NguPaul Fitzgerald no-Elizabeth Gould, World BEYOND War, Oktobha 6, 2020
IConor Tobin kaJanuwari 9, 2020 Imbali yozakuzo[1] inqaku elinesihloko: Intsomi 'yomgibe wase-Afghan': Zbigniew Brzezinski kunye neAfghanistan[2] ngemizamo “yokuchitha umbono wokuba uMongameli uJimmy Carter, ebongoza uMcebisi kuKhuseleko kuZwelonke uZbigniew Brzezinski, wanceda i-Afghan Mujahedin ngenjongo yokurhwebesha iSoviet Union ukuba ihlasele i-Afghanistan ngo-1979.” Njengoko uTodd Greentree evuma kuJulayi 17, 2020 uphononongo Inqaku likaTobin, izibonda ziphezulu kuba "le ngcamango" ayithandabuzi ilifa likaMongameli Carter kuphela, kodwa isimilo, isidima kunye "nokuziphatha ngobuchule kweMelika ngexesha loMlo obandayo nangaphaya."[3]
Umbindi wentatheli yaseFrance uVincent Jauvert nguJanuwari 1998 Umbonisi omtsha udliwanondlebe ngoBrzezinski apho aqhayisa khona ngenkqubo eyimfihlo eyasungulwa nguye noMongameli uCarter kwiinyanga ezintandathu phambi kohlaselo lweSoviet "olwaba nefuthe lokutsalela amaRashiya kumgibe waseAfghan…" "Ngokwengxelo esemthethweni yezembali, uncedo lweCIA I-Mujahideen yaqala ngo-1980, oko kukuthi, emva kokuba umkhosi waseSoviet uhlasele iAfghanistan, ngomhla wama-24 kuDisemba 1979. Kodwa inyani, ikhuselwe ngokufihlakeleyo kude kube ngoku, ayinjalo kwaphela. ” UBrzezinski ushicilelwe njengothi. “Ewe, kwakungoJulayi 3, 1979 apho uMongameli Carter watyikitya isikhokelo sokuqala soncedo olufihlakeleyo kubachasi bolawulo olwaluxhasa iSoviet eKabul. Ngaloo mini, ndabhalela umongameli ndaza ndamchazela ukuba olu ncedo luza kubangela ukuba kungenelele umkhosi waseSoviet. ”[4]
Ngaphandle kwento yokuba inkqubo efihlakeleyo yayisele ichaziwe ngumphathi we-CIA owayengumphathi wecandelo le-Operations ye-Near East kunye ne-South Asia uGqr. ukungaqondi phaya malunga neenjongo zeSoviet eAfghanistan kangangokuba uninzi lwababhali-mbali banokushiya ngaphandle kokuchaza. Ukusukela ngela xesha udliwanondlebe kaBrzezinski abonakala ngo-1998 kuye kwakho inzame eyoyikekayo ngasekhohlo nakwilungelo lokukhanyela ubunyani bayo njengeqhina elingenzi nto, ukutolikwa gwenxa kwento awayeyithetha, okanye inguqulelo embi ukusuka kwisiFrentshi ukuya kwisiNgesi. Ukwamkelwa kukaBrzezinski kubuthathaka phakathi kwabangaphakathi kwiCIA, uCharles Cogan wabona kufanelekile ukuba baphume baye kwingxoxo yeForam yaseCambridge ngencwadi yethu ngeAfghanistan (Imbali engabonakaliyo: Imbali yase-Afghanistan yase-Afghanistan)[5] ngo-2009 ukubanga ukuba nangona umbono wethu wokuba iiSoviet zazingafuni ukungenelela wawuyinyani, iBrzezinski Umbonisi omtsha Udliwanondlebe bekufanele ukuba aluchanekanga.
UTobin uyasolula esi sikhalazo ngokukhala ukuba udliwanondlebe lwaseFrance lonakalise imbali kwanjengokuba iyeyona nto isisiseko sokubonisa ubukho becebo lokurhwebesha iMoscow kwi "Afghan Trap." Uqhubeka ke ukubhala ukuba okoko u-Brzezinski eqinisekisa ukuba udliwanondlebe lwaluchwephesha hayi Udliwanondlebe kodwa izicatshulwa ku Udliwanondlebe kwaye aluzange luvunywe ngohlobo oluvele ngalo kwaye kuba ekubeni uBrzezinski eye wayikhanyela izihlandlo ezininzi — “ithisisi 'yomgibe' ayinasihlahla.”[6] UTobin emva koko ucaphula amaxwebhu asemthethweni ukungqina ukuba "isenzo sikaBrzezinski ukuya kuthi ga ngo-1979 sabonisa umzamo oncomekayo thintela [ugxininiso longezwa] iMoscow ingenelela… Lilonke, ungenelelo lomkhosi waseSoviet aluzange lufunwe okanye lufunwe ngabaphathi bakaCarter kwaye inkqubo efihlakeleyo eyaqala ngehlobo lowe-1979 ayonelanga ukuhlawulisa uCarter noBrzezinski ngokuzama ukubambisa iMoscow kwi ' Umgibe wase-Afghanistan. '”
Ke oku kutyhila ntoni ngokusebenza ngokufihlakeleyo kukarhulumente wase-US owathathwa kwiinyanga ezintandathu phambi kohlaselo lwe-Soviet ngo-Disemba ka-1979 kwaye akazange aqhayise ngo-Brzezinski kude kube ngu-Janyuwari ka-1998?
Ukushwankathela isikhalazo sikaTobin; Isityholo sikaBrzezinski sokuqhayisa ngokurhwebesha iiSoviet “kumgibe waseAfghan” asinasiseko kangako. UBrzezinski utshilo into ethile kodwa ntoni-Akucaci, kodwa nantoni na ayithethileyo, akukho ngxelo yayo kwaye ayonelanga ukurhwebesha abantu baseSoviet eAfghanistan kuba yena noCarter abafuni ukuba amaSoviet ahlasele kuba Ingabeka emngciphekweni uthethathethwano kunye neengxoxo ze-SALT II. Ke yintoni yonke le ngxabano?
Ukucinga kukaTobin ukuba uMongameli wase-United States kunye ne-CIA yakhe ngekhe bazimisele ukuyandisa iMfazwe ebandayo embindini wendawo enobutshaba, kunokubonisa okungakumbi malunga nokukhetha kukaConor Tobin kunokuqonda kwakhe iqhinga lokulwa likaBrzezinski. . Ukufunda inqaku lakhe kukungena kwiglasi ekhangeleyo kwindalo iphela apho (ukuyichaza nge-TE Lawrence) iinyani zithathelwa indawo ngamaphupha emini kwaye abaphuphi benza-amehlo abo evulekile. Ngokwamava ethu neAfghanistan nabantu abenze ukuba kwenzeke, "inkonzo exabisekileyo yembali yozakuzo" kaTobin (njengoko icatshulwe kuphononongo lukaTodd Greentree) ayenzi nkonzo kwimbali kwaphela.
Ukujonga emva kwinto u-Brzezinski avumile kuyo ngo-1998 ayifuni kugunyaziso oluyimfihlo lokuqinisekisa. Inkuthazo enkulu efana neMidlalo emva komgibe we-Afghan ithisisi yayisaziwa ngexesha lokuhlasela kuye nakubani na onolwazi ngembali yexabiso lommandla.
U-MS Agwani weSikolo iJawaharlal Nehru School of International Study uchaze njalo ku-Okthobha-ka-Disemba 1980 kwi-Schools Quarterly Journal ecaphula izinto ezininzi ezithi zixhase i-Afghan toisis: “Esethu isigqibo esivela koku kungasentla siphindwe kabini. Okokuqala, iSoviet Union yayihamba emgibeni owawubekwe ziintshaba zayo. Ukunyanzelwa kwayo ngumkhosi zange kuyinike ncedo ngokubhekisele kukhuseleko lweSoviet engakhange ilonwabele phantsi kolawulo lwangaphambili. Ngokuchasene noko, inakho kwaye iyayichaphazela indlela ejongene ngayo neLizwe lesiThathu ngokubanzi kunye namazwe amaSilamsi ngokukodwa. Okwesibini, impendulo eyomeleleyo yaseMelika kungenelelo lweSoviet ayinakuthathwa njengobungqina benkxalabo yokwenyani yaseWashington malunga nelifa le-Afghanistan. Kuyenzeka ngokuqinisekileyo ukuphikisa ukuba umdla wayo obalulekileyo kwiGulf ungakhonzwa ngcono kukudibana kweSoviet kunye neAfghanistan ngenxa yokuba le yokugqibela inokuthathwa ithuba lokugxotha amaSoviet kuloo mmandla. Izinto ezenzekayo e-Afghanistan zikwabonakala ziluncedo olukhulu e-United States ukuba yonyuse ubukho bayo kwezomkhosi kwi-Gulf engqonge i-Gulf ngaphandle kokukhupha uqhankqalazo olunamandla. "[7]
Nanini na xa kubuzwa malunga namashumi amabini eminyaka emva kokuba inqaku le-Nouvel Observateur livelile de kwasekufeni kwakhe ngo-2017, iimpendulo zika-Brzezinski ngokuchaneka koguqulelo zazisoloko zahluka ukusuka ekwamkelweni ukuya ekugatyweni ukuya kwenye indawo ekufanele kuphakame imibuzo malunga nokuxhomekeka kakhulu ekunyanisekeni kwakhe imbonakalo. Ukanti uConor Tobin wakhetha ukukhankanya kuphela udliwanondlebe luka-2010 noPaul Jay we IiNdaba zeNdaba zeNene [8] apho uBrzezinski wayiphikayo, ukwenza ityala lakhe. Kolu dliwanondlebe luka-2006 kunye nomenzi wefilimu uSamira Goetschel[9] "Yinguqulelo yasimahla," kodwa uyavuma ukuba le nkqubo iyimfihlo "ngokuqinisekileyo yaqinisekisa abantu baseSoviet ngakumbi ukuba benze le nto babeceba ukuyenza." UBrzezinski usilela kwisigqibo sakhe sexesha elide esabanjwayo (ekwabelwana ngaso neoconservatives) ukuba ukususela ngoku iiSoviet zazikwinkqubo yokwandisa ukuya eAfghanistan nangona kunjalo njengenxalenye yesicwangciso esiyintloko sokufezekisa ubundlobongela kuMazantsi mpuma eAsia nakwimimandla evelisa ioyile yeGulf, [10] (isikhundla esaliwa nguNobhala Wombuso u-Cyrus Vance) into yokuba kusenokwenzeka ukuba wayexhokonxa uhlaselo yayingabalulekanga kangako.
