NgoDisemba 1914, kwaqhambuka uxolo olumangalisayo, nangona lwalufutshane, xa amajoni afikelela kwi-100,000 500 lezigidi, okanye ishumi ekhulwini, elalimi ngakuMgama oziikhilomitha ezingama-24 kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi I, omabini la maqela ayeka ukulwela ubuncinci. Iiyure ezingama-36-24, ngoDisemba 26-11. Amatyala awodwa oxolo lwasekuhlaleni lwenzeka kwangoko nge-1915 kaDisemba, kwaye aqhubeleka manqaphanqapha de kwaba nguSuku loNyaka oMtsha ukuya ekuqaleni kukaJanuwari 115. Ubuncinci amajoni ali-30 abandakanyekayo kumajoni aseBritane, eJamani, eFrentshi naseBelgian. Ngaphandle kwemiyalelo kawonke-wonke eyalela ngokungqongqo naluphi na uhlobo lobudlelwane notshaba, amanqaku amaninzi ecaleni kwemithi engqina ngaphambili enamakhandlela akhanyisiweyo, amajoni aphuma emiseleni yawo eqelelene ngeeyadi ezingama-40 ukuya kwezingama-XNUMX kuphela ukuze axhawule izandla, abelane ngemisi, ukutya newayini, kwaye acule kunye. nganye komnye. Imikhosi evela macala onke yathabatha ithuba lokungcwaba abafileyo bayo belele kwiindawo zedabi, kwaye kwakukho neengxelo zeenkonzo zokungcwaba ezidibeneyo. Kwezinye iimeko amagosa aye angenela umanyano lobuzalwana oluxhaphakileyo. Kukwakhankanywa apha naphaya ngomdlalo webhola ekhatywayo odlalwa phakathi kwamaJamani namaBritane. (Jonga IMITHOMBO).
Njengombonakaliso ochukumisayo womoya womntu njengoko oku kwakunjalo, nangona kunjalo, yayingesosiganeko sikhethekileyo kwimbali yemfazwe. Enyanisweni, yayikukuqala ngokutsha kwesithethe esele simiselwe ixesha elide. Izivumelwano ezingekho sikweni kunye neemfazwe ezincinci zasekhaya kunye neziganeko zobuhlobo ezabelwana ngazo phakathi kweentshaba zenzeke ngexesha elide lokulwa emkhosini kwiinkulungwane ezininzi, mhlawumbi ngaphezulu.[1] Oku kubandakanya imfazwe yaseViet Nam ngokunjalo.[2]
Umkhosi odla umhlala-phantsi uLt. Col. Dave Grossman, unjingalwazi wenzululwazi yezomkhosi, uthe abantu banobuxhakaxhaka bokuchasa ukubulala obufuna uqeqesho olukhethekileyo ukuze boyise.[3] Andizange ndikwazi ukuphosa i-bayonet yam kwi-dummy ngexesha loqeqesho lwamajoni ase-USAF ekuqaleni kuka-1969. umyalelo? Umphathi wam ngokucacileyo wayengonwabanga xa ndala ukusebenzisa ibhayonethi yam, kuba umkhosi wazi kakuhle ukuba amadoda anokubulawa kuphela ngokunyanzelwa. Ingcinezelo efunekayo ukuze umkhosi usebenze uqatha. Iyazi ukuba ayinakuvumela incoko malunga nomsebenzi wayo kwaye kufuneka ikhuphe ngokukhawuleza naziphi na iintanda kwinkqubo yokuthobela engaboniyo. Ngoko nangoko ndafakwa “kuLudwe Lolawulo Lwegosa” ndaza ndajamelana nezithethi zasebukhosini ngaphaya kweengcango ezivaliweyo apho ndandigrogriswa ngetyala lenkundla, ndihlazekile ngokuphindaphindiweyo, ndityholwa ngokuba ligwala nomngcatshi. Ukwala kwam ngokungalindelekanga ukuthatha inxaxheba kwi-bayonet drill, ndaxelelwa, kwadala iingxaki zokuziphatha ezisongela ukuphazamisa umsebenzi wethu.
