoKhuseleko lweZizwe eziManyeneyo.

"Kungenxa yokuba ukuhlaselwa kweFransi, eBrithani kunye ne-Israel eYiputa kwi-1956 kwaphula le migaqo yoMqulu weZizwe eziManyeneyo ukuba uMongameli uDwight D. Eisenhower wagwebile loo nto kwaye wabanyanzelisa ukuba i-belligerents ihoxise. Xa u-Israyeli ekhangeleka ngathi ingazama ukuxhoma kwiimpembelelo ezifunyenwe kakubi, i-Peninsula yaseSinayi, uMongameli u-Eisenhower wabukela kumabonwakude ngoFebruwari 21, 1957, kwaye wayethetha nalo hlanga. La magama sele ekhutshiwe kwaye ekhohliwe eUnited States namhlanje, kodwa kufuneka ajikeleze kwimashumi eminyaka kunye neenkulungwane:

"'Ukuba iZizwe eziManyeneyo sele zivuma ukuba ingxabano yamazwe ngamazwe inokulungiswa ngokusebenzisa amandla, ngoko siya kutshabalalisa isiseko sentlangano, kunye nethemba lethu elihle lokuseka umyalelo wenhlabathi. Oko kuya kuba yintlekele kuthi sonke. . . . [Ngokubhekiselele kwimimiselo ye-Israel ukuba imimiselo ethile idibene phambi kokuba ilahle iSinayi, umongameli wathi] "ayiyi kuba yinyaniso kwimigangatho ye-ofisi ephakamileyo endikhethile ukuba ndiza kuboleka i-United States kwisiphakamiso sokuba isizwe esihlasele omnye kufuneka sivumeleke ukuba sichaze imimiselo yokurhoxiswa. . . . '

"'Ukuba [iBhunga loKhuseleko loMbutho weZizwe eziManyeneyo] alenzi nto, ukuba livuma ukungayithobeli iinqunto zayo eziphindaphindiweyo ezibiza ukurhoxiswa kwemikhosi ehlaselekileyo, ngoko kuya kuvunywa ukungaphumeleli. Ukuba ukungaphumeleli kuya kuba yintlungu kwigunya kunye nempembelelo yeZizwe eziManyeneyo kwihlabathi kunye nethemba elithatyathwe ngumntu kwiZizwe eziManyeneyo njengeendlela zokwenza uxolo kunye nobulungisa. "

U-Eisenhower wayebhekisa kwisehlo esaqala xa i-Egypt yabeka ilizwe iSuez Canal; USirayeli waphendula ngokuhlasela iYiputa. I-Bhritane ne-France bazenza ngathi bangenelela njengamanye amaqela achaphazelekayo ukuba impikiswano yase-Egypt-Israeli inokubeka emngciphekweni indlela yasimahla yokuhamba ngomjelo. Ngokwenyani, u-Israyeli, i-France, ne-Bhritane bebecwangcise ukuhlasela i-Egypt kunye, bonke bevuma ukuba u-Israyeli uzakuhlasela kuqala, ezinye izizwe ezimbini zadibana kamva zizenza ngathi zizama ukunqanda umlo. Oku kubonisa isidingo somzimba wamazwe ongakhethi ngokwenene (into iZizwe eziManyeneyo ezingazange zibe yiyo kodwa ngenye imini zinokuba njalo) kunye nemfuno yokuthintelwa ngokupheleleyo emfazweni. Kwingxaki yeSuez, umthetho wawunyanzeliswa ngenxa yokuba oyena mntwana ubalaseleyo kwibloko wayethambekele ekuwunyanzeliseni. Xa kufikwa ekubhukuqeni oorhulumente eIran naseGuatemala, besuka kwiimfazwe ezinkulu besiya kwimisebenzi eyimfihlo njengoko u-Obama wayeza kwenza, uMongameli u-Eisenhower ubambe umbono owahlukileyo wexabiso lokunyanzeliswa komthetho. Xa kufikwa kuhlaselo lwase-Iraq e-Iraq ngo-2003, u-Obama wayengekho malunga nokuvuma ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho kufuneka lubethwe.

Isicwangciso seSizwe soKhuseleko esipapashwe yiNdlu ye-White House ngo-Meyi 2010 yathi:

"Amandla amaxesha, ngamanye amaxesha, kunokufuneka ukuba alondoloze ilizwe lethu kunye namaqabane okanye ukulondoloza uxolo kunye nokukhuseleko olubanzi, kubandakanya ngokukhusela abantu abahlala bejongene neengxaki ezinzulu zoluntu. . . . I-United States kufuneka igcine ilungelo lokuthatha unilaterally ukuba kuyimfuneko ukukhusela isizwe sethu kunye neminqweno yethu, kodwa siyafuna ukulandela imilinganiselo elawula ukusetyenziswa kwamandla. "

Zama ukuxelela amapolisa asekuhlaleni ukuba ungasondela ngokukhawuleza kobugebengu obundlobongela, kodwa ukuba uya kufuna ukunamathela kwimigangatho elawula ukusetyenziswa kwamandla.