Emva kokunikezela intsingiselo yamazwi ngqo kaBrzezinski, uTobin emva koko utyhola ukukhula nokwamkelwa kwe-thesis yomgibe wase-Afghanistan ubukhulu becala ngokuthembela kakhulu ku "udumo" lukaBrzezinski awathi emva koko wagxotha ngokucaphula iimemo zika-Brzezinski "zasemva kohlaselo. ukuveza inkxalabo, hayi ithuba, elibonisa ukuba eyona njongo yakhe yayikukwenza abahlaseli. ”[11] Kodwa ukugxotha iinjongo ezaziwayo zikaBrzezinski zokujongela phantsi ubudlelwane be-US / Soviet ngalo lonke ixesha kukuphosa i-raison d'être yomsebenzi kaBrzezinski ngaphambi kokuwa kweSoviet Union. Ukwamkela ukukhanyela kwakhe ngexabiso lobuso kuyityeshela indima yakhe ekuziseni i-ajenda yasemva kwe-Vietnam neoconservative (eyaziwa njengeQela B) kwi-White House ingathethi ngethuba lokutshintsha ngokusisigxina umgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle waseMelika kwilizwe lakhe lokulwa neRussia ngokuchaphazela iiSoviet kuwo onke amanyathelo.
U-Anne Hessing Cahn, okwangoku ngumfundi kwindawo yokuhlala e University of American owayesebenza njengeNtloko yaBasebenzi beMpembelelo yezeNtlalo e Ulawulo lweArms kunye neArhente yezixhobo ukusukela ngo-1977–81 kunye noMncedisi oKhethekileyo kwi Usekela-Nobhala Wezomkhosi Ngo-1980–81, wayenayo le nto ayithethayo ngegama likaBrzezinski kwincwadi yakhe yowe-1998, Ukubulala iDentente: “Xa uMongameli uCarter wabiza uZbigniew Brzezinski njengomcebisi wezokhuseleko kuzwelonke, kwamiselwa kwangaphambili ukuba ukuzonwabisa neSoviet Union kwakuza kubakho amaxesha anzima. Kuqala kwafika isindululo solawulo lweengalo esingathandekiyo, esishiya isiVumelwano saseVladivostok[12] Kwaye yavuza kumaphephandaba ngaphambi kokuba inikwe iiSoviet. Ngo-Epreli uCarter wayecinezela amahlakani e-NATO ukuba ahlaziye ngokutsha, efuna ukuzibophelela ngokuqinileyo kuwo onke amalungu e-NATO ukuba aqale ukonyusa uhlahlo-lwabiwo mali lweepesenti ezi-3 ngonyaka. Ngehlobo lowe-1977 uMemorandam-10 kaMongameli woVavanyo lukaMongameli[13]ubizele 'amandla okuphumelela' ukuba kungakho imfazwe, igama elithathela ingqalelo umbono weQela B. ” [14]
Kunyaka nje wokuthatha i-ofisi uCarter wayesele etyikitye iiSoviet amaxesha amaninzi ukuba wayejika ulawulo kude nentsebenziswano ukuya kungquzulwano kwaye iiSoviet zazimamele. Kwidilesi eyayiqulunqwe nguBrzezinski yaza yathunyelwa kwiYunivesithi yaseWake Forest ngoMatshi 17, 1978, “uCarter waphinda waqinisekisa inkxaso yaseMelika kwi-SALT nolawulo lweengalo, [kodwa] ithoni yayihluke ngokuphawulekayo kunyaka ongaphambili. Ngoku waquka zonke iziqinisekiso ezithandwayo nguSenator Jackson kunye ne-JCS… Ngokubhekisele kwidente - igama elingazange lakhankanywa kwidilesi-intsebenziswano neSoviet Union yayinakho ukuhlangabezana neenjongo ezifanayo. 'Kodwa ukuba bayasilela ukubonisa ukuzibamba kwiinkqubo zemijukujelwa nakweminye imikhosi yamandla okanye kuqikelelo lweSoviet okanye amandla abameli kwamanye amazwe nakumazwekazi ke inkxaso eyaziwayo eUnited States yokusebenzisana nabaseSoviet ngokuqinisekileyo iya kudodobala.' ”
AmaSoviet afumana umyalezo kwidilesi kaCarter kwaye kwangoko aphendula kwi-TAAS News Agency ukuba: "'Iinjongo zaseSoviet phesheya' ziye zagqwethwa njengesizathu sokunyusa ugqatso lwezixhobo. '” [15]
Kwinkomfa yeNobel malunga neMfazwe Yomlomo ekwindla lowe-1995, uHarvard / MIT uMcebisi oPhezulu weziFundo ngoKhuseleko, uGqr. Carol Saivetz uthethe ngomkhwa wokungahoyi ukubaluleka kweengcinga zikaBrzezinski kwinkqubo yokuthatha izigqibo kwiCold War kwaye kutheni oko kukhokelele ukungaqondani okusisiseko kweenjongo zecala ngalinye. "Into endiyifundileyo kwezi ntsuku zimbalwa zidlulileyo kukuba umbono-into thina eNtshona esasibhala malunga nomgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle weSoviet sasiqhele ukuyithatha njengesiqhelo.… Ukuya kuthi ga kwinqanaba elithile, umbono wezimvo-umbono wehlabathi, masithi yibize-idlale indima ebalulekileyo… Nokuba uZbig wayevela ePoland okanye kwenye indawo, wayenombono wehlabathi, kwaye wayezama ukutolika iziganeko njengoko zazisenzeka ekukhanyeni kwayo. Kwinqanaba elithile, uloyiko lwakhe lwaba ziziprofeto ezizalisekisayo. Wayekhangela iintlobo ezithile zokuziphatha, kwaye wazibona-ngokuchanekileyo okanye ngokungalunganga. ”[16]
Ukuqonda indlela uloyiko "lukaBrzezinski" olwazizalisekisa ngayo iziprofeto kukuqonda indlela umgca wakhe onzima wokulwa namaSoviet eAfghanistan wazicaphukisa iziphumo awayezifuna kwaye wamkelwa njengomgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle waseMelika ngokuhambelana neenjongo zeQela B ze-neoconservative; "Ukutshabalalisa i-détente kunye nokubuyisela umgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle e-US ukuba ubuye umva kumlo wobungqongqo viz-à-viz eSoviet Union."[17]
Nangona ingajongwa njenge-neoconservative kwaye ichasene nokunxibelelanisa iinjongo zika-Israyeli ePalestine kunye neenjongo zaseMelika, indlela kaBrzezinski yokudala iziprofeto ezizalisekisayo kunye neenjongo zentshukumo ye-neoconservative yokuhambisa i-US kwindawo enzima ngokuchasene neSoviet Union yafumana injongo efanayo e-Afghanistan. . Indlela yabo ekwabelwana ngayo njengamajoni aseCold ahlanganisanayo ukuze ahlasele i-détente kunye ne-SALT II naphi na apho kunokwenzeka xa kutshabalalisa iziseko zabo nabuphi na ubudlelwane obusebenzayo kunye neeSoviet. Kudliwanondlebe olwenziwa ngo-1993 no-Paul Warnke owayethetha-thethana nge-SALT II, wayiqinisekisa inkolelo yakhe yokuba abantu baseSoviet bebengasoze bahlasele i-Afghanistan kwasekuqaleni ukuba uMongameli Carter ebengekabi lixhoba likaBrzezinski kunye neQela B lokuchasa i -ente kunye nokujongela phantsi ukuzithemba kweSoviet. ukuba i-SALT II iya kuqinisekiswa.[18] UBrzezinski wabona ukuhlaselwa kweSoviet njengobungqina obukhulu bebango lakhe lokuba i-US yayikhuthaze ubundlongondlongo baseSoviet ngomgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle wobuthathaka owathi ke walungisa isikhundla sakhe sokuqina ngaphakathi kulawulo lukaCarter. Kodwa angabanga njani ukungqinelwa kwezenzo zeSoviet ngelixa wayedlale indima ebaluleke kangaka ekucaphukiseni iimeko abasabela kuzo?[19]
Umongameli u-Dwight D. Eisenhower ongumcebisi kwezenzululwazi u-George B. Kistiakowsky kunye nowayesakuba ngusekela mlawuli we-CIA, u-Herbert Scoville uwuphendule loo mbuzo kwi-Boston Globe Op-ed kwinyanga nje ezimbini emva komsitho. "Ngokwenyani, yayizizenzo zikaMongameli ezazenzelwe ukonwabisa abachasi bakhe bezopolitiko abomeleleyo ekhaya abatshabalalisa intsalela kuburhulumente baseSoviet… Iimpikiswano ezaye zaqinisa amazwi oomakhwekhwetha baseKremlin zakhula ngenxa yokuphela komnqophiso weSALT II. kunye nokuchasana ngokucacileyo nemigaqo-nkqubo kaCarter. Ukunyuka kwakhe kokwamkela izimvo zoMcebisi woKhuseleko kuZwelonke uZbigniew Brzezinski kukhokelele kulindelo lokongamela eUnited States ngookhetshe kwiminyaka emininzi ezayo… ”[20]
Kwinqaku ka-Epreli 1981 kwiphephancwadi lase-Bhritane i-Round Table, umbhali u-Dev Murarka utyhila ukuba ii-Soviets zenqabile ukungenelela kwezomkhosi izihlandlo ezilishumi elinesithathu emva kokubuzwa ngurhulumente wase-Afghanistan u-Nur Mohammed Taraki no-Hafizullah Amin-ukwazi ukuba ungenelelo lomkhosi luza kunika iintshaba zabo ngento kanye ababeyifuna. Kwisicelo seshumi elinesine kuphela apho amaSoviet athobela "xa kwafunyanwa ulwazi eMoscow lokuba u-Amin wenze isivumelwano nelinye lala maqela aphikisayo." UMurarka uphawula ukuba “Ukuqwalaselwa ngokusondeleyo kweemeko zesigqibo seSoviet sokungenelela kubonisa izinto ezimbini. Inye, ukuba isigqibo asikhange sithathwe ngokungxama ngaphandle kokuqwalaselwa okufanelekileyo. Okwesibini, ukuba ungenelelo lwalungelulo olumiselwe kwangaphambili olungenakuphepheka lokukhula kokuzibandakanya kweSoviet eAfghanistan. Kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo ngeyayithintelwe. ”[21]
Kodwa endaweni yokuthintelwa, iimeko zokuhlasela kweSoviet zakhuthazwa ngamanyathelo afihlakeleyo athathwe nguCarter, Brzezinski kunye neCIA ngokuthe ngqo nangabameli baseSaudi Arabia, ePakistan nase-Egypt baqinisekisa ukuba ungenelelo lweSoviet aluthintelwanga kodwa lukhuthazwe.
