IHiroshima Lixoki

NguDavid Swanson, World BEYOND War, Agasti 5, 2021

Ngo-2015, u-Alice Sabatini wayeneminyaka eyi-18 owayekhuphisana kukhuphiswano luka-Miss Italia e-Itali. Wabuzwa ukuba leliphi ixesha elidlulileyo ebengathanda ukuhlala kulo. Waphendula wathi: WWII. Ingcaciso yakhe yayikukuba incwadi yakhe yokubhaliweyo iyaqhubeka kwaye iqhubeke malunga nayo, ke angathanda ukuyibona, kwaye bekungayi kuba yimfuneko ukuba alwe kuyo, kuba ngamadoda kuphela ayenze loo nto. Oku kukhokelele ekuhlekisweni okukhulu. Ngaba wayefuna ukuqhushumbiswa okanye alambe okanye athunyelwe kwinkampu yoxinaniso? Wayeyintoni, isidenge? Umntu othile wamfotokopa emfanekisweni kunye noMussolini noHitler. Umntu othile wenze umfanekiso wokujonga imikhosi ngokubaleka elwandle.[i]

Kodwa ngaba umntu oneminyaka eli-18 ubudala ngo-2015 kulindeleke ukuba azi ukuba uninzi lwamaxhoba e-WWII yayingabantu nje-amadoda nabasetyhini kunye nabantwana ngokufanayo? Ngubani onokumxelela lonto? Ngokuqinisekileyo ayizizo iincwadi zakhe zokubhaliweyo. Eyona nto ayisiyiyo inkcubeko yakhe engapheliyo kunye nokuzonwabisa okunemixholo yeWWII. Yeyiphi impendulo athe umntu wacinga ukuba okhuphisana naye anganakho ukuwunika umbuzo awubuziweyo, kuneWWII? Kwinkcubeko yase-US nayo, echaphazela kakhulu i-Itali, eyona nto kugxilwe kuyo kwidrama kunye nentlekele kunye nokuhlekisa kunye nobugorha kunye neentsomi zembali yiWWII. Khetha i-100 ye-avareji yababukeli beNetflix okanye iAmazon kwaye ndiqinisekile ukuba ipesenti enkulu kubo iya kunika impendulo efanayo noAlice Sabatini, owathi, ngendlela, wabhengezwa njengophumelele ukhuphiswano, elungele ukumela yonke i-Italiya okanye nantoni na U-Miss Italia uyakwenza.

I-WWII ihlala ibizwa ngokuba "yimfazwe elungileyo," kwaye ngamanye amaxesha oku kucingelwa njengoyintloko okanye ekuqaleni umahluko phakathi kwe-WWII, imfazwe elungileyo, kunye ne-WWI, imfazwe embi. Nangona kunjalo, kwakungathandwa ukubiza iWWII "yimfazwe elungileyo" ngexesha okanye kwangoko emva kokuba yenzekile, xa uthelekiso neWWI bekuya kuba lula. Izinto ezahlukeneyo zinokuba negalelo ekukhuleni kokuthandwa kweli binzana kumashumi eminyaka, kubandakanya ukuqonda okwandayo nge-Holocaust (kunye nokungaqondi kakuhle ubudlelwane bemfazwe kuyo),[ii] kunye, ewe, inyani yokuba i-United States, ngokungafaniyo nabanye abathathi-nxaxheba abaphambili, ayizenzanga ibhombu okanye yahlaselwa (kodwa iyinyani kwiimfazwe ezininzi zase-US). Ndicinga ukuba eyona nto ibalulekileyo yayiyimfazwe eVietnam. Njengoko loo mfazwe yaya incipha ngokuncipha, kwaye njengoko izimvo zahlulwe nzulu sisikhewu sesizukulwana, ngokwahlulahlula phakathi kwabo babephila ngeWWII kunye nabo babengenayo, abaninzi bafuna ukwahlula iWWII kwimfazwe yaseVietnam. Sebenzisa igama elithi "olungileyo," endaweni yokuba "ugwetyelwe," okanye "uyimfuneko," kusenokwenzeka ukuba wenziwe lula ngomgama ngexesha ukusuka kwi-WWII, kunye ne-WWII propaganda, uninzi lwazo olwenziweyo (kwaye lusadalwa) emva kwesiphelo yeWWII. Kuba ukuphikisana nazo zonke iimfazwe kuthathwa njengobungqwabalala kunye nokunganyaniseki, abagxeki bemfazwe eVietnam banokubhekisa kwi-WWII njenge "mfazwe elungileyo" kwaye babeke ubuzaza babo kunye nokuzimisela. Kwakungo-1970 xa ingcali yemfazwe uMichael Walzer wabhala iphepha lakhe, "Imfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi: Kutheni le nto le mfazwe yahlukile?" efuna ukukhusela umbono wemfazwe elungileyo ngokuchasene nokungathandwa kwemfazwe yaseVietnam. Ndinikezela ngesiphikiso kwelo phepha kwiSahluko 17 se Ukushiya iMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi. Sibonile into efanayo kwiminyaka ka-2002 ukuya ku-2010 okanye kunjalo, abagxeki abaninzi bemfazwe e-Iraq begxininisa inkxaso yabo kwimfazwe yase-Afghanistan kunye nokugqwetha izibakala ukuphucula umfanekiso waloo "mfazwe mhle". Andiqinisekanga ukuba uninzi, ukuba ukhona, ngewayebize iAfghanistan ukuba ibe yimfazwe elungileyo ngaphandle kwemfazwe e-Iraq okanye ebizwa ngokuba yi-WWII imfazwe elungileyo ngaphandle kwemfazwe eVietnam.