Icandelo: SIQONDELELE IZIKHONDO ZEMVUMBA KWI-1945

Amanye amabini amaxwebhu abalulekileyo, omnye ukusuka kwi-1945 kunye nomnye ukusuka kwi-1946, iimfazwe eziphathekayo ezinobundlobongela. Iyokuqala yayingumqulu we-International Military Tribunal e-Nuremberg, isikhungo esasizama iinkokheli zemfazwe yamaNazi ngenxa yobugebengu babo. Phakathi kwezopolitiko ezichazwe kwi-charter kwakukho "ulwaphulaphulo olubhekiselele kuxolo," "ulwaphulo-mthetho," kunye "nolwaphulo-mthetho olujongene noluntu." Izigwenxa "malunga nokuthula" zachazwa ngokuthi "ukucwangcisa, ukulungiswa, ukuqaliswa okanye ukulwa nemfazwe yobundlobongela, okanye imfazwe ngokuchasene nezivumelwano zamazwe ngamazwe, izivumelwano okanye iziqinisekiso, okanye ukuthatha inxaxheba kwisicwangciso esifanayo okanye iqhinga lokufezekisa naluphi na olukhankanywe apha. "Ngomnyaka ozayo, uMqulu we-International Military Tribunal kwiMpuma Ekude (ilingo leMfazwe yaseJapan izigebengu) zisetyenzisile enye incazelo. Ezi zixhobo ezimbini zezilingo zifanelwe kakhulu ukugxeka, kodwa kuninzi indumiso ngokunjalo.

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, baxhotyisela ubulungisa babanqobi. Baye baphuma kwintlu yezobugqwetha ngamatyala athile, njengobhobholo lwabahlali, apho ababambene nabo babebandakanye khona. Kwaye bahluleka ukutshutshisa abadibeneyo ngenxa yolunye ulwaphulo-mthetho olwenziwa ngamaJamani kunye namaJapan kwaye axhonyelwa. US General Curtis LeMay, owawisela umthetho wokutshabalalisa umlilo waseTokyo, wathi "Ndiyicinga ukuba ndilahlekelwe yimfazwe, ndiza kuvivinywa njengecala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Ngethamsanqa, sasisecaleni lokuphumelela. "

Izinkundla zamatyala zazibanga ukuba ziqale ukutshutshisa phezulu, kodwa zanika uMlawuli waseJapan ukhuseleko. I-United States yanika ukhuseleko kwizazinzulu zamaNazi ezingaphezu kwe-1,000 XNUMX, kubandakanya nabanye ababenetyala lolona loyikiso lukhulu, bazisa e-United States ukuze baqhubeke nophando lwabo. Jikelele u-Douglas MacArthur wanika i-Microbiologist yase-Japan kunye no-lieutenant jikelele u-Shiro Ishii kunye nawo onke amalungu e-bacteriological research units ukukhuselwa kwe-germ yemfazwe yedatha ethathwe kulingo lomntu. I-Bhritane yafunda kulwaphulo-mthetho lwaseJamani ababetshutshisa ukuba bangazenza njani iinkampu zoxinaniso eKenya. AmaFrentshi afumana amawaka ama-SS kunye neminye imikhosi yaseJamani kwiLegion Yangaphandle, kangangokuba isiqingatha semikhosi yamajoni awayesilwa imfazwe yobukoloniyali eFrance e-Indochina yayingengomnye ngaphandle kwezona ntsalela zomeleleyo zoMkhosi waseJamani kwiMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, kunye neendlela zokungcungcuthekisa. amaGestapo aseJamani ayesetyenziswa kakhulu kumabanjwa aseFrance kwimfazwe yenkululeko yaseAlgeria. I-United States, ikwasebenza namaNazi angaphambili, yasasaza ubuchule obufanayo kulo lonke elaseLatin America. Emva kokubulala amaNazi ngokuvula iidik ekukhukuliseni umhlaba wasefama waseDatshi, iUnited States yaqhubeka nokuqhushumba amadama eKorea naseVietnam ngenjongo enye.

Imfazwe yombutho kunye nomlobi we-Atlantic Monthly uEdgar L. Jones wabuya kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II, kwaye wayethuthuka xa efumanisa ukuba abantu abavela ekhaya bacinga kakhulu ngemfazwe. U-Jones wabhala wathi: "Ndiyathandabuza ukuba abaninzi bethu babecinga ukuba abantu basekhaya baqala ukucwangcisa imfazwe eyalandelayo ngaphambi kokuba siye ekhaya size sithethe ngaphandle kokucatshulwa ngale nto." UJones wavuma uhlobo lobuzenzisi oluye lwaqhuba izilingo zolwaphulo-mthetho:

"Akusiyo onke amajoni aseMerika, okanye enye ipesenti yemikhosi yethu, ngokuzibophelela wenza ubunyango obungenakufaneleka, kwaye kungathiwa ngamaJamani kunye namaJapan. Iimfuno zeemfazwe zazifuneka ezininzi ezininzi ezibizwa ngokuba yizophulo-mthetho, kwaye ubuninzi babo bonke bangabanjwa ekuphazamiseni kwengqondo eyayiveliswa yimfazwe. Kodwa sazisa yonke into eyenziwa ngabanye abachasene nabo kwaye sivavanyelwe nayiphi na indlela yokuqaphela ukukhubazeka kwethu kokuziphatha ngexesha lokuphelelwa lithemba.