Ukongeza, engekhoyo kuhlalutyo lweTobin yinto yokuba nabani na ozama ukusebenza noBrzezinski eCarter White House-njengoko kungqinwe ngumcebisi weSALT II uPaul Warnke kunye noMlawuli weCIA weCarter uStansfield Turner- babemazi njengomntu othanda ubuzwe basePoland nengcinga eqhutywa ziingcinga.[22] Nokuba ngaba Umbonisi omtsha Udliwanondlebe aluzange lubutshintshe ubunzima bobungqina bokuba ngaphandle kokufihla kukaBrzezinski noCarter kunye nokuxhokonxa okugqithileyo, abantu baseSoviet ngekhe basive isidingo sokuwela umda kwaye bahlasele iAfghanistan.
Kwinqaku kaJanuwari 8, 1972 kwiNew Yorker Magazine, enesihloko Ukucinga: Kwi-Thrall Yoloyiko,[23] USenator uJ.William Fulbright uchaze inkqubo ye-neoconservative yenkqubo yokudala imfazwe engapheliyo egcina i-US ibambekile eVietnam. "Into ephawuleka ngokwenyani malunga nokusebenza kwengqondo ebandayo ngexesha lomlo obandayo kukudluliswa ngokungekho ngqiqweni komthwalo wobungqina obuvela kwabo bahlawulisa abo bababuza ... AmaCold Warriors, endaweni yokuba athethe ukuba azi njani ukuba iVietnam iyinxalenye yesicwangciso ngenxa yoLawulo lwehlabathi, ukuze isetyenziswe kwimigaqo yengxoxo yoluntu ukuze ibenakho ukufuna ukuba abagxeki babonakalise ukuba ayiyiyo. Ukuba abo bathandabuzayo babengenakukwazi ke ukuqhubeka nemfazwe — ukuphelisa oko kungabeka ubomi bethu esichengeni. ”
UFulbright waqonda ukuba iiCold War's neoconservative Cold Warriors zayiguqula ingqiqo yokwenza umlo ngaphakathi ngokuqukumbela, "Sifikile kwelokugqibela: Imfazwe yindlela yobulumko kunye nokuziphatha okuhle de imeko yoxolo ibonakaliswe phantsi kwemithetho engenakwenzeka yobungqina- okanye kude utshaba lunikezele. Amadoda aqiqayo akanakho ukujongana ngale ndlela. ”
Kodwa la "madoda" kunye nenkqubo yabo babecinga; Ayinangqiqo kwaye iphulo labo lokuqhubela phambili igunya labo lokoyisa ubuKomanisi baseSoviet buqiniswe kukuphulukana ngokusemthethweni kweMfazwe yaseVietnam ngo-1975. Ngenxa kaBrzezinski, imigaqo-nkqubo yase-US eyayijikeleze ulawulo lweCarter e-Afghanistan, SALT, détente naseSoviet Union yayihlala ngaphandle Indawo yokudlulela kwimigaqo-nkqubo yemveli yozakuzo kulawulo lweNixon kunye neFord ngelixa inikezela kwimpembelelo enetyhefu yeQela B eyayifumana ulawulo ngelo xesha.
UTobin uyayikhathalela oku kudibana nembali yokuhlangana kweengcinga ezifanayo. Unyanzela ukuthembela kwirekhodi elisemthethweni ukuba afike kwizigqibo zakhe kodwa emva koko akayikhathaleli indlela loo rekhodi yenziwe ngayo nguBrzezinski kunye nefuthe lenkolo yaseWashington ye-neoconservatives yokufezekisa isiprofetho sabo sokuzifezekisa. Emva koko uthatha iinyani ezixhasa ingqibelelo yakhe yokulwa ne-Afghan ngelixa ebutyeshela ubutyebi bobungqina obuvela kwabo bachasayo iinzame zikaBrzezinski zokulawula ibali kunye nokukhetha iimbono ezichaseneyo.
Ngokwezifundo ezininzi u-Brzezinski wayiguqula indima yomcebisi wezokhuseleko kuzwelonke engaphaya komsebenzi wakhe. Kwiseshoni yocwangciso kunye noMongameli Carter eSt. Simon Island ngaphambi kokungena kwi-White House uthathe ulawulo lokuyila umgaqo-nkqubo ngokunciphisa ukufikelela kumongameli ukuya kwiikomiti ezimbini (iKomiti yoPhononongo loMgaqo-nkqubo i-PRC, kunye neKomiti yoLungelelwaniso oluKhethekileyo i-SCC). Emva koko wayenamandla okudlulisa uCarter ngaphezulu kwe-CIA kwi-SCC awayengusihlalo wayo. Kwintlanganiso yokuqala yekhabinethi emva kokuthatha i-ofisi uCarter wabhengeza ukuba uphakamisa umcebisi wezokhuseleko kuzwelonke kwinqanaba lekhabhathi kwaye u-Brzezinski uvaliwe kwizenzo zokufihla. Ngokwenzululwazi yezopolitiko nombhali uDavid J. Rothkopf, “Yayilugwayimbo lokuqala lobundlobongela kumyalelo wokuqala. Inkqubo ibinika uxanduva kwezona zinto zibalulekileyo nezinovakalelo kuBrzezinski. ” [24]
Ngokomnye uphando,[25] kwisithuba seminyaka emine uBrzezinski wayedla ngokuthatha amanyathelo ngaphandle kolwazi okanye kwemvume kamongameli; uthintelo lonxibelelwano oluthunyelwe kwi-White House kwihlabathi liphela kwaye lukhethe ngononophelo kuphela ezo zonxibelelwano zikamongameli ukuze azibone zihambelana nembono yakhe. IKomiti yakhe yokuLungelelanisa, i-SCC yayingumsebenzi wesitovu owawusebenza kuphela kumdla wakhe kwaye wakhanyela ulwazi kunye nokufikelela kwabo banokumphikisa, kubandakanya uNobhala welizwe u-Cyrus Vance kunye noMlawuli we-CIA uStansfield Turner. Njengelungu lekhabhinethi wayehlala kwi-ofisi ye-White House kwi-lobby evela kwi-Oval Office kwaye wadibana rhoqo noMongameli, abagcini zerekhodi ezindlwini bayeka ukugcina umkhondo weentlanganiso.[26] Ngokwesivumelwano noMongameli uCarter, uya kuthi emva koko achwetheze iimemo zekhasi ezintathu zezi kunye nazo naziphi na iintlanganiso kwaye azise kumongameli buqu.[27] Usebenzise eli gunya likhethekileyo ukuba azikhethele njengesithethi esiphambili kulawulo kunye nomqobo phakathi kweNdlu eNtshonalanga kunye nabanye abacebisi baka-Mongameli kwaye wade wenza unobhala weendaba ukuba adlulisele izigqibo zakhe ngqo kwi-Mainstream Media.
Wayekwirekhodi njengalowo wayezimisele ukumanyana ne-China ngoMeyi ka-1978 kwisiseko esichasene neSoviet esaphikisana nomgaqo-nkqubo wase-US ngelo xesha ngelixa wayesaziwa ngokulahlekisa umongameli kwimicimbi ebalulekileyo ukuze athethelele izikhundla zakhe.[28]
Ke usebenze njani e-Afghanistan?
UTobin uyayikhaba imbono yokuba u-Brzezinski angaze amcebise uCarter ukuba axhase umgaqo-nkqubo obeka umngcipheko kwi-SALT kunye ne-dente, ebeka emngciphekweni iphulo lakhe lonyulo kwaye asongele i-Iran, iPakistan kunye nePersian Gulf ekungeneleleni kweSoviet kwixesha elizayo-kuba kuTobin "yinto engenakwenzeka kwaphela. ”[29]
Njengobungqina bokuxhasa kwakhe inkolelo kaBrzezinski kwiminqweno yexesha elide leSoviet yokuhlasela uMbindi Mpuma ngeAfghanistan, uTobin ucacisa indlela uBrzezinski “amkhumbuza ngayo uCarter 'ngesenzo saseRashiya esiya emazantsi, emchazela ngokuthe ngqo ngesindululo sikaMolotov esiya kuHitler ngasekupheleni kuka-1940 ukuba amaNazi ayaliqonda ibango leSoviet lokubalasela kwingingqi esemazantsi eBatum naseBaku. '”Kodwa uTobin uyasilela ukuyikhankanya into yokuba oko uBrzezinski wakunika umongameli njengobungqina beenjongo zeSoviet eAfghanistan yayiyinkcazo eyaziwayo eyaziwayo[30] wento uHitler noMphathiswa Wezangaphandle uJoachim von Ribbentropp wayecebisile ukuya eMolotov-kwaye yiyiphi uMlotov ayigatyayo. Ngamanye amagama, okwahlukileyo koko u-Brzezinski wakunika uCarter-ukanti uTobin akayikhathaleli loo nto.
