Ityala lemifanekiso: pxfuel
by I-Science Science Digest, Septemba 14, 2021
Olu hlalutyo lushwankathela kwaye lubonakalise kolu phando lulandelayo: UQureshi, A. (2020). Ukufumana amava emfazwe "yoloyiko": Umnxeba oya kwizifundo zobunqolobi. Izifundo eziBalulekileyo kubuNqolobi, 13 (3), 485-499.
Olu hlalutyo luyinxalenye yesithathu kuthotho oluneenxalenye ezine ezikhumbula iminyaka engama-20 kaSeptemba 11, 2001. Ekuqaqambiseni umsebenzi wakutshanje wezifundo ngeziphumo ezibi zeemfazwe zase-US e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan nakwiMfazwe yeHlabathi yezoBugrogrisi (GWOT) ngokubanzi, Sijonge kolu ngcelele ukuba luvuselele ukucinga kwakhona kwempendulo yase-US kubunqolobi kunye nokuvula incoko ngeendlela ezikhoyo ezingekho mthethweni emfazweni nakubundlobongela bezopolitiko.
Amaphuzu okuthetha
- Ukuqonda okukodwa kwimfazwe kunye nokulwa ubunqolobi njengomgaqo-nkqubo wedwa, ukungahoyi impembelelo ebanzi yomntu kwimfazwe / ukulwa nobunqolobi, kunokukhokelela abaphengululi ukuba babe negalelo "ekukhulelweni kakubi" ekwenzeni umgaqo-nkqubo ogqitywa ukuba uhambelane neMfazwe Yehlabathi kwiNkqantosi ( IGWOT).
- Ngelixa ngaphambili zombini "indawo yemfazwe" kunye "nexesha lemfazwe" inokuba yayicacisiwe ngokucacileyo, i-GWOT iye yahlula le ndawo kunye neyethutyana phakathi kwemfazwe noxolo, isenza "umhlaba wonke ube yindawo yemfazwe" kwaye yandisa amava emfazwe ibe lixesha "loxolo" . ”
- "I-matrix yokulwa nobunqolobi" - indlela imilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo yomgaqo-nkqubo wokulwa nobunqolobi "idibana kwaye yomelezane" -inempembelelo eyongezelekileyo, enobuhlanga kubantu ngaphaya komgaqo-nkqubo obonakalayo, kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo ebonakala ngathi ilungile- njenge "phambi kolwaphulo-mthetho. ”Iinkqubo zokwahlulwahlulwa kwezimvo — ezenza enye“ indawo yokuxhatshazwa ”kuluntu esele lujolisiwe kwaye luxhatshazwa ngabasemagunyeni.
- Ukwenziwa komgaqo-nkqubo wothintelo lobundlobongela kufuneka kuqale kumava aphilayo oluntu oluchaphazeleke kakhulu yi-GWOT ukuze ingabinayo into kwimigaqo-nkqubo enobungozi nocalucalulo.
Ingqondo engundoqo yoLwazi lokuziqhelanisa
- Njengokuba imfazwe yase-US eAfghanistan ifikelela esiphelweni, kuyacaca ukuba ukubekelwa bucala, ukulwa, ukulwa ubuhlanga kukhuseleko-nokuba kungaphesheya okanye "ekhaya" -kungasebenzi kwaye kuyingozi. Ukhuseleko endaweni yoko luqala ngokubandakanya kunye nokuba ngowakho, ngendlela yokuthintela ubundlobongela obuhamba kwiimfuno zoluntu kunye nokukhusela amalungelo oluntu wonke umntu, nokuba kukweli lizwe okanye kwihlabathi jikelele.