Isazi ngengqondo yezentlalo kwiYunivesithi yaseYale uStanley Milgram ngo-1961, kwiinyanga ezintathu kuphela emva kokuqala kwetyala lika-Adolph Eichmann eYerusalem ngendima yakhe yokulungelelanisa ukuBulawa Kwabantu Ngenkohlakalo, waqalisa uthotho lweemvavanyo zokuqonda ngcono uhlobo lokuthobela igunya. Iziphumo zaziyothusa. UMilgram wavavanya ngononophelo izifundo zakhe ukuba amele abantu baseMelika baseMelika. Banikwa amagqabantshintshi ngokubaluleka kokulandela imiyalelo, abathathi-nxaxheba bayalelwa ukuba bacinezele isitshixo esenza oko bakholelwa ukuba kuluthotho lwezothuso, ngokuthe ngcembe benyuka benyuka benyuka ngeevolthi ezilishumi elinesihlanu, ngalo lonke ixesha uMfundi okufutshane (umlingisi) esenza impazamo kumsebenzi wokuthelekisa amagama. . Xa aBafundi beqala ukukhala ngeentlungu, uMvavanyi (umntu onegunya) wanyanzelisa ngokuzolileyo ukuba umfuniselo kufuneka uqhubeke. I-65 pesenti eyothusayo yabathathi-nxaxheba be-Milgram balawula umgangatho ophezulu wombane-i-jolt ebulalayo enokuthi ibulale umntu ofumana ngokwenene ezothusayo. Uvavanyo olongezelelekileyo olwenziwa ukutyhubela iminyaka kwezinye iiyunivesithi zaseUnited States, yaye ubuncinane nakwamanye amazwe asithoba eYurophu, eAfrika, naseAsia, onke atyhila umlinganiselo ophakamileyo ofanayo wokuthobela amagunya. Uphononongo luka-2008 olwenzelwe ukuphindaphinda imifuniselo yokuthobela iMilgram ngelixa uphepha uninzi lweyona miba iphikisanayo, yafumana iziphumo ezifanayo.[4]
UMilgram ubhengeze esona sifundo sisisiseko sokufunda:
Abantu abaqhelekileyo, besenza nje imisebenzi yabo, kwaye bengenabutshaba bukhethekileyo kwicala labo, banokuba ngabathunywa kwinkqubo eyonakalisayo. . . Olona hlengahlengiso luqhelekileyo lwengcinga kwisifundo esithobelayo kukuba yena (yena) azibone (yena) ukuba akanaxanduva ngezenzo zakhe (zakhe). . . Yena (yena) uzibona (ngokwakhe) kungekhona njengomntu osebenza ngendlela yokuziphatha kodwa njengommeli wegunya langaphandle, "enza umsebenzi wakhe" owaviwa amaxesha ngamaxesha kwiingxelo zokukhusela zabo batyholwa eNuremberg. . . . Kuluntu oluntsonkothileyo kulula ngokwasengqondweni ukutyeshela uxanduva xa umntu elikhonkco eliphakathi kuphela kwityathanga lezenzo zobubi kodwa ekude nemiphumo yokugqibela. . . . Ngaloo ndlela kukho ukuqhekeka kwesenzo somntu esipheleleyo; akukho ndoda (ibhinqa) ithatha isigqibo sokwenza isenzo esibi kwaye ijongene neziphumo zaso.[5]
UMilgram usikhumbuze ukuba uviwo olubukhali lwembali yethu lutyhila "idemokhrasi" yegunya elimiselweyo elingenabuzwilakhe, likhula kuluntu oluthobelayo lwabathengi abanganelisekiyo abaxhomekeke ekugrogriseni abanye, ecaphula intshabalalo yabemi bomthonyama bokuqala, ukuxhomekeka kubukhoboka belizwe. izigidi, ukuvalelwa kwabantu baseJapan baseMelika, kunye nokusetyenziswa kwe-napalm ngokuchasene nabemi baseVietnam.[6]
Njengoko uMilgram wanikela ingxelo, “ukukreqa komntu omnye, logama nje kusenokubakho, akunamsebenzi kangako. Uya kutshintshwa yindoda elandelayo emgceni. Ekuphela kwengozi ekusebenzeni emkhosini kusenokwenzeka ukuba umntu onesiphene uya kukhuthaza abanye. ”[7]
Ngowe-1961 isithandi sobulumko nengcali yezobupolitika uHannah Arendt ongumYuda, wazibonela ngawakhe ukuchotshelwa kwetyala lika-Adolf Eichmann. Wamangaliswa kukufumanisa ukuba “akazange agqwetheke okanye abe lusizi.” Endaweni yoko, u-Eichmann nabanye abaninzi njengaye “babeqhelekile, kwaye basaqhelekile ngendlela eyothusayo.”[8] UArendt wachaza amandla abantu abaqhelekileyo okwenza ububi obungaqhelekanga ngenxa yengcinezelo yasekuhlaleni okanye kwindawo ethile yasekuhlaleni, “njengokuchasa ubungendawo.” Ngokusuka kuvavanyo lukaMilgram, siyazi ukuba “ubungendawo” asingowamaNazi kuphela.