Ukusukela ngela xesha iAfghanistan yabhengeza inkululeko yayo kwiBritane ngo1919 kwade kwafika “iMarxist coup” yowe-1978 eyona njongo iphambili yomgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle weSoviet yayikukugcina ubudlelwane obunobunkunkqele kodwa obalumkileyo ne-Afghanistan, ngelixa kugcinwa umdla weSoviet.[31] Ukuzibandakanya kwe-US bekuhlala kukuncinci kunye ne-US emelwe ngamahlakani ePakistan naseIran kummandla. Ngo-1970 i-US yathathela ingqalelo ilizwe ukuba sele likwindawo ye-Soviet yeempembelelo ekubeni i-defacto ityikityiwe kwelo lungiselelo ekuqaleni kweMfazwe ebandayo. [32] Njengoko iingcali ezimbini zaseMelika zaseAfghanistan zacacisa ngokulula ngo-1981, “Impembelelo yeSoviet yayiyeyona ibalaseleyo kodwa ingoyiki de kwangowe-1978.”[33] Ngokuchasene nebango likaBrzezinski loyilo olukhulu lwaseSoviet, uNobhala welizwe u-Cyrus Vance akabonanga bungqina bokuba uMoscow unesandla kwi-78'ukubhukuqwa korhulumente wangaphambili kodwa ubungqina obuninzi bokungqina ubhukuqo bababambe ongezantsi.[34] Ngapha koko kubonakala ngathi inkokheli yombuso uHafizullah Amin woyika ukuba amaSoviet ngewayemmisile ukuba babelifumene eli yelenqe. USelig Harrison ubhala athi, “Imbonakalo eseleyo eshiywe bubungqina obukhoyo yenye yeendlela eziphuculweyo zokuphendula zeSoviet kwimeko engalindelekanga…. Kamva, iKGB 'yafumanisa ukuba imiyalelo ka-Amin malunga nolu qhushululu yayiquka ukuvalwa ngamandla kokwazisa amaRashiya malunga izenzo ezicwangcisiweyo. '”[35]
IMoscow ithathe isigqibo sokuba uHafizullah Amin uhambelane ne-CIA kwaye wambiza ngokuba '' ngumntu oqhelekileyo wongxowankulu kunye nobuzwe obugqithisileyo be-Pashtu ... ngamabhongo ezopolitiko angenasiphelo kunye nokulangazelela igunya, 'athi' azithobe kuko nakuphi na enze ulwaphulo-mthetho aluzalisekise. ' ”[36] Kwangoko ngoMeyi 1978, iiSoviets zazicwangcisile ukumsusa zize endaweni yakhe kwaye ngehlobo lowe-1979 zinxibelelana nabantu ababengengabo ubukomanisi bakakumkani noorhulumente kaMahammad Daoud ukwakha “urhulumente wobumbano, okanye umanyano. Ulawulo lukaTaraki-Amin, ”ngalo lonke eli xesha kugcinwa u-Bruce Amstutz nozakuzo wase-US.[37]
Kwabanye ababenamava ngeziganeko ezingqonge uhlaselo lweSoviet, akukho mathandabuzo okuba uBrzezinski wayefuna ukunyusa isibonda seSoviet eAfghanistan kwaye ebekade esenza oko ukusukela ngo-Epreli ka-1978 encediswa ngamaTshayina. Ngexesha lokuthunywa kwembali kuka-Brzezinski e-China kwiiveki nje ezimbalwa emva kokubanjwa kuka-Marxist e-Afghanistan, waphakamisa umba wenkxaso yase-China yokulwa ukubhukuqwa kuka-Marxist. [38]
Ukuxhasa umbono wakhe wokuba u-Brzezinski wayengaphembeleli uhlaselo lweSoviet, uTobin ucaphula ingxelo evela kumlawuli we-NSC weSouth Asia Affairs, uThomas Thornton ngoMeyi 3, 1978 enika ingxelo yokuba “i-CIA yayingazimiselanga kuthabatha amanyathelo afihlakeleyo”[39] Ngelo xesha kwaye walumkisa nge-14 kaJulayi, ukuba "kungabikho khuthazo lwaseburhulumenteni" lunikezelwa "kubacebi bobubi"[40] Esona siganeko sibhekisa kuThornton ngokubhekisele kunxibelelwano lelona gosa liphezulu kwezomkhosi e-Afghanistan elaphenya nge-ofisi yozakuzo yase-US uBruce Amstutz malunga nokuba i-US iyakuxhasa na ukubhukuqa "ulawulo luka-Marxist" olusandula ukufakwa luka-Nur Mohammed Taraki no-Hafizullah Amin.
UTobin emva koko ucaphula isilumkiso sikaThornton esiya kuBrzezinski esithi isiphumo "sokuncedisa… sinokuba sisimemo sokubandakanyeka okukhulu kweSoviet," kwaye wongeza ukuba uBrzezinski wabhala "ewe" elunxwemeni.
UTobin uthatha isilumkiso esivela kuThornton bubungqina obubambekayo bokuba uBrzezinski wayekhuthaza isenzo sokuvuselela ngokusayina u "ewe" kwisilumkiso sakhe. Kodwa into eyayithethwa nguBrzezinski ngokubhala eludinini kukuqagela komntu, ngakumbi ngenxa yomgaqo-nkqubo wakhe okrakra malunga nomba wokuzinzisa ulawulo kunye nommeli ozayo wase-US u-Adolph Dubs naye owafika ngoJulayi ngokunjalo.
"Ndiyakuxelela nje ukuba uBrzezinski wayenomzabalazo womgaqo-nkqubo waseMelika malunga neAfghanistan ngo-1978 no-79 phakathi kweBrzezinski kunye noDubs" intatheli kunye nomfundi USelig Harrison wasixelela kudliwanondlebe esasilwenza ngo-1993. “UDubs wayeyingcali yaseSoviet… enombono othuthuke kakhulu wento awayezakuyenza kwezopolitiko; eyayikukuzama ukwenza u-Amin abe nguTito - okanye eyona nto ikufutshane kakhulu kuye. Kwaye u-Brzezinski wayecinga ukuba bububhanxa obo… Amabhabha ayemele umgaqo-nkqubo wokungafuni i-US ukuba ibandakanyeke ekuncedeni amaqela aphikisayo kuba wayezama ukujongana neenkokheli zamaKomanisi zase-Afghanistan kwaye azinike uncedo kunye noqoqosho kunye nezinye izinto. ingayenza ukuba ingaxhomekeki kangako kwiSoviet Union… Ngoku uBrzezinski umele indlela eyahlukileyo, eyathi yonke le nto yayiyinxalenye yesiprofeto esasizithambisa. Yonke le nto ibiluncedo kakhulu kubantu abanjengoBrzezinski ababenolwalamano oluthile neSoviet Union. ”[41]
Kwincwadi yakhe no-Diego Cordovez Ngaphandle kweAfghanistan, UHarrison ukhumbula utyelelo lwakhe noDubs ngo-Agasti ka-1978 kunye nendlela ezathi ngayo kwiinyanga ezintandathu ezizayo ukungqubana kwakhe noBrzezinski kwabenza ubomi banzima kakhulu kwaye baba yingozi kuye ekuphumezeni umgaqo-nkqubo weSebe likaRhulumente. “UBrzezinski noDubs babesebenza ngenzondelelo ngasekupheleni kuka-1978 nasekuqaleni kuka-1979.” UHarrison ubhala. "Olu lawulo kwimisebenzi efihlakeleyo lwenze ukuba uBrzezinski athathe amanyathelo okuqala okulwa nomgaqo-nkqubo olwa ne-Soviet Afghanistan ngaphandle kweSebe likaRhulumente elazi kakhulu ngalo."[42]