isishwankathelo
Isiqhelo kwisayensi yezopolitiko kunye nobudlelwane bamazwe aphesheya kukucinga ngemfazwe njengomgaqo-nkqubo weqhinga, njengendlela yokufikelela esiphelweni. Xa sicinga ngemfazwe kuphela ngale ndlela, nangona kunjalo, siyibona ngokwendlela-enye-njengesixhobo somgaqo-kwaye sibe yimfama kwiziphumo zayo ezininzi kunye nobubanzi. Njengoko u-Asim Qureshi ephawula, ukuqonda okukodwa kwemfazwe kunye nokulwa nobunqolobi kungakhokelela kubaphengululi-nditsho nabo bagxeka izifundo zobunqolobi — ukuba negalelo ekwenzeni imigaqo-nkqubo "ekhulelwe kakubi" ethi iphele iyinto ehambelana neMfazwe yeHlabathi eyoyikekayo (GWOT) ) kunye nemigaqo-nkqubo ebanzi yokulwa ubunqolobi. Inkuthazo yakhe emva kolu phando, ke, kukubeka phambili amava oluntu e-GWOT ukunceda abaphengululi abagxekayo ikakhulu "baphinde bacinge ngolwalamano lwabo nokwenza imigaqo-nkqubo," kubandakanya neenkqubo zokulwa nobundlobongela (CVE).
Owona mbuzo uphambili kuphando lombhali yile: Injani i-GWOT- kubandakanya nomgaqo-nkqubo wasekhaya wokulwa ubunqolobi- kwaye unamava, kwaye ingaba oku kungaqondwa njengamava emfazwe nangaphaya kweendawo zemfazwe ezisemthethweni? Ukuphendula lo mbuzo, umbhali uzenzela olwakhe uphando lwangaphambili olupapashiweyo, ngokusekwe kudliwanondlebe kunye nomsebenzi wasentsimini nombutho wokukhuthaza obizwa ngokuba yiCAGE.
Amava oluntu, umbhali ubalaselisa indlela imfazwe ebandakanya ngayo yonke into, ingena kuzo zonke iinkalo zobomi bemihla ngemihla ezinefuthe njengesiqhelo njengoko ziguqula ubomi. Kwaye ngaphambili ngaphambili zombini "indawo yemfazwe" kunye "nexesha lemfazwe" (apho kunye nalapho amava anjalo enokwenzeka) ibicacisiwe gca, i-GWOT ichithe ezindawo kunye nokwexeshana phakathi kwemfazwe noxolo, isenza "ilizwe liphela libe yindawo yemfazwe ”Nokwandisa amava emfazwe abe lixesha elibonakalayo“ loxolo, ”xa umntu enokumiswa nangaliphi na ixesha kubomi bemihla ngemihla. Ubhekisa kwityala lamaSilamsi amane ase-Bhritane awayevalelwe eKenya (ilizwe "ngaphandle kwendawo yemfazwe") kwaye wabuzwa ngabezomkhosi baseKenya nabaseBritane bezokhuseleko. Bona, kunye namadoda angamashumi asibhozo, abasetyhini kunye nabantwana, babekwa nakwinqwelomoya phakathi kweKenya, iSomalia, kunye ne-Ethiopia apho babebekwe khona kwiikheji ezifana nezo zazisetyenziswa eGuantanamo Bay. Ngamafutshane, i-GWOT ivelise iindlela ezifanayo kunye nolungelelwaniso lokhuseleko phakathi kwamazwe amaninzi, nkqu nalawo abonakala ngathi ayaphikisana, "atsala [amaxhoba], iintsapho zawo kunye nabamele, kwingqondo yemfazwe yehlabathi."