Iingcali ze-Eco-psychologists kunye neembali zenkcubeko ziye zaxoxa ukuba i-archetypes yabantu esekelwe kwintlonipho, uvelwano kunye nentsebenziswano ibalulekile kwiintlobo zethu ukuba zifikelele apha kwisebe lethu lokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Noko ke, kwiminyaka engama-5,500 3,500 eyadlulayo, malunga nowama-XNUMX XNUMX B.C.E., iilali ezincinane zeNeolithic zaqalisa ukuguqukela ekubeni “ziimpucuko” ezinkulu zasezidolophini. “Ngempucuko,” kwavela umbono omtsha wombutho—nto leyo umbhali-mbali wenkcubeko u-Lewis Mumford ayibiza ngokuba “ngumatshini wokulinganisa,” oquka ngokupheleleyo “amalungu” abantu anyanzelwa ukuba asebenzisane ukwenza imisebenzi ngomlinganiselo omkhulu ongazange ucinge ngaphambili. Impucuko yabona ukudalwa kweeofisi ezilawulwa ngumbutho wamandla onegunya (ukumkani) kunye nababhali kunye nabathunywa, abaququzelela oomatshini bokusebenza (izihlwele zabasebenzi) ukwakha iiphiramidi, iinkqubo zokunkcenkceshela, kunye neenkqubo ezinkulu zokugcina ukutya okuziinkozo phakathi kwezinye izakhiwo, zonke. inyanzeliswa ngumkhosi. Iimpawu zayo yayikukubekwa phakathi kwamandla, ukwahlulwa kwabantu ngokweendidi, ukwahlulwa ubomi bonke ngokunyanzeliswa kwabasebenzi nobukhoboka, ukungalingani ngokungekho mthethweni kobutyebi kunye nelungelo, kunye namandla omkhosi kunye nemfazwe.[9] Ekuhambeni kwexesha, impucuko, esiye safundiswa ukuba sicinge ngayo njengeyingenelo kwimeko yoluntu, iye yangqineka iyingozi kakhulu kwizidalwa zethu, singasathethi ke ngezinye zezinto eziphilayo nemekobume yomhlaba. Njengamalungu ale mihla ohlobo lwethu (ngaphandle koluntu olunethamsanqa loMthonyama oluthe ngandlel' ithile lwasinda ekwenziweni) siye saxinga kumakhulu amathathu ezizukulwana kumzekelo ofuna ukuthotyelwa okukhulu kwizakhiwo zamandla ezithe nkqo.