Ngokwengxelo yeSebe likaRhulumente lika-1978 "Post Post" yomsebenzi wonozakuzaku, iAfghanistan yathathelwa ingqalelo njengesabelo esinzima "esingenakulindeleka - mhlawumbi sinobundlobongela - kuphuhliso lwezopolitiko oluchaphazela uzinzo lommandla ... NjengeNtloko yezomishini, neearhente ezisibhozo ezahlukeneyo, phantse i150. abasemagunyeni baseMelika, kwindawo ekude engenampilo, ”umsebenzi wonozakuzaku wawuyingozi ngokwaneleyo. Kodwa ngo-Ambassador Dubs ochasene ngqo nomgaqo-nkqubo ofihlakeleyo ka-Brzezinski wohlengahlengiso kwaba kubulala. UDubs wayeyazi ngokucacileyo kwasekuqaleni ukuba inkqubo eqhubekayo yozinzo inokubangela ukuba amaSoviet ahlasele kwaye achaze iqhinga lakhe kuSelig Harrison. U-Dubs uchaze ukuba iqhinga lase-United States kukugcina ngononophelo ukunyuka koncedo kunye nolunye unxibelelwano ngaphandle kokuxhokonxa uxinzelelo lweSoviet ku-Amin kunye nokungenelela komkhosi.[43]
Ngokomvavanyi wangaphambili weCIA uHenry Bradsher, uDub uzamile ukulumkisa iSebe likaRhulumente ukuba ukupheliswa kozinzo kungakhokelela kuhlaselo lweSoviet. Phambi kokuba ahambe aye eKabul wacebisa ukuba ulawulo lweCarter lwenze amalungiselelo okulungiselela impendulo yomkhosi waseSoviet kwaye kwiinyanga nje ezimbalwa zokufika ziphindaphinda isindululo. Kodwa iSebe likaRhulumente beliphelelwe ngamandla nguBrzezinski, isicelo sikaDubs asizange sithathelwe ngqalelo.[44]
Ekuqaleni kuka-1979 uloyiko kunye nokudideka malunga nokuba u-Hafizullah Amin wayesebenzela i-CIA ngokufihlakeleyo, waye wayizinzisa i-ambassy yase-US, u-Ambassador Dubs wajongana nomphathi wesikhululo sakhe wafuna iimpendulo, kodwa waxelelwa ukuba u-Amin akazange asebenzele i-CIA.[45] Kodwa amarhe okuba u-Amin wayenonxibelelwano noLawulo lwe-ISI kunye ne-Afghan Islamists exhaswa ngabo, ngakumbi uGulbuddin Hekmatyar yinyani.[46] Ngaphandle kwemiqobo uDubs wazingisa ekuqhubeleni phambili nezicwangciso zakhe noHafizullah Amin ngokuchasene noxinzelelo olucacileyo oluvela eBrzezinski nakwiNSC yakhe. UHarrison ubhala. "Okwangoku u-Dubs wayethetha ngamandla ngokugcina izinto zaseMelika zivulekile, ecenga ukuba ukuzinziswa kolawulo kunokubangela ungenelelo ngqo lwe-Soviet."[47]
U-Harrison uqhubeka athi; “UBrzezinski wagxininisa kudliwanondlebe emva kokuba eshiye iNdlu yeWhite House ukuba wayehleli ngokungqongqo ngaphakathi kwimigaqo kaMongameli ngeloxesha yokunganikeli uncedo olungqalileyo kwimvukelo yaseAfghan [ethe yatyhilwa njengeyinyani]. Kuba kwakungekho taboo kwinkxaso engathanga ngqoNangona kunjalo, i-CIA yayikhuthaze uZia Ul-Haq owayesandula ukumiliselwa ukuba asungule eyakhe inkqubo yokuxhasa umkhosi kubavukeli. I-CIA kunye ne-Pakistani Interservices Intelligence Directorate (ISI) uthe, basebenze kunye ngokusondeleyo ekucwangciseni iinkqubo zoqeqesho kubavukeli kunye nokulungelelanisa uncedo lwase China, Saudi Arabia, Egypt nase Kuwaiti olwaluqala ukungena. Ekuqaleni kukaFebruwari 1979, oku ukusebenzisana kwaba yimfihlo evulekileyo xa iWashington Post yapapasha [ngoFebruwari 2] ingxelo yokuzibonela yokuba ama-Afghani angamawaka amabini ubuncinane aqeqeshwa kwiindawo ezazisemkhosini wasePakistan ezazigadwe ngabapatroli basePakistan. ”[48]
UDavid Newsom, u-Undersecretary kaRhulumente wezeMicimbi yezoPolitiko owayedibene noRhulumente omtsha wase-Afghanistan ngehlobo lowe-1978 uxelele uHarrison, “Zisuka nje, uZbig wayenombono ongazinzisiyo ngale meko kunoVance kwaye uninzi lwethu kuRhulumente. Wayecinga ukuba kufanelekile ukuba senza into efihlakeleyo ukuphazamisa amabhongo eSoviet kuloo nxalenye yehlabathi. Ngamanye amaxesha ndandingendodwa ndibuza imibuzo malunga nobulumko kunye nokwenza into ayifunayo. ” 'Umlawuli weCIA uStansfield Turner, umzekelo,' "wayelumke ngakumbi kunoZbig, ehlala esithi into ayinakusebenza. UZbig wayengenalo ixhala lokucaphukisa amaRashiya, njengokuba abanye bethu babenjalo… ”[49]
Nangona ephawula ukubulawa kuka-Ambassador Dubs ngoFebruwari 14 ezandleni zamapolisa ase-Afghanistan njengeyona nto iphambili kuBrzezinski ukutshintsha umgaqo-nkqubo wase-Afghanistan ngokuchasene namaSoviet, uTobin uyayiphepha ngokupheleleyo idrama ekhokelele ekubulaweni kukaDubs, ukungqubana kwakhe UBrzezinski kunye noxinzelelo lwakhe olugqithisileyo lwabonisa ukuba ukucaphukisa abantu baseSoviet ngokwenza kungabikho mpu melelo kungakhokelela kuhlaselo.[50]
Ngentwasahlobo yowe-1979 i-"Vietnam yaseRussia "yayisasazeka ngokubanzi kumajelo eendaba aphesheya njengobungqina benkxaso yamaTshayina kwimvukelo yase-Afghanistan eyaqala ukucoca. Inqaku langoAprili kwiMagazini yaseCanada iMacLean's Magazine laxela ubukho bamagosa omkhosi waseTshayina kunye nabahlohli ePakistan beqeqesha kwaye bexhobisa “amaphiko asekunene eAfghan Moslem guerillas" emfazweni wabo ongcwele "ngokuchasene nolawulo olwalusemva kweMabul Kabul lukaNoor Mohammed Taraki.”[51] Inqaku likaMeyi 5 kwiWashington Post enesihloko esithi "Afghanistan: IVietnam yaseMoscow?" uye ngqo kwindawo ethi, "ukhetho lweSoviet lokukhupha ngokupheleleyo alusekho. Zibambekile. ”[52]
Kodwa ngaphandle kwebango lakhe loxanduva kwi INewvelle Observateur inqaku, isigqibo sokugcina amaRashiya ebambekile eAfghanistan inokuba sele iyinto eyenziwayo nguBrzezinski. Ngo-1996 Ukusuka kwiiShadows, owayesakuba ngumlawuli weCIA uRobert Gates kunye noBrzezinski ngoncedo kwi-NSC baqinisekisa ukuba i-CIA yayikweli tyala kudala ngaphambi kokuba amaSoviet abone nasiphi na isidingo sokuhlasela. “Abaphathi bakaCarter baqala ukujonga amathuba okuba bancede abavukeli ababephikisana norhulumente owayexhasa iSoviet, iMarxist kaMongameli uTaraki ekuqaleni kuka-1979. Ngomhla we-9 kweyoKwindla, 1979, i-CIA yathumela amanyathelo aliqela okufihla i-Afghanistan kwi-SCC. … I-DO yazise i-DDCI Carlucci ngasekupheleni kuka-Matshi ukuba urhulumente wasePakistan angabonakala phambili ngokunceda abavukeli kunokuba bekholelwa ngaphambili, ecaphula indlela yegosa eliphezulu lasePakistan kwigosa le-Arhente. ”[53]
Ngaphandle kweenjongo zobupolitika ezinxulunyaniswa nengcinga kaBrzezinski, ingxelo kaGates ityhila enye injongo eyongezelelekileyo yomgibe wase-Afghan: Iinjongo zexesha elide zokulawula iziyobisi kurhwebo lwe-opium kunye neenjongo zomntu jikelele wasePakistan otyholwa ngokwenza umgibe wase-Afghan inyani.