NgoJulayi 2020, uMongameli wase-US uDonald Trump -ekuphikiseni ukuba iziseko zomkhosi wase-US ezibizwa ngokuba zii-Confederates akufuneki zitshintshwe amagama abo-babhengeza ukuba ezi ziseko ziyinxalenye "yeemfazwe ezintle zehlabathi." Uthe: "Siphumelele iimfazwe ezimbini zehlabathi, iimfazwe ezimbini zehlabathi, iimfazwe ezintle zehlabathi ezazikhohlakeleyo kwaye zoyikekayo."[iii] UTrump wayifumana phi imbono yokuba iimfazwe zehlabathi zazintle, kwaye ubuhle babo babunobukrakra nobubi? Ngokunokwenzeka kwindawo enye u-Alice Sabatini ayenzileyo: IHollywood. Yayiyifilimu Ukugcina ngasese Ryan okhokele uMickey Z kwi1999 ukuba abhale incwadi yakhe, Akukho mfazwe ilungileyo: Iintsomi zeMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, ekuqaleni ngesihloko Ukugcina Amandla aBucala: Imbali efihliweyo ye "Imfazwe elungileyo."

Ngaphambi kokuba ndibuyele umva kumatshini wexesha lokufumana uzuko lwe-WWII, ndingacebisa ukuba ndithathe ikopi yencwadi ka-Studs Terkel yango-1984, Imfazwe elungileyo: Imbali yomlomo ngeMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi.[iv] Ezi zi-akhawunti zabantu bokuqala ezivela kumagqala eWWII axelela iinkumbulo zabo kwiminyaka engama-40 kamva. Babebancinci. Babekwa kubuzalwana obungakhuphisani kwaye bacelwa ukuba benze izinto ezintle kwaye babone iindawo ezintle. Yayingummangaliso. Kwakukho ukutshaya, nokuthuka, kunye notywala ukuze ube nokuzizamela ukudubula ebantwini, kunye nobundlobongela obunobungozi ngenjongo elula yokuphila, kunye nokufumba kwezidumbu emiseleni, kunye nokuhlala ubukele, kunye nokuziphatha okunzulu kokuziphatha, kunye uloyiko, kunye noxinzelelo, kwaye phantse akukho luvo lokuba wenze ukubala kokuziphatha ukuba ukuthatha inxaxheba kwakuthethelelekile-kukuthobela nje okusisimumu ukubuzwa nokuzisola kamva. Kwaye kukho ukuthanda ubudenge kwabantu abangayibonanga eyona mfazwe. Kwaye kukho bonke abantu abangafuni ukubona abo basindileyo bakhubazekileyo. "Luhlobo luni lwemfazwe abahlali abacinga ukuba silwe kunjalo?" kubuze elinye igqala.