"Ndicele abantu balwa, umzekelo, kutheni-okanye ngokwenene, kutheni thina-abalawulwa ngabangatshabalalisi ngendlela enokuthi bajonge umlilo, ukuba bafe ngokukhawuleza nangentlungu, kunokuba babulawe ngokugqithiseleyo ngokutsha ioli. Ngaba ngaba beyithiyile intshaba ngokucokisekileyo? Impendulo yayingaphenduliyo, 'Hayi, asibazithiyo abo bahluphekileyo bastards ngokukodwa; Siyayithiya yonke into engcolileyo kwaye kufuneka siyikhuphe umntu. Mhlawumbi ngenxa yezizathu ezifanayo, senza izidumbu zabadlali ababethe, siphula iindlebe zabo kwaye sibagxotha amazinyo abo egolide ukuze sibabingelele, size siwafake ngamathambo abo emilonyeni yabo, kodwa ukuphulwa okungafaniyo kwazo zonke iikhowudi zokuziphatha kufinyelele kwi-non-explored iinjongo zokulwa kwengqondo. "

Ngakolunye uhlangothi, kukho into eninzi yokudumisa kwizilingo zamagosa aseNazi naseJapan. Ubuqhetseba abuhambisani, ngokuqinisekileyo kukhethwa ukuba ezinye izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho zihlwaywe ngaphandle kokunye. Abantu abaninzi banqwenela ukuba izilingo zenze isiqhelo esiya kuthi sagxininiswe ngokufanayo kuzo zonke izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho. Umtshutshisi oyintloko e-Nuremberg, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-US uRobert H. Jackson, wathi kwingxelo yakhe yokuvula:

“Ingqondo yoluntu jikelele ifuna ukuba umthetho ungapheleli ukohlwaya amatyala amancinci abantu abancinci. Kuya kufuneka ifikelele nakubantu abanamandla amakhulu kwaye bayisebenzise ngabom nangokuzimanya ukuze basuse ububi obungashiyanga khaya kwihlabathi lingafundwanga. Umnqophiso wale Nkundla uqinisekisa inkolelo yokuba umthetho awupheleli nje ekulawuleni indlela yokuziphatha kwamadoda amancinci, kodwa nokuba abalawuli banjengoko iNkosi eyiJaji eyiNtloko uCoke yayibeka kuKing James, 'phantsi komthetho.' Kwaye mandiyicacise into yokuba lo mthetho usetyenziswa okokuqala ngokuchasene nabahlaseli baseJamani, umthetho ubandakanya, kwaye ukuba uza kusebenza ngenjongo efanelekileyo kufuneka ugwebe ubundlongondlongo naziphi na ezinye izizwe, kubandakanya nezo zihlala apha ngoku zigweba.

Inkundla yagqiba ukuba imfazwe enobudlova "ayikho nje ulwaphulo-mthetho lwamazwe ngamazwe; yinto elwaphulo-mthetho yamazwe ngamazwe, eyahlukana kuphela nakwezinye iintyala zolwaphulo-mthetho kuba ziqulethelwa ububi buphela kulo lonke. "Inkundla yazama ukutshutshisa ubugebengu obuphezulu kakhulu obuninzi kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho oluncinci olulandelayo.

Ilungelo lobulungisa belizwe lonke kwizenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho lungazange lwenzeke, kunjalo. IKomiti yeeNkundla zeeNkundla zase-United States yayiquka inkohlakalo yokulwa noMongameli uRichard Nixon ngokuyalela i-bombing secret and invasion of Cambodia kwiimibhalo zayo eziqulunqileyo zokuphambuka. Kunokuba zibandakanye ezo ntlawulo kwiinguqu zokugqibela, kunjalo, iKomiti inqume ukugxininisa ngakumbi kwi-Watergate, i-wire tapping, kunye nehlazo leCongress.

Kwi-1980 yaseNicaragua inqabile kwiNkundla yezoBulungisa yeZizwe ngezizwe (ICJ). Le nkundla yayigweba ukuba i-United States yayilungiselele iqela elivukelekileyo, iContras, kunye namachweba eNicaragua. Ifumene ezo zenzo ukuba zenze ulwaphulo lwamazwe ngamazwe. I-United States ivimbele ukuthotyelwa komgwebo weZizwe eziManyeneyo kwaye ngaloo ndlela yathintela iNicaragua ukuba ifumane nayiphi na intlawulo. I-United States yabuya ephuma kummandla obopheleleyo we-ICJ, enethemba lokuqinisekisa ukuba akukho nto izenzo zase-US ziya kuthotyelwa kwisigwebo somzimba ongakhethiyo onokulawula ngokusemthethweni ngokusemthethweni okanye ngokuphula umthetho.

Kutshanje, iZizwe eziManyeneyo zenze iinqununu zaseYugoslavia kunye neRwanda, kunye neenkundla ezikhethekileyo eSierra Leone, eLebhanon, eCambodia naseMpuma Timor. Ukususela ngo-2002, iNkundla yamaZwe ePhathelene neNkundla (ICC) iqhubekele ulwaphulo-mthetho lwezobukhosi ngabaholi bamazwe amancinci. Kodwa ulwaphulo-mthetho lugqithise njengento ephakamileyo kwiminyaka emininzi ngaphandle kokuhlwaywa. Xa i-Iraq ihlasela i-Kuwait, iUnited States yaxosha i-Iraq kwaye yayijezisa kakhulu, kodwa xa i-United States ihlasela i-Iraq, kwakungekho namandla angenelela ukungena kunye nokuhlaziya ubugebengu.