Ngo-1989 uLieutenant General Fazle Haq wasePakistan wazichaza njengegosa eliphezulu lasePakistan elaliphembelela uBrzezinski ukuba axhase abaxhasi be-ISI kwaye afumane umsebenzi wokuxhasa abavukeli. “Ndixelele uBrzezinski ukuba uzisusile eVietnam naseKorea; Kungcono uyifumane ngoku "uxelele intatheli yase-Bhritane u-Christina Lamb kudliwanondlebe lwencwadi yakhe, Ukulinda u-Allah.[54]
Ngaphandle kokukhulula u-Brzezinski kulo naluphi na uxanduva lokurhwebesha amaSoviet kumgibe wase-Afghan, ukwamkelwa kuka-Haq ngo-1989 kudityaniswe nesityhilelo se-Gates 1996 kuqinisekisa ukuzimisela kwangaphambili ukusebenzisa ulwazelelelo ukucaphukisa amaSoviet kwimpendulo yomkhosi, kwaye emva koko basebenzise loo mpendulo ukuqala umkhosi omkhulu Uphuculo olwabhekiswa kwi-Soviet reaction kwidilesi ka-Carter's Wake Forest ngo-Matshi ka-1978. Ikwaqhagamshela iinjongo zika-Fazle Haq kuMongameli Carter no-Brzezinski kwaye ngokwenza njalo, yenza zombini izincedisi zokusasaza iziyobisi ezingekho mthethweni ngexabiso lika-Carter's "Isicwangciso-qhinga sikaRhulumente sokuthintela ukusetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi kunye nokuthutyeleziswa kweziyobisi"
Ekupheleni konyaka we-1977 uGqirha David Musto, ugqirha wengqondo wase-Yale wakwamkela ukubekwa kukaCarter kwiBhunga leQhinga le-White House ngokuSetyenziswa gwenxa kweziyobisi. “Kule minyaka mibini izayo, uMusto wafumanisa ukuba i-CIA kunye nezinye ii-arhente zobuntlola ziyalile ibhunga — elamalungu alo aquka unobhala welizwe kunye negqwetha jikelele-ukufikelela kuzo zonke iinkcukacha ezihleliweyo zamachiza, naxa kwakufuneka kwenziwe umgaqo-nkqubo omtsha. ”
Xa uMusto wazisa i-White House malunga nokuxoka kwe-CIA malunga nokuzibandakanya kwabo akazange afumane mpendulo. Kodwa xa uCarter waqala ukuxhasa ngezimali esidlangalaleni i-mujahideen guerrillas emva kohlaselo lweSoviet u-Musto uxelele ibhunga. “'[T] umnqwazi besisiya e-Afghanistan siyokuxhasa abalimi be-opium kwimvukelo yabo ngokuchasene nabantu baseSoviet. Asifanelanga ukuba sizame ukuyiphepha le nto besiyenzile eLaos? Akufanele sizame ukuhlawula abalimi ukuba bayayiphelisa imveliso yabo ye-opium? Kwathi cwaka. ' Njengoko iqhawekazi laseAfghanistan nelasePakistan langena eMelika ngo-1979, uMusto waphawula ukuba inani labantu ababulawa ziziyobisi kwisiXeko saseNew York lenyuke ngama-77 epesenti.[55]
I-heroin yeGolden Triangle ibonelele ngomthombo ofihlakeleyo wemali yokusebenza kwe-CIA ngokuchasene nobukomanisi ngexesha leMfazwe yaseVietnam. "Ngo-1971, ama-34 eepesenti kuwo onke amajoni ase-US eMzantsi Vietnam ayelikhoboka le-heroin- onke anikezelwa evela kwiilebhu eziqhutywa zii-asethi ze-CIA."[56] Enkosi kuGqirha David Musto, ukusebenzisa kukaHaq ukurhweba ngamaqhawe e-Tribal ukuxhasa ngokufihlakeleyo imikhosi evukelayo kaGulbuddin Hekmatyar sele ibhenciwe, kodwa ngenxa kaFazle Haq, uZbigniew Brzezinski kunye nendoda egama linguAgha Hassan Abedi kunye I-Bhanki yezoRhwebo kunye neKhredithi yeHlabathi, imigaqo yomdlalo iya kuguqulwa ngaphakathi ngaphandle. [57]
Ngo-1981, uHaq wayewenze umda wase-Afghanistan / Pakistan ngumthengisi ophambili we-heroin emhlabeni ngeepesenti ezingama-60 ze-heroin yase-US eza kwinkqubo yakhe[58]kwaye ngo-1982 i-Interpol yayi dwelisa iqabane lika Brzezinski lobuchule uFazle Haq njengomrhwebi ohambisa iziyobisi kumazwe aphesheya.[59]
Emva kweVietnam, uHaq wabekwa endaweni yakhe ukuba athathe ithuba lokutshintsha kwezorhwebo ngokungekho mthethweni kwezorhwebo ukusuka mpuma mpuma Asia kunye neGolden Triangle ukuya kuMazantsi eAsia naseGolden Crescent, apho ikhuselwe bubukrelekrele basePakistan kunye ne-CIA kunye apho ichuma namhlanje.[60]
Haq noAbedi kunye yaguqula urhwebo lweziyobisi Phantsi kwesigqubuthelo semfazwe kaMongameli uCarter olwa ne-Soviet Afghan esenza ukuba kukhuseleke kuzo zonke i-arhente zobuntlola zehlabathi ukuba zibeke phantsi izinto ezazisenziwa ngokufihlakeleyo ziinkqubo zikarhulumente. Kwaye nguAbedi oweza nomhlala phantsi UMongameli Carter njengendoda yakhe yangaphambili ukugunyazisa ubuso bemisebenzi yebhanki yakhe engekho mthethweni njengoko iqhubeka nokuxhasa ngezimali ubugrogrisi bamaSilamsi ukusasazeka kwihlabathi liphela.
Baninzi abakhetha ukukholelwa ekubeni ukubandakanyeka kuka-Mongameli Carter no-Agha Hassan Abedi kwaba sisiphumo sokungazi okanye i-naiveté kwaye entliziyweni yakhe uMongameli uCarter wayezama nje ukuba yindoda elungileyo. Kodwa novavanyo oluntsonkothileyo lwe-BCCI ityhila unxibelelwano olunzulu kwisangqa seCarter seDemocratic Party esingenakuchazwa ngokungazi.[61] Ingacaciswa ngumzekelo obaliweyo wenkohliso kunye nomongameli ukuza kuthi ga namhlanje uyala ukuphendula nayiphi na imibuzo ngayo.
Kwamanye amalungu eCarter White House asebenzisana noBrzezinski kwiminyaka yakhe emine kwivili elisuka kowe-1977 ukuya kowe-1981 injongo yakhe yokuphembelela abantu baseRussia ukuba benze into eAfghanistan yayihlala icacile. NgokukaJohn Helmer Umntu owayesebenza e-White House owayenikwe umsebenzi wokuphanda imigaqo-nkqubo emibini ka-Brzezinski kuCarter, u-Brzezinski wayezakubeka emngciphekweni nantoni na yokujongela phantsi iiSoviet kunye nokusebenza kwakhe e-Afghanistan.
“UBrzezinski wayeyithiy 'egazini iRashiya de kwasekupheleni. Oko kukhokelele ekusileleni okukhulu kwexesha likaCarter e-ofisini; intiyo eyakhutshwa nguBrzezinski yaba nefuthe elisaqhubeka ukuba yintlekele kwihlabathi liphela. ” U-Helmer wabhala ngo-2017, "U-Brzezinski uya kuzukiswa ngokuqala kwezona zinto zingalunganga-umbutho, inkxaso-mali, kunye nezixhobo ze-mujahideen ze-Islamic fundamentalists eziye zagubungela-ngemali yase-US kunye neengalo nangoku-kwimikhosi yobunqolobi yamaSilamsi esebenza kude ne-Afghanistan. nasePakistan, apho aqala khona uBrzezinski. ”[62]
U-Helmer unyanzelisa ukuba u-Brzezinski asebenzise amandla alalanayo ku-Carter awamrholela kwi-ajenda ye-Brzezinski ngelixa emfamekisa kwiziphumo kwasekuqaleni kobongameli bakhe. “Kwasekuqaleni… kwiinyanga ezintandathu zokuqala zika-1977, uCarter waxwayiswa ngokucacileyo ngabasebenzi bakhe, ngaphakathi kwi-White House… ukuba angamvumeli uBrzezinski ukuba alawule imigaqo-nkqubo yakhe ngaphandle kwazo zonke ezinye iingcebiso, nokususwa ubungqina obalixhomekeke kulo eli cebiso. ” Nangona kunjalo isilumkiso sawela ezindlebeni zikaCarter ngelixa uxanduva lwezenzo zikaBrzezinski luwela emagxeni akhe. NgokukaMlawuli weCIA kaCarter uStansfield Turner; “Olona xanduva luxanduva lukaJimmy Carter. Kufanele ukuba ibe nguMongameli ohluza ezi ntlobo zahlukeneyo zeengcebiso. ” [63] Kodwa unanamhla UCarter uyala ukujongana nendima yakhe ekudaleni intlekele eye yaba yi-Afghanistan.
Ngo-2015 saqala ukusebenza kwi-documentary ukugqiba ukucoca umoya kwezinye zeemibuzo ezingaphendulwanga malunga nendima yaseMelika e-Afghanistan kwaye sadibanisa noGqirha Charles Cogan kudliwanondlebe. Kungekudala emva kokuba ikhamera iqengqiwe, UCogan waphazanyiswa esixelela Wayethethile noBrzezinski ngentwasahlobo ka-2009 malunga nonyaka we-1998 Umbonisi omtsha Udliwanondlebe kwaye waphazamiseka kukufumanisa ukuba "ithrafikhi yomgibe wase-Afghanistan" njengoko kuchaziwe nguBrzezinski yayisemthethweni.[64]
“Ndiye ndancokola naye. Lo yayingumsitho kaSamuel Huntington. UBrzezinski wayelapho. Zange ndadibana naye ngaphambili ndaya kuye ndazazisa ndathi ndiyavumelana nayo yonke into oyenzayo nayithethayo ngaphandle kwento enye. Unike udliwanondlebe ne-Nouvel Observateur kwiminyaka eyadlulayo usithi simunce iiSoviet e-Afghanistan. Ndathi andizange ndive okanye ndiyamkele loo ngcamango kwaye wathi kum, 'Usenokuba nombono wakho kwi-Arhente kodwa sinombono ohlukileyo kwiNdlu ye-White House,' kwaye wagxininisa ukuba oku kulungile. Kwaye nangoku… leyo yayiyindlela awayeziva ngayo ngayo. Kodwa andizange ndifumane nto xa ndandiyiNtloko kufutshane ne-Mpuma ye-Asiya ngexesha lemfazwe yase-Afghan ngokuchasene nabantu baseSoviet.
Ekugqibeleni kubonakala ngathi u-Brzezinski wayelukuhlile iiSoviet ukuba ziye eVietnam ngenjongo kwaye wayefuna ugxa wakhe-njengomnye wamagosa aphezulu e-CIA ukuba athathe inxaxheba kweyona misebenzi mikhulu yezobuntlola yaseMelika ukusukela nge-WWII-ukuyazi. UBrzezinski wayesebenze le nkqubo ukuze afezekise iinjongo zakhe kwaye wakwazi ukuyigcina iyimfihlo kwaye ingekho kwirekhodi elisemthethweni. Wayerhwebeshe iiSoviet kumgibe wase-Afghan kwaye babewile ngenxa yesithiyelo.