Iintsomi ezenza uninzi lwabantu bacinga ukuba bayazi malunga neWWII azifani nenyani, kodwa zibeka engozini umhlaba wethu wokwenyani. Ndiziphonononga ezo ntsomi kwi Ukushiya iMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, ebhengeza inyani yokuba i-United States kunye nabanye oorhulumente behlabathi benqabile ukusindisa abo basongelwa ngokubulawa kwabantu ngamaNazi, ukuba amatshantliziyo azabalazela ilize ukwenza i-US kunye ne-UK nabanye oorhulumente bathathe nayiphi na inzala ekusindiseni izigidi zobomi obugcinekayo; inyani yokuba i-United States yazibandakanya kukhuphiswano lweengalo kunye nokucaphukisa iJapan iminyaka kwaye yafuna ukuvelisa imfazwe kwaye ayothuswa yiyo; ukuba umdyarho we-Nordic kunye nezinye iingcinga ze-eugenics ezazisetyenziswa ngamaNazi zayilwa ikakhulu eCalifornia; ukuba amaNazi afunde imithetho yocalucalulo eMelika kwaye ayisebenzisa njengemizekelo; ukuba inkxaso-mali yequmrhu lase-US kunye nokuhanjiswa kwezinto kwakuyimfuneko kwiinzame zemfazwe zamaNazi; ukuba ukubulawa kohlanga kwakuyindlela yaseNtshona engenanto yakwenza nokutsha; ukuba imfazwe akufuneki yenzeke; ukuba urhulumente wase-US wayijonga iSoviet Union njengotshaba oluphambili nokuba yayidibene nayo; iSoviet Union yoyisa iJamani; ukuba ubundlobongela babusebenza kakhulu ngokuchasene namaNazi; ukuba kwabakho inkcaso emfazweni e-United States; ukuba inkcitho yemfazwe ayisiyondlela ifanelekileyo yokunyusa uqoqosho; njl .; njl .; Kwaye akukho nto sixelelwa ngayo malunga neHiroshima iyinyani.

Kukho intsomi yokuba ngokuthatha inxaxheba kwi-WWII, i-United States yenze umhlaba ukuba ube ne-United States ngoku ingumbuso wehlabathi. Ngo-2013, uHillary Clinton wenza intetho kubabhanki eGoldman Sachs apho wathi uxelele i-China ukuba ayinalungelo lokubiza uLwandle lwase-China kuLwandle lwase-China, nokuba i-United States inokuthi ibambe yonke IPacific ngenxa yokuba "ikhululwe" kwiWWII, kwaye "ifumene" iJapan, kwaye "ithengile" iHawaii.[v] Andiqinisekanga ngendlela efanelekileyo yokuyilahla loo nto. Mhlawumbi ndingacebisa ukubuza abanye abantu eJapan okanye eHawaii ukuba bacinga ntoni. Kodwa kubalulekile ukuba uqaphele ukuba kwakungekho mkhukula wokugculela uHillary Clinton wohlobo olufunyenwe nguAlice Sabatini. Kwakungabikho nto ibonakalayo kuluntu ngenxa yoku kubhekiswa kwi-WWII xa yabakho esidlangalaleni ngo-2016.

Mhlawumbi ezona ntsomi zimangalisayo, nangona kunjalo, zezi zixhobo zenyukliya, ngakumbi umbono wokuba ngokubulala inani elikhulu labantu abanenani elikhulu kakhulu lobomi, okanye ubuncinci ubomi obulungileyo, basindiswa. Iinduna zange zibusindise ubomi. Bathathe ubomi, mhlawumbi ngama-200,000 kubo. Ayenzelwanga ukusindisa ubomi okanye ukuphelisa imfazwe. Kwaye abayigqibanga imfazwe. Uhlaselo lwaseRussia lwakwenza oko. Kodwa imfazwe yayiza kuphela, ngaphandle kwezo zinto. Uphando lwaseMelika lokuQhushumisa ngeBhombu luqukumbele ngelithi, “… ngokuqinisekileyo phambi komhla wama-31 kuDisemba, ngo-1945, nakuzo zonke izinto ezazinokwenzeka phambi komhla woku-1 kuNovemba, 1945, iJapan ngeyayezinikezele nokuba iibhombu zeatom zazingazange ziphoswe, nokuba iRashiya yayingazange imfazwe, nokuba akukho luhlaselo belucetywayo okanye kucingelweyo. ”[vi]