Kwi-2010, nangona kukho inkcaso ye-US, i-ICC yamisela igunya layo kwizenzo zobugebengu ezizayo. Yiziphi iintlobo zamatyala eziya kwenza njalo, kwaye ngokukodwa ukuba uya kuhamba emva kweentlanga ezinamandla ezingazange zijoyine ii-ICC, iintlanga ezithatha amandla okuvota kwiZizwe eziManyeneyo, zihlala zibonakala. Uninzi lwezobugebengu obundlobongela, ngaphandle kobugqwetha obundlobongelayo, kwiminyaka yamuva yenziwe yi-United States e-Iraq, e-Afghanistan nakwezinye iindawo, kodwa ezo nxaxhiso azange zitshutshise yi-ICC.

Kwi-2009, inkundla yase-Italiya yagweba i-23 yaseMelika ngokungabikho komsebenzi, ininzi yabaqeshwa be-CIA, ngenxa yeendima zabo ekuthinjeni indoda e-Italy baze bayithumele eYiputa ukuba bathuthunyiswe. Ngaphantsi komgaqo wegunya lokuphela kwezobugebengu obuninzi kakhulu, owamkelwa kwinani elikhulayo lamazwe ehlabathini lonke, inkundla yaseSpeyin igxeke umtyholi waseChile u-Augusto Pinochet kunye no-9-11 umsolwa u-Osama bin Laden. Inkundla efanayo yaseSpain yazama ukutshutshisa amalungu eBeorge W. Bush ukulwa nobugebengu bezolwaphulo, kodwa iSpain yaxinzezelwa ngempumelelo ngu-Obama ukubeka phantsi ityala. Kwi-2010, ijaji elibandakanyekayo, uBaltasar Garzón, wasuswa kwindawo yakhe ngenxa yokuxhaphaza igunya lakhe ngokuphanda ngokubulawa okanye ukusabalalisa kwabahlali be-100,000 ezandleni zabaxhasayo ba-Gen. Francisco Franco ngexesha le-1936-39 yaseSpeyin War War kunye kwiminyaka yokuqala yolawulo lolawulo lwamaFranco.

Kwi-2003, igqwetha laseBelgium lafaka isikhalazo ku-Gen. Tommy R. Franks, intloko ye-US Central Command, ekubhekiselele kulwaphulo-mthetho lwe-Iraq e-Iraq. I-United States isongela ngokukhawuleza ukuhambisa ikomkhulu le-NATO ephuma eBelgium ukuba olo hlanga aluzange lucime umthetho walo uvumela izilingo zolwaphulo-mthetho lwangaphandle. Iintlawulo ezifakwe kumagosa ase-US nakwezinye iintlanga zaseYurophu ziye zahluleka ukuya etilingo. Izikhwama zombuso ezilethwe e-United States ngamaxhoba okuhlushwa kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho lwezemfazwe luye lwachasene namabango avela kwiSebe lezoBulungisa (phantsi kolawulo lukaMongameli waseBush no-Obama) ukuba naziphi na izilingo ezinokubangela ukongamela ukhuseleko lwesizwe. NgoSeptemba 2010, iNkundla yesiTye yeSibheno seNkqutyana, ivumelana naloo mabango, ikhuphe ngaphandle kwimeko eyayifakwe kuJeppesen Dataplan Inc., incediso yeBoing, ngenxaxheba yalo "ekuguquleleni" amabanjwa kumazwe apho bahlushwa khona.

Kwi-2005 kunye ne-2006 ngelixa iRiphabhliki ithathe ininzi kwiCongress, amalungu eDemocratic Congress aholwa nguJohn Conyers (Mich.), UBarbara Lee (Calif.), Kunye noDennis Kucinich (Ohio) bathatha nzima ukuphanda malunga nobuxoki obuye baqalisa uxolo e-Iraq. Kodwa ukususela kwixesha le-Democrats ethatha ininzi ngoJanuwari 2007 ukuya kutshatyalali okwangoku, akukho nto ikhankanywe ngayo ngolu hlobo, ngaphandle kwekomiti yeSenate ukukhululwa kwengxelo yexesha elide elilibazisekile.

EBritani, ngokuphambene, kuye kwaba "nemibuzo" engapheliyo ngokuqala ixesha "izixhobo zokubhubhisa ubuninzi" azifunyanwanga, ziqhubeka zikhoyo, kwaye mhlawumbi ziya kwandisa kwikamva elibonakalayo. Ezi zophando ziphelelwe kwaye kwiimeko ezininzi zichaneka ngokuchanekileyo njengezihlambulu. Abazange bathathe inxaxheba ekutshutshiseni ubugebengu. Kodwa ubuncinci baye bayenzeka ngokwenene. Kwaye abo bathetha okuncinci baye batyiswa kwaye bakhuthazwa ukuba bathethe okungaphezulu. Le mozulu ivelise zonke iincwadi, i-treasure trove yamaphepha aqhotyoshelweyo kunye nama-declassified documents, kunye nokunyanzelisa ubungqina bomlomo. Kwakhona ibone iBrithani idonsa imikhosi yayo e-Iraq. Ngokwahlukileyo, ngo-2010 eWashington, kwakuqhelekileyo kumagosa akhethiweyo ukuba adumise i-2007 "ukunyuka" kwaye afunge ukuba ayazi ukuba i-Iraq yayiya kuba "yimfazwe emihle" yonke imihla. Ngokufanayo, iBrithani kunye namanye amazwe aphandle ukuphanda indima e-United States yokuthumba, ukuvalelwa entolongweni kunye nokuhlushwa, kodwa i-United States ayinalo - uMongameli u-Obama wayala i-Attorney General ukuba angashushisi abo baxanduva, kunye neCongress eyenze iphefumlelwe xelisa i-possum.