Ngapha koko, umbhali uqaqambisa into ayibiza ngokuba yi "matrix yokulwa nobunqolobi" -indlela imilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo yomgaqo-nkqubo wobunqolobi "inqamana kwaye yomelezane," ukusuka "ekwabelaneni ngobuntlola" ukuya "kwimigaqo-nkqubo yohlwayelo loluntu" iinkqubo zokupheliswa kwenkqubo. Le "matrix" ineziphumo ezongezelekayo kubantu abangaphaya komgaqo-nkqubo, kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo obonakala ngathi ulungile-njengeenkqubo zaphambi kolwaphulo-mthetho- enye enye "inqanaba loxhatshazo" kuluntu esele lujolisiwe kwaye uxhatshazwe ngabasemagunyeni. Unika umzekelo ngomfazi owabekwa ityala "lokupapasha ubugrogrisi" kodwa ijaji yacacisa ukuba khange ikhuthazwe yingcinga equlethwe kupapasho. Nangona kunjalo, ijaji yacinga ukuba bubulumko — ngenxa yokungaqiniseki kunye nenyaniso yokuba wayenabantakwabo abagwetywe ubugrogrisi- ukumnika "isigwebo seenyanga ezilishumi elinambini" sokumnyanzela ukuba enze "inkqubo enyanzelekileyo yokwehlisa umthetho," ngaloo ndlela "aqinise uluvo lwesoyikiso, nangona kungekho sisongelo. ” Kuye, impendulo "yayingenakulinganiswa" kwisisongelo, ngoku urhulumente alandela nje "amaSulumane ayingozi" kodwa "neengcamango zamaSilamsi ngokwawo." Olu tshintsho kulawulo lwe-ideological ngenkqubo ye-CVE, endaweni yokugxila kubundlobongela ngokwasemzimbeni, ibonisa indlela i-GWOT ethe yangena ngayo phantse kuwo onke amabala obomi boluntu, ijolise kakhulu ebantwini ngokusekwe kwinto abayikholelwayo okanye kwindlela abajongeka ngayo -ngoko ifikelela kubume bolwakhiwo lobuhlanga.
Omnye umzekelo-womntwana oye waxelwa kaninzi kwaye, kwezinye iimeko, wavalelwa kwaye wangcungcuthekiswa kumazwe ahlukeneyo ngenxa yokutyholwa (kwaye okuthandabuzekayo) ukunxulumana nobunqolobi, kodwa waphinda watyholwa ngokuba yimpimpi-ubonakalisa ngakumbi "ukuziqinisa amava emfazwe ”eyenziwe yimatriki yokulwa nobunqolobi. Eli tyala likwalatha ekwahlukaneni kumahluko phakathi komkhosi kunye nomlo wokulwa ubunqolobi kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo wokuchasana nendlela awathi lo mntu akazange anikwe izibonelelo eziqhelekileyo zokuba ngummi, kuthathwa ngokuba unetyala kunokuba ancedwe kwaye akhuselwe ngurhulumente ngokuzicingela yokungabi msulwa kwakhe.
Ngazo zonke ezi ndlela, "iingcinga zemfazwe ziyaqhubeka zisasazeka… ngexesha loxolo" kwi-GWOT-kuwo omabini amanqanaba omzimba kunye neembono-kunye namaziko asekhaya njengamapolisa athabatha inxaxheba kwizicwangciso zokulwa nemfazwe nkqu nakwixesha "loxolo". Ngokuqala kokuqonda kwamava abephila kuluntu oluchaphazeleke kakhulu yi-GWOT, abaphengululi banokumelana "nobumbano… neenkqubo zocalucalulo ngokobuhlanga" kwaye baphinde bacinge ngendlela yokugcina uluntu lukhuselekile kubunqolobi ngaphandle kokuncama amalungelo abo bakule mimandla kujoliswe kuyo.
Ulwazi lokuziqhelanisa
Iminyaka engamashumi amabini emva kokuqala kweMfazwe yeHlabathi kwiNgebenga (GWOT), i-US isandula ukurhoxisa imikhosi yayo yokugqibela e-Afghanistan. Nokuba kugwetywe kancinane ngokujolise kwiinjongo ebekufanele ukuba ziyasebenza-ukuthintela ukusebenza kwe-Al Qaeda elizweni kunye nokuhlutha ulawulo kwiTaliban- le mfazwe, njengezinye izinto ezininzi ezisetyenziswayo kubundlobongela emkhosini, izityhila ngokungonelisi kwaye ayisebenzi: I-Taliban iphinde yafumana ulawulo lwe-Afghanistan, i-al Qaeda ihlala, kwaye i-ISIS ifumene indawo kweli lizwe, isungula uhlaselo kanye njengoko i-US ibirhoxisa.