KuBrzezinski, ukufumana amaSoviet ukuba ahlasele iAfghanistan yayilithuba lokutshintsha isivumelwano saseWashington siye kumgca onzima ongapheliyo eSoviet Union. Ngaphandle kokongamela ekusebenziseni kwakhe isenzo sokufihla njengosihlalo we-SCC, wayedala iimeko ezifunekayo zokuphembelela impendulo ekhuselayo yaseSoviet awayeyisebenzisa njengobungqina bokwanda okungapheliyo kweSoviet kwaye wasebenzisa imithombo yeendaba, awayeyilawula, ingqinisise, ngaloo ndlela idala isiprofeto esizalisekayo. Nangona kunjalo, yakuba yamkelwe inkqubo yakhe yeRussophobic yokugabadela kunye nobuxoki malunga nokusebenza kwakhe ngasese, bafumana ikhaya kumaziko aseMelika kwaye bayaqhubeka nokukhathaza loo maziko ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Umgaqo-nkqubo wase-US ukusukela ngelo xesha usebenze kwi-Russophobic haze yoloyiso ethi icaphukise izehlo zamanye amazwe ize ixhase isiphithiphithi. Kwaye uBrzezinski wothuka wafumanisa ukuba akangekhe ayicime le nkqubo.
Kwi-2016, unyaka ongaphambi kokusweleka kwakhe u-Brzezinski wahambisa isityhilelo esinzulu kwinqaku elinesihloko “Ukusa kulungelelwaniso lwehlabathi” Isilumkiso sokuba “I-United States iseyeyona nto inamandla kwezopolitiko, kwezoqoqosho, nakwezomkhosi, kodwa ke inikwe utshintsho oluntsonkothileyo kwimimandla eseleyo, ayisekho amandla omhlaba jikelele. ” Kodwa emva kweminyaka yokunikela ubungqina ngeempazamo zaseMelika malunga nokusetyenziswa kwamandla ombuso, waqonda ukuba iphupha lakhe lenguquko ekhokelwa yiMelika ukuya kulungelelwaniso lwehlabathi alinakuze libekho. Nangona wayengaxolisi ekusebenziseni i-hubris yakhe yasebukhosini ukurhwebesha amaSoviet e-Afghanistan, wayengalindelanga ukuba uBukhosi baseMelika abuthandayo buwele kumgibe ofanayo kwaye ekugqibeleni waphila ixesha elide ngokwaneleyo ukuba aqonde ukuba uphumelele uloyiso lwePyrrhic kuphela.
Kutheni le nto uConor Tobin ebususa ubungqina obubalulekileyo malunga nendima yase-US kwi-1979 yokuhlasela kweSoviet Afghanistan ngoku?
Ngokwento eyenziweyo kwimbali ngeenzame zikaConor Tobin zokulungisa “ithisisi yomgibe waseAfghan” kunye nokucacisa uZbigniew Brzezinski kunye noMongameli uCarter izibakala zalomcimbi zihlala zicacile. Ukuhlazisa iBrzezinski's Umbonisi omtsha Udliwanondlebe alwanelanga emsebenzini wakhe ngenxa yodliwanondlebe lwethu lowama-2015 nomphathi wangaphambili weCIA uCharles Cogan kunye nobungqina obuninzi obuphikisa ngokupheleleyo ithisisi yakhe yokulwa "i-Afghan Trap".
Ngaba uTobin "wayengumphengululi oyedwa" owayenomdla wokucoca igama likaBrzezinski lokuzalwa kwiprojekthi yesikolo umzamo wakhe ungayinto enye. Kodwa ukubeka ithisisi yakhe emxinwa kwijenali egunyazisiweyo yezifundo zamazwe aphesheya njengokucinga kwakhona ngokuhlasela kweSoviet Afghanistan kufake izicelo zokucinga. Kodwa emva koko, iimeko ezingqonge uhlaselo lweSoviet, isenzo sika-Mongameli uCarter esenziwe kwangaphambili, impendulo yakhe ethandabuzekayo kuyo kunye nenxaxheba yakhe emva kobumongameli kunye nomxhasi we-CIA u-Agha Hassan Abedi, ushiye kancinci ekucingeni.
Kubo bonke ubungqina obuchasa i-thesis kaTobin yokulwa ne-Afghan Trap, eyona nto ifikelelekayo kwaye inengxaki kubaphathi be-'bali elisemthethweni 'malunga nendima yase-US kuhlaselo lwe-Afghanistan e-Afghanistan iseyintatheli uVincent Jauvert ka-1998. Udliwanondlebe lweNouvel Observateur. Nokuba le nzame yokusula irekhodi elicocekileyo sisizathu esisemva kwesincoko sikaConor Tobin. Kusenokwenzeka ukuba umgama ophakathi ngoku nokusweleka kukaBrzezinski ubonakalise ukuba lixesha elifanelekileyo lokuba achaze ngokutsha ingxelo yakhe esidlangalaleni.
Kwakukho ithamsanqa lokuba sikwazi ukufumanisa umzamo kaConor Tobin kwaye sayilungisa kangangoko sinako. Kodwa i-Afghanistan yimeko enye kuphela apho abantu baseMelika belahlekisiwe. Sonke kufuneka sazi ngakumbi ukuba inkqubo yethu yokwenza indalo yenziwe njani ngamagunya okuba-kwasekuqaleni. Kubalulekile ukuba sifunde indlela yokuyibuyisela umva.
UBertolt Brecht, Ukunyuka okuqinisekileyo kweArturo Ui
"Ukuba besinokufunda ukujonga endaweni yokubamba,
Siza kubona ukungcangcazela entliziyweni ye-farce,
Ukuba nje besinokwenza endaweni yokuthetha,
Asiyi kuhlala siphela nge-esile lethu.
Le yeyona nto iphantse yasenza sazi kakuhle;
Andisanemihlali kukoyiswa kwakhe, nina madoda!
Nangona umhlaba wema kwaye wayimisa le bastard,
Inja emzeleyo ishushu kwakhona. ”
UPaul Fitzgerald no-Elizabeth Gould ngababhali be Imbali engabonakaliyo: Imbali yase-Afghanistan yase-Afghanistan, Ukuwela iZero Imfazwe ye-AfPak kwindawo yokuTshintsha koBukhosi baseMelika kwaye Ilizwi. Ndwendwela iwebhusayithi yabo Imbali engabonakaliyo kwaye mzantsiweb.
[1] Imbali yozakuzo Ijenali yaseburhulumenteni yoMbutho wababhali beMbali yeAmerican Foreign Relations (SHAFR). Eli phephancwadi libhenela kubafundi abavela kwiinkalo ezahlukeneyo, kubandakanya izifundo zaseMelika, ezoqoqosho lwamanye amazwe, imbali yaseMelika, izifundo zokhuseleko kuzwelonke, kunye nezifundo zaseLatin-American, Asia, Afrika, Yurophu naseMbindi Mpuma.
[2] Imbali yozakuzo, Umqulu 44, Imba 2, Epreli 2020, iphepha 237-264, https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhz065
Ipapashwe: 09 Januwari 2020
[3] Uphengululo lwenqaku le-H-Diplo Article 966 malunga neTobin .: Zbigniew Brzezinski neAfghanistan, 1978-1979. ” Ukuphononongwa nguT Todd Greentree, kwiYunivesithi yaseOxford Ukutshintsha uMlinganiswa weZiko leMfazwe
[4] UVincent Jauvert, Udliwanondlebe noZbigniew Brzezinski, Le Nouvel Observateur (France), Jan 15-21, 1998, iphe. 76 * (Zimbini ke ezi magazini; ubuncinci ngaphandle kweThala leencwadi leCongress, inguqulelo leyo ithunyelwe eUnited States imfutshane kunenguqulo yesiFrentshi, kwaye udliwanondlebe lwaseBrzezinski aluzange lubandakanywe kuhlobo olufutshane).
[5] UPaul Fitzgerald no-Elizabeth Gould, Imbali engabonakaliyo: Imbali yase-Afghanistan yase-Afghanistan, (San Francisco: Iincwadi zezibane zesiXeko, 2009).
[6] UConor Tobin, Intsomi 'yomgibe waseAfghan': Zbigniew Brzezinski kunye neAfghanistan, 1978—1979 Imbali yozakuzo, Umqulu 44, Umba 2, Epreli 2020. p. 239
https://doi.org/10.1093/dh/dhz065
[7] U-MS Agwani, uMhleli woPhononongo, "Uhlaziyo lweSaur kunye nasemva koko" I-JOURNAL YEKOTA YESIKOLO SEZIFUNDO ZAMAZWE NGAMAZWE I-JAWAHARLAL NEHRU UNIVERSITY (ENew Delhi, eIndiya) Umqulu 19, Inombolo 4 (Okthobha-Disemba 1980) p. 571
[8] Udliwanondlebe noPaul Jay noZbigniew Brzezinski, Imfazwe yaseBrzinsinski yaseAfghan kunye neGrand Chessboard (2/3) 2010 - https://therealnews.com/stories/zbrzezinski1218gpt2
[9] Udliwanondlebe lukaSamira Goetschel noZbigniew Brzezinski, Eyethu iLin bin bin Laden 2006 - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EVgZyMoycc0&feature=youtu.be&t=728
[10] UDiego Cordovez, uSelig S.Harrison, Ukuphuma e-Afghanistan: Ibali langaphakathi lokurhoxa kweSoviet (ENew York: IYunivesithi yaseOxford Press, 1995), iphe. 34.
[11] Tobin “Intsomi 'yomgibe waseAfghan": Zbigniew Brzezinski naseAfghanistan ", p. 240
[12] Isivumelwano seVladivostok, ngoNovemba 23-24, 1974, uNobhala Jikelele weKomiti ePhambili ye-CPSU LI Brezhnev kunye noMongameli wase-USA uGerald R. Ford baxoxe ngokweenkcukacha ngombuzo wokuncitshiswa ngakumbi kwezixhobo ezicaphukisayo. https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/treaties/vladivostok.html
| [13] I-PRM 10 | Uvavanyo oluPheleleyo lweNet kunye noPhononongo loMkhosi woMkhosi |
Februwari 18, 1977
[14] U-Anne Hessing Cahn, Ukubulala iDentente: AmaLungelo ahlasela i-CIA (IPennsylvania State University Press, 1998), iphe. 187.