Icandelo: YINTONI UKUBA IINKCOPA ZELWIMI BENZA UMTHETHO?

UProfesa wezeNzululwazi wezopolitiko uMichael Haas wanyathelisa incwadi kwi2009 isihloko esichaza iziqulatho zayo: UGeorge W. Bush, iMfazwe yecala? Ulawulo lwe-Bush Administration kwii-269 zoLwaphulo-mthetho. (Incwadi ye-2010 ngumlobi omnye uquka u-Obama kwiintlawulo zakhe.) Inombolo enye kwi-Haas ye-2009 uluhlu lulwaphulo-mthetho lokulwa no-Afghanistan ne-Iraq. IiHaa zibandakanya olunye ulwaphulo-mthetho oluthile olunxulumene nokungekho mthethweni kwemfazwe:

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #2. Ukunceda amaMvukelo kwimfazwe yombutho. (Ukuxhaswa kweNorthern Alliance e-Afghanistan).

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #3. Ukusongela iMfazwe enobudlova.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #4. Ukucwangciswa nokulungiselela iMfazwe yokuHlanyelwa.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #5. Iqhinga lokulwa neMfazwe.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #6. Ipropaganda yeMfazwe.

Ukuqaliswa kwemfazwe kunokubandakanya ukwaphulwa okuninzi komthetho wasekhaya. Uninzi lolwaphulo-mthetho olunxulumene ne-Iraq lucacisiwe kumanqaku angama-35 okuTyholwa kunye neTyala lokuTshutshisa uGeorge W. Bush, elapapashwa ngo-2008 kwaye libandakanya intshayelelo endayibhalayo kunye namanqaku angama-35 okuphikisa athi uCongress Dennis Kucinich (D., Ohio thaca kwiCongress. UBush kunye neCongress khange bahambisane noMthetho waMandla oMkhosi, ofuna isigunyaziso esithile kunye nexesha elifanelekileyo lemfazwe evela kwiCongress. UBush akazange ahambisane nemigaqo yesigunyaziso esingacacanga sokuba iCongress ikhuphe. Endaweni yokuba angenise ingxelo egcwele ubuxoki malunga nezixhobo kunye noqhina ku-9-11. UBush kunye nabangaphantsi kwakhe baxoka bephinda-phinda kwiCongress, nto leyo ebubundlobongela phantsi kwemigaqo emibini eyahlukeneyo. Ke, ayisiyomfazwe kuphela ulwaphulo-mthetho, kodwa ulwaphulo lwemfazwe lulwaphulo-mthetho.

Andiyithandi ukukhetha uBush. Njengoko uNowaam Chomsky wathi malunga ne-1990, "Ukuba imithetho yaseNuremberg yayisetyenziselwa, wonke umongameli waseMerika wasekupheleni kwemfazwe uya kuxhonywa." UChomsky wabonisa ukuba uGeneral Tomoyuki Yamashita wayexhonywe ngokuba wayeyintloko yamagosa aseJapan ayenze inzondo ePhilippines emva komkhosi xa engazange adibane nabo. Ngaloo mgangatho, u-Chomsky uthe, kufuneka udibanise wonke umongameli wase-US.

Kodwa, uChomsky wathi, kufuneka wenze okufanayo nangona imigangatho iphantsi. UTruman waphonsa ibhomu ye-atomic kubantu. UTruman "wahlela umkhankaso omkhulu wokubhikisha eGrisi owabulala abantu abayikhulu elinamanci mathandathu amawaka, ababaleki abangamashumi amathandathu amawaka, abanye abantu abangamashumi amathandathu amawaka okanye abantu baxhatshazwa, inkqubo yezopolitiko yachithwa, i-right-wing regime. Amashishini aseMerika angena kwaye ayithatha. "U-Eisenhower wabhubhisa oorhulumente base-Iran kunye neGuatemala waza wangena eLebhanon. UKennedy wahlasela eCuba naseVietnam. UJohnson wabulala abantu base-Indochina baza bahlasela iRiphablikhi yaseRominican. I-Nixon yahlasela iKambodia neLaos. I-Ford noCarter baxhasa ukuhlasela kwe-Indonesian kwe-East Timor. Ulwaphulo-mthetho lwezemfazwe eReagan e-Central America kwaye luxhasa ukuhlasela kwe-Lebanon yase-Israel. Le yimizekelo yeChomsky yanikela ngentloko yentloko yakhe. Kukho ezinye, ezininzi zazo ezikhankanywe kule ncwadi.