UMumford wenza kucace ukuthanda kwakhe ukuba ukuzimela kumaqela amancinci anqamlezileyo yi-archetype yomntu ethe yacinezelwa ngokuthobela itekhnoloji kunye ne-bureaucracy. Ukudalwa kwempucuko yabantu ezidolophini kuzise iipatheni zobundlobongela obucwangcisiweyo kunye nemfazwe eyayingaziwa ngaphambili,[10] oko uAndrew Schmookler akubiza ngokuba "sisono sokuqala" sempucuko,[11] kunye noMumford, "i-paranoia ehlangeneyo kunye nokukhohlisa kwezizwe ngobungangamsha."[12]
“Impucuko” ifune abantu abaninzi thobela ukwenza ukuba amagunya amileyo aphumelele. Kwaye akubalulekanga ukuba la mandla athe nkqo afunyanwa njani, nokuba kungolandelelwano lookumkani, oozwilakhe, okanye ukhetho lwedemokhrasi, asebenza ngokungaguquguqukiyo ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo zobuzwilakhe. Inkululeko yokuzimela abantu ababekhe bayonwaba ngayo kumaqela ezizwe zangaphambi kwempucuko ngoku bayekelela ekukholelweni kwiziseko zabasemagunyeni kunye neengcamango zabo zokulawula, eziye zachazwa njengengcinezelo “yolawulo oluphezulu” apho izinto zabucala kunye nokuthotywa kwamabhinqa kongamela, ngenkani ukuba kuyimfuneko.[13]
Ukuvela kwezakhiwo zegunya ezithe nkqo, ulawulo lookumkani nezidwangube, lwakrazula abantu kwiipateni zembali zokuhlala kumaqela ezizwe ezincinci. Kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwestratification, ukwahlukana kwabantu kunxibelelwano lwabo olusondeleyo nomhlaba kwavelisa ukungakhuseleki okunzulu, uloyiko, kunye nokwenzakala kwengqondo. Izazi nge-ecopyschologists zicebisa ukuba ukuqhekeka okunjalo kwakhokelela kwindalo unabazi[14]
Ke, abantu bafuna ngamandla ukuphinda bafumane kwaye bondle imizekelo yokungathobeli iinkqubo zezopolitiko eziye zadala iimfazwe ezili-14,600 ukususela ekufikeni kwempucuko kwiminyaka engama-5,500 eyadlulayo. Kwisithuba seminyaka eyi-3,500 edlulileyo kukho phantse izivumelwano ze-8,500 ezisayinwe kwiinzame zokuphelisa imfazwe, kodwa akukho nto incedayo ngenxa yokuba izakhiwo ezithe nkqo zamandla ziye zahlala zingaguquki ezifuna ukuthobela kwiinzame zabo zokwandisa indawo, amandla okanye isiseko sobutyebi. Ikamva lezilwanyana, kunye nobomi boninzi lwezinye iintlobo, zisesichengeni, njengoko silindele ukuba abantu bafike ezingqondweni zethu eziphilileyo, bobabini ngabanye kunye nangokudibeneyo.
Inyaniso yeKrisimesi ka-1914 yekhulu leminyaka eyadlulayo yayingumzekelo ongaqhelekanga wendlela iimfazwe ezinokuqhubeka ngayo kuphela ukuba amajoni ayavuma ukulwa. Kufuneka ihlonitshwe kwaye ibhiyozelwe, nokuba ibilithatyana nje lexesha. Imele ukubakho kokungathobeli komntu kwiinkqubo eziphambeneyo. Njengoko imbongi yaseJamani kunye nomdlali weqonga uBertolt Brecht wavakalisa, Ngokubanzi, itanki yakho sisithuthi esinamandla. Iqhekeza amahlathi, kwaye ityumza ikhulu lamadoda. Kodwa inesiphako esinye: ifuna umqhubi.[15] Ukuba abantu abaqhelekileyo bayala ukuyiqhuba inkitha yemfazwe, iinkokeli zaziya kuyekelwa ukuba zilwe amadabi azo. Babeza kuba mfutshane.
UKUGQIBELA
[1] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/197627.stm, ulwazi oluthathwe kuMalcolm Brown noShirley Seaton, INyaniso yeKrisimesi: KwiNtshonalanga, ngo-1914 (ENew York: Iincwadi zeHippocrene, ngo-1984.
[2] URichard Boyle, Intyatyambo yeDlakatha: Ukuqhekeka koMkhosi wase-US eVietnam (San Francisco: Ramparts Press, 1973), 235-236; URichard Moser, Amajoni amatsha aseBusika, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 132; UTom Wells, Imfazwe Ngaphakathi (ENew York: uHenry Holt kunye noCo., 1994), 525-26.
[3] UDave Grossman, Ekubulaweni: Iindleko zeengqondo zokufunda ukubulala kwiMfazwe kunye neMbutho (Boston: Little, Brown, 1995).
[4] Lisa M. Krieger, “Isityhilelo esothusayo: Unjingalwazi weYunivesithi yaseSanta Clara Ubonisa iSifundo seNtuthumbo esaziwayo,” Iindaba zeSan Jose Mercury, Disemba 20, 2008.