Kwaye nokuba imfazwe ayenayo ifikelele kwiinjongo zayo-nto leyo ibingakhange iyenze-kuzakubakho into yokuba, njengoko uphando lubonisa apha, alusebenzi njengesixhobo somgaqo-nkqubo, njengendlela elula yokufikelela. Ihlala ineziphumo ezibanzi nezinzulu kubomi babantu bokwenyani-abo bangamaxhoba, iiarhente zabo / abenzi bobubi, kunye noluntu ngokubanzi-iziphumo ezinganyamalaliyo xa imfazwe iphelile. Nangona ezona mpembelelo zibonakalayo ze-GWOT zibonakala kumanani ekrwada amaxhoba-ngokweNdleko zeProjekthi yeMfazwe, malunga ne-900,000 yabantu ababulewe ngokuthe ngqo kubundlobongela bexesha le-9/11 lemfazwe, kubandakanya abahlali abangama-364,000-387,000-Kungumceli mngeni ngakumbi kwabo bangakhange bachaphazeleke ngokuthe ngqo ukuba babone enye, iimpembelelo ezikhohlisayo ngakumbi kwamanye amalungu oluntu (ngokungathandabuzekiyo kwi "warzone") ekujoliswe kubo kwimizamo yokulwa ubunqolobi: iinyanga okanye iminyaka ilahlekile eluvalelweni, ukwenzakala ngokwasemzimbeni nangokwengqondo kokuhlushwa, ukwahlulwa ngenkani kusapho, imeko yokungcatshwa kunye nokungabikho kwelizwe lakho, kunye nokujonga kakhulu kwizikhululo zeenqwelo moya nakwezinye iindlela zokunxibelelana nabasemagunyeni, phakathi kwabanye.
Ukutshutshiswa kwemfazwe yaphesheya phantse kuhlala kubandakanya imeko yengqondo yemfazwe ebuyiswayo ngaphambili-ukufiphala kweendidi zabantu nezomkhosi; ukuvela kwe ithi ngaphandle apho iinkqubo eziqhelekileyo zedemokhrasi zingabonwa zisebenza; Ukwahlulwa kwehlabathi, ukuhla ukuya kwinqanaba loluntu, ukuya kuthi "thina" kunye "nabo," kwabo kufuneka bakhuselwe kwaye abo babonwa besoyikisa. Le ngqondo yemfazwe, yomelele ngokuqinileyo kubuhlanga kunye nokucaphuka kwabemi, iguqula imeko yobomi besizwe kunye noluntu-ukuqonda okusisiseko malunga nokuba ngoobani kwaye ngubani ekufuneka ezibonakalisile rhoqo: nokuba amaJamani-aseMelika ngexesha leWWI, amaJapan-aseMelika ngexesha leWWII, okanye kutshanje amaSilamsi-amaMelika ngexesha le-GWOT njengesiphumo sobundlobongela kunye nomgaqo-nkqubo we-CVE.
Ngelixa kukho ukugxekwa okucacileyo nokusebenzayo apha kokuthatha inxaxheba kwezomkhosi kwi-GWOT kunye nefuthe elibanzi "ekhaya," elinye igama lesilumkiso liyafaneleka: Sifaka umngcipheko wokudibana ne-GWOT kunye nale ngqondo yemfazwe nangokuxhasa iindlela ezibonakala ngathi "azinabundlobongela" Ukulwa ubundlobongela obunobundlobongela (CVE). Isilumkiso siphindwe kabini: 1) le misebenzi ibeka umngcipheko "wokuhlanjwa koxolo" isenzo somkhosi esihlala sihamba nabo okanye abasebenza kuso, kunye ne-2) le misebenzi ngokwayo-nokuba kungabikho mkhankaso wezomkhosi-isebenza njengenye indlela yokuphatha abantu abathile kodwa hayi abanye njengabaphumi-mkhosi, abanamalungelo ambalwa kunabantu, ukudala abemi abakudidi lwesibini kwiqela labantu abanokuthi bazive ngathi abanabo ngokupheleleyo. Endaweni yoko, ukhuseleko luqala ngokubandakanya kunye nokuba ngowakho, ngendlela yokuthintela ubundlobongela obuhambela iimfuno zabantu kunye nokukhusela amalungelo oluntu wonke umntu, nokuba kukwindawo ohlala kuyo okanye kwihlabathi liphela.