Icandelo: ABAFUNDI ABAKHULU ABAKHO ABAKHO ABAKHOLELELE UKUBA BAQINISELE UKUBA

Kakade, iChomsky ityala abaongameli beemfazwe zobudlova kuba baqalise. Ngokomgaqo-siseko, nangona kunjalo, ukuqaliswa kwemfazwe kukuxanduva lweCongress. Ukusebenzisa umgangatho we-Nuremberg, okanye iKellogg-Briand Pact - eyamkelwa ngokugqithiseleyo yiSenate - kwiCongress ngokwayo iya kufuna intambo eninzi okanye, xa siphumelele isigwebo sokufa, ezininzi iiseli zentolongo.

Ngaphambi kokuba uMongameli uWilliam McKinley adale unobhala wokuqala we-president we-press kwaye unqabile inkcazelo, iCongress yayibheka njengeziko lamandla eWashington. Ku-1900 McKinley wadala enye into: amandla oongameli ukuba athumele imikhosi yempi ukulwa noorhulumente bamazwe ngaphandle kwemvume ye-congressional. UMcKinley wathumela amasosha e-5,000 esuka ePhilippines aye eChina ukuze alwe ne-Boxer Rebellion. Kwaye wahamba nalo, oku kuthetha ukuba abaongameli bexesha elizayo banokukwenza okufanayo.

Ukususela kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II, abaongameli baye bafumana amandla amakhulu ekusebenziseni ekusithekeni nangaphandle kolawulo lweCongress. UTruman wongezelela kwibhokisi yebhokisi likaMongameli kwiCIA, uMcebisi weSizwe woKhuseleko, uMyalelo weCandelo loMbane, kunye ne-arsenal. U-Kennedy wasebenzisa izakhiwo ezintsha ezibizwa ngokuba yiCandelo leNkcazo yeCandelo eliKhethekileyo, iKomiti ye-303, kunye neQela leSizwe ukuqinisa amandla kwiNdlu ye-White House, kunye ne-Green Berets ukuvumela umongameli ukuba asebenze umsebenzi wezempi. AbaMongameli baqala ukucela iCongress ukuba ivakalise isimo sengxamiseko selizwe njengoko kugqityiwe ukujikeleza imfuneko yokubhengezwa kwemfazwe. UMongameli uClinton, njengoko sibonile kwisahluko ezimbini, wasebenzisa i-NATO njengesithuthi sokuya kwimfazwe nxamnye nenkcaso.

Umendo owawushukumisela amagunya eemfazwe ukusuka kwiCongress ukuya kwiNtshonalanga yeeNdlu yafikelela kwinqanaba elitsha xa uMongameli uGeorge W. Bush wacela abagwebi kwiSebe lakhe lezoBulungisa ukuba baqulunqe i-memos eyimfihlo eya kuthathwa njengophatha amandla omthetho, i memos eguqulela imithetho kuthetha ukuthini okuchasene noko babesoloko beqondwa ukuba bathi. Ngo-Oktobha i-23, i-2002, iGqwetha likaGqwetha Jikelele uJay Bybee wasayina i-48-page memo kwisiluleko sikaMongameli u-Alberto Gonzales ogunyazisiweyo iGunya likaMongameli ngaphantsi komthetho wasekhaya kunye noMthetho wamazwe ngamazwe wokusebenzisa i-Military Force e-Iraq. Lo myalelo ofihlakeleyo (okanye ubize oko uthanda, imemo eyaziwayo njengomthetho) ugunyazisile nawuphi na umongameli ukuba asebenze ngokulinganayo enze oko uNuremberg abiza ngokuthi "ulwaphulo-mthetho oluphezulu."

Imemo kaBybee ithi umongameli unamandla okuqalisa iimfazwe. Ixesha. Naliphina "igunya lokusebenzisa amandla" elidlulileyo yiCongress liphathwa njengoluhlu. Ngokutsho kwe-Bybee ikopi yoMgaqo-siseko wase-US, iCongress inokuthi "ikhuphe izimemezelo ezisemthethweni zemfazwe." Ngokwam, iCongress inegunya "ukuvakalisa imfazwe," kunye nawo onke amandla anxulumene nawo. Enyanisweni, akukho magunya asemthethweni apha naphi na kwimiko yoMgaqo-siseko.

I-Bybee ichithe uMthetho woMkhosi weMfazwe ngokucaphula i-veto ye-Nixon kunokuba ilandele umthetho ngokwawo, owadluliselwa kwi-veto ye-Nixon. I-Bybee icacisa iileta ezibhalwa nguBush. Uze ucacise isitatimende sokusayina i-Bush, isitatimenti esibhaliweyo sokutshintsha umthetho omtsha. I-Bybee incike kwiimemos zangaphambili eziveliswe yi-ofisi yakhe, i-Ofisi yoMcebisi wezomthetho kwiSebe lezoBulungisa. Yaye ixhomekeke kakhulu kwingxabano yokuba uMongameli uClinton wayesenze izinto ezifanayo. Ngokomlinganiselo omhle, ubiza uTruman, uKennedy, Reagan, kunye no-Bush Sr., Kunye nombono we-ambassador wakwa-Israeli ngesibhengezo se-UN esichasa ukuhlasela kakubi kwaSirayeli. Ezi zinto zizinto ezithandekayo, kodwa aziyiyo imithetho.