[15] URaymond L. Garthoff, Ukuchana kunye nokuBambana (Washington, DC: Iziko leBrookings, uHlelo oluHlaziyiweyo lowe-1994), iphe. 657
[16] UGqr. Carol Saivetz, kwiYunivesithi yaseHarvard, "Ungenelelo eAfghanistan kunye nokuwa kweDétente" inkomfa, eLysebu, eNorway, ngoSeptemba 17-20, 1995 p. 252-253.
[17] Cahn, Ukubulala iDentente: AmaLungelo ahlasela i-CIA, iphe. 15.
[18] Udliwanondlebe, Washington DC, ngoFebruwari 17, 1993.
[19] Jonga INTLANGANISO YEPOLITBURO YEKOMITI YENKCUBEKO YECOMITI YAMAKOMITI YOMBUTHO WESOVIET Matshi 17, 1979 https://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/113260
[20] U-GB Kistiakowsky, uHerbert Scoville, “Ilizwi elilahlekileyo laseKremlin,” IBoston Globe KaFebruwari 28, 1980, iphe. 13.
[21] UDev Murarka, "WOMBHALI WASEKHAYA: UNGENELELO LWERUSSI: UHLAHLELO LWEMOSCOW," ITHEYIBHILE YOMJIKELO (London, England), No. 282 (APRILI 1981), iphe. 127.
[22] Udliwanondlebe noPaul Warnke, Washington, DC, ngoFebruwari 17, 1993. UAdmiral Stansfield Turner, Owayesakuba nguMlawuli weCentral Intelligence, “The Intervention in Afghanistan and the Fall of Détente” conference, Lysebu, Norway Septemba 17-20 p. 216.
[23] J. William Fulbright, "Ukucinga ngokuthotywa kukoyika," INew YorkerNgoJanuwari 1, 1972 (eNew York, e-USA), ngoJanuwari 8, 1972 Inqaku p. 44-45
[24] UDavid J. RothKopf -Umhleli kaCharles Gati, I-ZBIG: Isicwangciso-qhinga kunye noRhulumente waseZbigniew Brzezinski (UJohn Hopkins University Press 2013), iphe. 68.
[25] UErika McLean, Ngaphaya kweKhabinethi: Ukwandiswa kukaZbigniew Brzezinski woBume boMcebisi kuKhuseleko kuZwelonke, Ithisisi elungiselelwe isiDanga se-Master of the Arts, iYunivesithi yaseNyakatho yeTexas, Agasti 2011. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc84249/
[26] Ibid iphe. 73
[27] UBetty Ndonwabile, Umntu ongaphandle kwiNdlu eNtshonalanga: UJimmy Carter, abaCebisi baKhe, kunye nokwenza uMgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle waseMelika (Ithaca, eNew York: IYunivesithi yaseCornell, 2009), iphe. 84.
[28] URaymond L. Garthoff, Ukuchana kunye nokuBambana (Washington, DC: Iziko leBrookings, uHlelo oluHlaziyiweyo lowe-1994), iphe. 770.
[29] Tobin “Intsomi 'yomgibe waseAfghan": Zbigniew Brzezinski naseAfghanistan ", p. 253
[30] URaymond L. Garthoff, Ukuchana kunye nokuBambana, (UHlelo oluhlaziyiweyo), iphe. 1050. Qaphela 202. Kamva uGarthoff usichaza esi siganeko njengoBrzezinski “njengesifundo esingachananga sembali kwintetho kaMoloto-Hitler ngo-1940.” (Nguwuphi uCarter owenza impazamo yokwamkela ngexabiso lobuso) p. NONE
[31] URodric Braithwaite, I-Afgantsy: AmaRussia aseAfghanistan 1979-89, (I-Oxford University Press, eNew York 2011), iphe. 29-36.
[32] UGqirha uGary Sick, owayesakuba lilungu labasebenzi be-NSC, ingcali ye-Iran kunye ne-Middle East, "Ungenelelo e-Afghanistan kunye nokuwa kwe-Détente" inkomfa, uLysebu, iphe. 38.
[33] UNancy Peabody Newell kunye noRichard S. Newell, Umzabalazo we-Afghanistan, (ICornell University Press 1981), iphe. 110-111
[34] URodric Braithwaite, Inkxaso, p. 41
[35] UDiego Cordovez, uSelig S.Harrison, Ngaphandle kweAfghanistan, iphe. 27 Ecaphula uAlexander Morozov, "Umntu wethu eKabul," Ixesha elitsha (EMoscow), ngoSeptemba 24, 1991, iphe. 38.
[36] UJohn K. Cooley, Iimfazwe ezingcwele: iAfghanistan, iMelika kunye nobunqolobi bamanye amazwe, (IPluto Press, London 1999). I-12 icaphula idiplomat ephezulu yaseKremlin UVasily Safronchuk, Afghanistan kwiXesha leTaraki, Imicimbi yamanye amazwe, eMoscow ngoJanuwari 1991, iphepha 86-87.
[37] URaymond L. Garthoff, Ukuchana kunye nokuBambana, (UHlelo oluHleliweyo lowe-1994), iphepha 1003.
[38] URaymond L. Garthoff, Ukuchana kunye nokuBambana, iphe. 773.
[39] Tobin “Intsomi 'yomgibe waseAfghan": Zbigniew Brzezinski naseAfghanistan ", p. 240.
[40] Ibid iphe. 241.
[41] Udliwanondlebe noSelig Harrison, Washington, DC, ngoFebruwari 18, 1993.
[42] UDiego Cordovez - USelig Harrison, ngaphandle kweAfghanistan: Ibali langaphakathi lokurhoxa kweSoviet (ENew York, eOxford: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, 1995), iphe. 33.
[43] Ibid.
[44] UHenry S. Bradsher, I-Afghanistan kunye neSoviet Union, uHlelo oluTsha kunye nolwandisiweyo, (UDurham: iDuke University Press, 1985), iphe. Ngama-85-86.
[45] USteve Coll, Iimfazwe zomoya: Imbali eyimfihlo ye-CIA, Afghanistan, kunye neBin Laden, ukusuka kuhlaselo lweSoviet ukuya nge-10 Septemba 2001 (Iincwadi zePenguin, 2005) p. 47-48.
[46] Incoko yababhali noMalawi u-Abdulaziz Sadiq, (umhlobo osenyongweni kunye no-Hafizullah Amin) ngoJuni 25, 2006.
[47] UDiego Cordovez -Selig Harrison, Ngaphandle kweAfghanistan: Ibali langaphakathi lokurhoxa kweSoviet, iphe. 34.
[48] Cordovez - IHarrison, Ngaphandle kweAfghanistan iphe. 34 Ecaphula uPeter Nieswand, “Guerillas Train in Pakistan to put Afghanistan Afghan,” Washington Post, Februwari 2, 1979, iphe. I-23.
[49] Ibid. iphe. 33.
[50] Ibid.
[51] UPeter Nieswand, "Eyona nto ibalulekileyo kukulwa kukaPeking," MacLean, (EToronto, eCanada) ngo-Epreli 30, 1979 ip. 24
[52] UJonathan C. Randal, Washington Post, Meyi 5, 1979 iphe. A-33.
[53] URobert M. Gates, Ukusuka eShadows: Ibali lokuGqibela laNgaphakathi laBongameli abahlanu kunye nendlela abayiphumelele ngayo iMfazwe ebandayo (ENew York, TOUCHSTONE, 1996), iphe. 144
[54] UChristina iMvana, Ukulinda u-Allah: Umzabalazo wasePakistan kwiDemokhrasi (IViking, 1991), iphe. 222
[55] UAlfred W. McCoy, Ezopolitiko zeHeroin, i-CIA yokuNzima kuRhwebo lweZiyobisi lweHlabathi, (IHarper & Row, eNew York-uHlelo oluHlaziyiweyo kunye nolwandisiweyo, ngo-1991), iphepha 436-437. ENew York Times, NgoMeyi 22, 1980.
[56] UAlfred W. McCoy, “Amaxhoba emfazwe ye-CIA ngokuchasene nobukomanisi,” Boston Globe, Novemba 14, 1996, iphe. A-27
[57] UAlfred W. McCoy, Ezopolitiko zeHeroin, i-CIA yokuNzima kuRhwebo lweZiyobisi lweHlabathi, UHlelo olwandisiweyo), iphepha 452-454
[58] UAlfred W. McCoy, “Amaxhoba emfazwe ye-CIA ngokuchasene nobukomanisi,” Boston Globe, Novemba 14, 1996, iphe. A-27 https://www.academia.edu/31097157/_Casualties_of_the_CIAs_war_against_communism_Op_ed_in_The_Boston_Globe_Nov_14_1996_p_A_27
[59] UAlfred W. McCoy kunye noAlan A.Block (ed.) Imfazwe ngeziyobisi: Izifundo kusilelo loMgaqo-nkqubo we-Narcotic wase-US, (IBoulder, iColo: Westview, 1992), iphe. 342
[60] UCatherine Lamour kunye noMichel R. Lamberti, Unxibelelwano lwaMazwe ngaMazwe: IOpium evela kubalimi iye kwiPusher, (Iincwadi zePenguin, 1974, ukuguqulelwa kwesiNgesi) iphe. 177-198.
[61] UWilliam Safire, "Inxalenye kaClifford kwi-Scandal yeBhanki yiTip kuphela ye-Iceberg," Chicago Tribune, Julayi 12, 1991 https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1991-07-12-9103180856-story.html
[62] UJohn Helmer, "UZbigniew Brzezinski, uSvengali kaMongameli kaJimmy Carter ufile, kodwa ububi buqhubeka." http://johnhelmer.net/zbigniew-brzezinski-the-svengali-of-jimmy-carters-presidency-is-dead-but-the-evil-lives-on/
[63] USamira Goetschel - Owethu uBin Laden, ngo-2006. Ngo-8: 59
[64] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yNJsxSkWiI0