Nangona kunjalo, indlela yokulwa, yezomkhosi kwezokhuseleko igxile ngokunzulu. Cinga emva ngasekupheleni kukaSeptemba 2001. Nangona ngoku sikuqonda ukusilela kweMfazwe e-Afghanistan kunye nayo (kunye ne-GWOT ebanzi) yeziphumo ezinobungozi kakhulu, bekuphantse akunakwenzeka ukucebisa-phantse phantse ezingabonakaliyo-Ukuba i-US akufuneki iye emfazweni ukuphendula uhlaselo lwe-9/11. Ukuba ubukhe wanesibindi kunye nobukho bengqondo ngelo xesha lokucebisa ngenye indlela, impendulo yomgaqo-nkqubo engenabundlobongela endaweni yomkhosi, ubunokuthi ubhalwe i-naïve ethe tye, ngaphandle kokunxibelelana nenyani. Kodwa kwakutheni ukuze kungabikho / ukucinga ukuba ngokuqhushumisa, ukuhlasela, nokuhlala ilizwe iminyaka engamashumi amabini, ngelixa siqhubeka sihlukanisa abantu abahlelelekileyo apha "ekhaya," siyakubuphelisa ubunqolobi- endaweni yokukhuthaza uhlobo lokuchasana oluye lwaqhubeka iiTaliban ngalo lonke eli xesha kwaye zivelisa i-ISIS? Masikhumbule ixesha elizayo apho i-naïveté yokwenyani ilala khona. [MW]
Imibuzo Yengxoxo
Ukuba ububuya ngo-Septemba ngo-2001 ngolwazi esinalo ngoku malunga nemfazwe e-Afghanistan kunye neMfazwe ebanzi yeHlabathi (GWOT), loluphi uhlobo lokuphendula kuhlaselo lwe-9/11 onokuluxhasa?
Uluntu lunokuthintela njani kunye nokunciphisa ubundlobongela obunobundlobongela ngaphandle kokujolisa ngokungafanelekanga kunye nocalucalulo kuluntu luphela?
Ukuqhubeka kokufunda
Umncinci, J. (2021, Septemba 8). I-9/11 ayitshintshanga-Impendulo yethu kuyo. Ubundlobongela bezopolitiko @ a Glance. Kufunyanwa ngoSeptemba 8, 2021, ukusuka https://politicalviolenceataglance.org/2021/09/08/9-11-didnt-change-us-our-violent-response-did/
UWaldman, P. (2021, Agasti 30). Sisaxoka ngokwethu malunga namandla aseMelika. IWashington Post.Kufunyanwa ngoSeptemba 8, 2021, ukusuka https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2021/08/30/were-still-lying-ourselves-about-american-military-power/
Iziko laseBrennan lezoBulungisa. (2019, Septemba 9). Kutheni le nto ukubala iinkqubo ezinobundlobongela kungumgaqo-nkqubo ombi. Ibuyisiwe ngoSeptemba 8, 2021, ukusuka https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/why-countering-violent-extremism-programs-are-bad-policy
Imibutho
I-CAGE: https://www.cage.ngo/
Amagama abalulekileyo: Imfazwe yeHlabathi kwiNkwantyisa (GWOT), ubundlobongela, uluntu lwamaSilamsi, ukulwa nobundlobongela obunobundlobongela (CVE), amava omntu emfazweni, Imfazwe eAfghanistan
I mpendulo
Ngubani umgrogrisi apha?