I-Bybee ithi ineminyaka yezixhobo zenyukliya "ukuzikhusela okukhuselekileyo" kunokunceda uqalise imfazwe nxamnye naluphi na uhlanga onokucinga ukuba lunokufumana ama-nukes, nangona kungekho sizathu sokuba sicinge ukuba isizwe siya kubasebenzisa ukuhlaselwa kweyakho:

"Ngoko ke, sigcina ukuba nangona ukuba i-Iraq ngokwayo iya kuhlasela i-United States kunye ne-WMD, okanye iyakudlulisela isikhali eso kwizigebengu ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kwayo ngokumelene ne-United States, yayingaphantsi, inqanaba elibi kakhulu eliyingozi umphumo, kunye kunye nefestile elithile elingenamlinganiselo kunye nokuba kungenzeka ukuba xa singasebenzisi amandla, isongelo siya kwanda, kunokukhokelela uMongameli ukuba agqibe ukuba imfuneko yempi iyimfuneko ukukhusela i-United States. "

Ungaze uqikelele umgangatho ophezulu wenzakalisa "isenzo senkundla" esivelisayo, okanye ukucaca kwayo ngokungekho mthethweni. Le memo igqibelele imfazwe yobundlobongela kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla angaphandle nakwikhaya elichanekileyo yimfazwe.

Ngethuba elifanayo apho abaongameli babecinga amandla okugxotha imigaqo yemfazwe, bathetha esidlangalaleni ukuba baxhasayo. UHarold Lasswell ubhekiselele kwi-1927 ukuba imfazwe ibingayithengiswa kangcono "kubantu abanobubele nabangaphakathi" xa bepakishwe njengobungqina bezomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. AmaBritani ayeka ukuphikisana ngeMfazwe Yehlabathi I ngenxa yesizwe sokuzimela xa bekwazi ukuchasana nokuhlasela kweJamani eBelgium. AmaFrentshi amalungiselela ngokukhawuleza iKomidi yoKhuselo loMthetho wamazwe ngamazwe.

"AmaJamani ayagxininiswa yile ngqungquthela yothando lomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, kodwa kungekudala wathola ukuba kunokwenzeka ukufakela umfutshane ummangalelwa. . . . AmaJamani. . . bafumanisa ukuba bekulwela ngokwenene inkululeko yolwandle kunye namalungelo entlanga ezincinci ukurhweba, njengoko babona kufanelekile, bengakhange baxhomekeke kwindlela yokuxhatshazwa kweenqwelo zaseBrithani. "

Abadibeneyo bathi bazama ukukhululwa kweBelgium, i-Alsace neLorraine. AmaJamani ayebala ukuba ayekulwela inkululeko yase-Ireland, i-Egypt ne-Indiya.

Nangona i-Iraq ihlasela i-Iraq ngokungabikho kwegunya le-UN kwi-2003, uBush wayefuna ukuba ahlasele ukwenzela ukunyanzelisa isisombululo se-UN. Naphezu kokulwa nemfazwe phantse ngokupheleleyo namabutho ase-US, uBush wayeqaphele ukuba azenze ukuba asebenze ngaphakathi kubambiswano olubanzi lwamazwe ngamazwe. Abalawuli bazimisele ukukhuthaza imbono yomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ngelixa bephula umthetho, oko kukubeka engozini ngokwabo, bangabonisa ukubaluleka kwabo abawenzayo ekuphumeleleni ukuvunyelwa ngokuthe ngqo kwimfazwe nganye emitsha, kunye nokuzithemba kwabo ukuba xa imfazwe ingaqalanga mntu uya kubuya ukuhlolisisa kakuhle ukuba kwenzeka ntoni.

Icandelo: UKUPHILWA KWEENKONZO ZONKE

Iingqungquthela zeHague ne-Geneva kunye nezinye iintetho zamazwe ngamazwe apho iUnited States inqatshelwe khona ukulwa nolwaphulo-mthetho oluhlala luyinxalenye yemfazwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuba yimithetho yemfazwe yonke. Uninzi lwale miqathango luye lwafakwa kwi-US Code of Law, kubandakanywa nobugebengu obufumaneka kwiiNdibano ze-Geneva, kwiNkonkathelo ekuchaseni ukuThatywa kunye nezinye iziNkohlakalo, eziMntu okanye eziNyango okanye iSigwebo, kunye nakwiindibano ezichasene nezixhobo zamakhemikhali kunye ne-biological. Enyanisweni, ininzi yale mivumelwano idinga amazwe asayinisayo ukuba adlulise umthetho wekhaya ukuze enze amalungiselelo enxulumene nenxalenye yenkqubo yezomthetho nganye yelizwe. Kwathatha kwaze kwaba yilapho i-1996 e-United States idlulisa uMthetho woLwaphulo-mthetho weMfazwe ukunika iiNdibano ze-Geneva ze-1948 amandla e-US Federal Law. Kodwa, nangona apho imisebenzi engavunyelwanga yimvumelwano ayinakwenziwa ngamacala olwasemthethweni, izivumelwano ngokwazo zihlala ziyingxenye yoMthetho "oPhezulu woMhlaba" phantsi komgaqo-siseko wase-United States.