[5] UStanley Milgram, "Iingozi Zokuthobela," UHarper's, Disemba 1973, 62–66, 75–77; UStanley Milgram, Ukuthobela iGunya: Imbono yoMfuniselo (1974; New York: Perennial Classics, 2004), 6-8, 11.
[6] Milgram, 179.
[7] Milgram, 182.
[8] [UHannah Arendt, Eichmann eYerusalem: Ingxelo ngoBanality of Evil (1963; New York: Penguin Books, 1994), 276].
[9] Lewis Mumford, Intsomi yoomatshini: ubuGcisa kunye noPhuhliso loLuntu (ENew York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1967), 186.
[10] Ashley Montagu, Ubume boBundlavini bomntu ( Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 43–53, 59–60; Ashley Montagu, ed., Ukufunda ngokuNgena Bundlavini: Amava oluntu olungafundiyo (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978); UJean Guilaine kunye noJean Zammit, Imvelaphi yeMfazwe: Ubundlobongela kwi-Prehistory, utshintshe. UMelanie Hersey (2001; Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005).
[11] Andrew B. Schmookler, Ngaphandle kobuthathaka: Ukuphilisa amanxeba Asiqhubela emfazweni (ENew York: Bantam Books, 1988), 303.
[12] Mumford, 204.
[13] Etienne de la Boetie, IPolitiko yokuThobela: iNtetho yokuSebenza ngokuzithandela, utshintshe. Harry Kurz (ca. 1553; Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1997), 46, 58-60; URiane Eisler, I-Chalice kunye neBala (ENew York: Harper & Row, 1987), 45–58, 104–6.
[14] UTheodore Roszak, uMary E. Gomes, kunye no-Allen D. Kanner, umhleli., I-Ecopsychology: Ukubuyisela Umhlaba Ukuphilisa Ingqondo (I-San Francisco: Iincwadi zeKlabhu yaseSierra, i-1995). I-Ecopsychology igqiba kwelokuba akunakuphiliswa buqu ngaphandle kokuphilisa umhlaba, kwaye ukufumanisa kwakhona ubudlelwane obungcwele kunye nawo, oko kukuthi, ubunzulu bethu bomhlaba, kubaluleke kakhulu kwimpiliso yomntu kunye neyehlabathi kunye nentlonipho.
[15] "Ngokubanzi, iTanki yakho sisiThuthi esinamandla", ipapashwe kwi Ukusuka kwi-Primer yeMfazwe yaseJamani, inxalenye ye Svendborg Imibongo (1939); njengoko iguqulelwe nguLee Baxandall kwi Imibongo, 1913-1956, 289.
IMITHOMBO 1914 iKrisimesi Truce
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/197627.stm.
UBrown, uDavid. "Ukukhumbula uloyiso loBubele boMntu - iWWI's Dizzy, iNyaniso yeKrisimesi ebuhlungu," IWashington Post, Disemba 25, 2004.
UBrown, uMalcolm kunye noShirley Seaton. INyaniso yeKrisimesi: KwiNtshonalanga, ngo-1914. ENew York: Hippocrene, ngo-1984.
Cleaver, Alan kunye Lesley Park. “INyaniso yeKrisimesi: Isishwankathelo ngokubanzi,” christmastruce.co.uk/article.html, ifikeleleke nge-30 kaNovemba ka-2014.
UGilbert, uMartin. IMfazwe Yehlabathi Yokuqala: Imbali Epheleleyo. ENew York: uHenry Holt kunye noCo., 1994, 117-19.
Hochschild, uAdam. Ukuphelisa Zonke Iimfazwe: Ibali Lokunyaniseka nemvukelo, ngowe-1914-1918. ENew York: Iincwadi zaseMariners, ngo-2012, 130-32.
Vinciguerra, uThomas. "Inyaniso yeKrisimesi, 1914", The New York Times, UDisemba 25, 2005.
Weintraub, uStanley. Ubusuku Obuthule: Ibali leMfazwe yeHlabathi yokuQala yeKrisimesi. ENew York: Iphephandaba lasimahla, ngo-2001.
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S. Brian Willson, brianwillson.com, Disemba 2, 2014, ilungu leVeterans For Peace Chapter 72, Portland, Oregon