UMichael Haas uchonga kunye neenkcukacha ze-263 zolwaphulo-mthetho zolwaphulo ngokubhekisana nobudlova, ezenzeke nje kwiMfazwe yangoku e-Iraq, kwaye izahlula kwiindidi "zokuziphatha kwemfazwe," "unyango lwabanjwa," kunye "nokuziphatha umsebenzi wokuba umva emva kwemfazwe. "Isampula esingahleliyo yezophulo-mthetho:

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #7. Ukungaphumeleli Ukujongana nokungathathi hlangothi kwezibhedlele.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #12. Ukuqhunjelwa kweBhomu kumazwe angathathi hlangothi.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #16. Ukuchasana nokuhlaselwa kwabantu.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #21. Ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo ze-uranium ezidlulileyo.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #31. Ulwaphulo olungabandlulanga.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #55. Ukuhlushwa.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #120. Ukulahlwa kwelungelo loLuleko.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #183. Ukubanjwa kwabantwana kwiiNqwelana ezifanayo njengabantu abadala.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #223. Ukungaphumeleli ukukhusela iiNdaba zoLwazi.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #229. I sohlwayo.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lweNkcazo #240. Ukuthathwa kweMpahla yabucala.

Uluhlu lwezonyango ezihamba kunye neemfazwe lide, kodwa kunzima ukucinga iimfazwe ezingenazo. I-United States ibonakala ihambela kwinqanaba leemfazwe ezingenakubalwa ezenziwa yi-drones ezilawulwa kude, kunye nokubulawa kwabancinci okujoliswe kuyo yimikhosi ekhethekileyo phantsi komyalelo oyimfihlo kaMongameli. Iimfazwe ezinjalo ziyakunqanda ulwaphulo-mthetho oluninzi lweemfazwe, kodwa ngokwasemthethweni ngokupheleleyo. Ingxelo yeZizwe eziManyeneyo ngoJuni 2010 yagqiba ukuba i-US drone ehlasela ePakistan yayingekho mthethweni. Ukuhlaselwa kwamademoni kwaqhubeka.

Isityholo esibekwe kwi-2010 yiZiko loLungelo loMgaqo-siseko (CCR) kunye ne-American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) inselele umonakalo wokubulala kwabantu baseMerika. Ingxabano abamangalelwa bayigxile kwilungelo kwinkqubo efanelekileyo. INdlu yeNdlu yayifake ilungelo lokubulala amaMelika ngaphandle kwe-United States, kodwa kuya kuba njalo ukwenza njalo ngaphandle kokuhlawulela abo baseMelika ngaluphi na ulwaphulo-mthetho, bawagwebe, okanye bawanike ithuba lokuzikhusela. I-CCR kunye ne-ACLU zigcinwe nguNasser al-Aulaqi ukuzisa isigwebo malunga nesigqibo sikaRhulumente sokugunyaza ukubulawa koonyana bakhe, ummi wase-US u-Anwar al-Aulaqi. Kodwa uNobhala weNondyebo wamemezela u-Anwar al-Aulaqi "ugqirha olwahlukileyo ngokukhethekileyo," okwenza kube yinto yolwaphulo-mthetho kumagosa ukuba anikezele ukumela kwakhe ngenzuzo ngaphandle kokuba athole ilayisenisi eyodwa, apho urhulumente ngexesha lo kubhala kunikwe.

Kwakhona kwi-2010, iCongressman Dennis Kucinich (D., Ohio) yazisa umyalelo-mthetho wokunqanda ukubulawa kwabemi base-US. Ekubeni, kolwazi lwam, iCongress yayingazange ifike kwinqanaba elo lidluliselwe ibhilikhi enye engayithandwa nguMongameli Obama ekubeni wangena kwiNdlu eNtshonalanga, kwakungenakwenzeka ukuba lo mntu uya kuphula loo streak. Kwakukho uxinzelelo loluntu olwaneleyo ukunyanzelisa olo tshintsho.

Esinye isizathu, ndiyakrokra, ngenxa yokungabi nxamnye neengcinezelo kwakukho inkolelo eqhubekayo kwiMelika. Ukuba umongameli wenza oko, ukucaphula uRichard Nixon, "oko kuthetha ukuba akukho mthethweni." Ukuba isizwe sethu senza oko, kufuneka sibe semthethweni. Ekubeni iintshaba kwiimfazwe zethu zingabantu ababi, simele sithethelele umthetho, okanye ubuncinci sibambelele kwi-adhoc-eyenza-ilungelo lobulungisa lolu hlobo.

Sinokubona lula ukuba i-conundrum idalwe ukuba abantu ababini emacaleni emfazwe bacinga ukuba icala labo alinakulunganga. Siya kuba ngcono ekuqapheliseni ukuba isizwe sethu, njengezinye iintlanga, singenza izinto ezingalunganga, ngaba ngokwenene yenza izinto kakhulu, ziphosakele kakhulu-nokuba ziphulo-mthetho. Siya kuba ngcono xa sicwangcisa ukunyanzelisa iCongress ukuba iphelise iimali zemfazwe. Siya kuba ngcono ekukhuseleni abenzi bemfazwe ngokubamba abenzi bexesha elidlulileyo kunye nabangokulwa kwemfazwe.