Umntu ophikisayo owavakalisa olu luvo lunye kuNobhala Wezomkhosi, kwaye ngeakhawunti yakhe, kuMongameli uTruman, ngaphambi kokuba kuqhushumbe ibhombu yayinguGeneral Dwight Eisenhower.[vii] Phantsi koNobhala woMkhosi waselwandle uRalph Bard, ngaphambi kokuqhushumba, wacela iJapan ukuba inikwe isilumkiso.[viii] U-Lewis Strauss, uMcebisi kuNobhala woMkhosi waselwandle, kwaphambi kokuba kuqhushumbe iibhombu, ucebise ukuba kuqhushumbe ihlathi kunesixeko.[ix] Ngokubanzi uGeorge Marshall wavumelana nalo mbono.[X] Isazinzulu seatom uLeo Szilard waququzelela oososayensi ukuba bakhalaze umongameli ngokuchasene nokusebenzisa ibhombu.[xi] Isazinzulu seatom uJames Franck waququzelela izazinzulu ezazikhuthaza ukuphatha izixhobo zeatom njengomba womgaqo-nkqubo woluntu, hayi nje isigqibo somkhosi.[xii] Esinye isazinzulu, uJoseph Rotblat, wanyanzelisa ukuba iphele iManhattan Project, kwaye wayeka ukuba ayipheli.[xiii] I-poll yezazinzulu zase-US ezaziphuhlise iibhombu, zathathwa ngaphambi kokuzisebenzisa, zafumanisa ukuba i-83% ifuna ibhombu yenyukliya ibonakaliswe esidlangalaleni ngaphambi kokulahla enye eJapan. Umkhosi wase-US wawugcina lo mfihlo wokuvota.[xiv] Jikelele u-Douglas MacArthur ubambe inkomfa noonondaba ngo-Agasti 6, 1945, phambi kokuqhushumisa eHiroshima, ukubhengeza ukuba iJapan sele ibethiwe.[xv]

Usihlalo we-Joint Chiefs of Staff Admiral uWilliam D. Leahy wathi ngomsindo ngo-1949 wathi uTruman wamqinisekisa ukuba kuphela iithagethi zomkhosi eziza kubanjwa, hayi abantu. “Ukusetyenziswa kwesi sixhobo sikhohlakeleyo eHiroshima naseNagasaki akusincedi nganto kwimfazwe yethu neJapan. AmaJapan sele oyisiwe kwaye akulungele ukuzinikela, ”utshilo uLeahy.[xvi] Amagosa aphezulu emkhosini athi emva nje kwemfazwe ukuba amaJapan angazinikela ngokukhawuleza ngaphandle kweziqhushumbisi zenyukliya aquka uGeneral Douglas MacArthur, uGeneral Henry “Hap” Arnold, uGeneral Curtis LeMay, uGeneral Carl “Tooey” Spaatz, Admiral Ernest King, Admiral Chester Nimitz , U-Admiral William “Bull” Halsey, kunye no-Brigadier General Carter Clarke. Njengoko u-Oliver Stone kunye no-Peter Kuznick bashwankathela, amagosa asixhenxe e-United States asibhozo afumana inkwenkwezi yabo yokugqibela kwiMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi okanye emva nje kwe - Jenerali MacArthur, Eisenhower, no Arnold, kunye ne Admirals Leahy, King, Nimitz, no Halsey Ngo-1945 bayikhaba into yokuba iibhombu zeatom ziyafuneka ukuphelisa imfazwe. Ngelishwa, nangona kunjalo, akukho bungqina buncinci bokuba ityala labo balicinezela uTruman ngaphambi kwenyani.[xvii]

Nge-6 ka-Agasti ka-1945, uMongameli uTruman waxoka kunomathotholo esithi ibhombu yenyukliya ibiphoswe kwisiseko somkhosi, endaweni yesixeko. Kwaye wayithethelela, hayi njengokukhawulezisa ukuphela kwemfazwe, kodwa njengempindezelo ngokuchasene neempazamo zaseJapan. "Mr. UTruman wayevuya, ”ubhale watsho uDorothy Day. Kwiiveki ngaphambi kokuba ibhombu yokuqala iyekwe, nge-13 kaJulayi, i-1945, i-Japan yathumela i-telegraph kwi-Soviet Union ivakalisa umnqweno wayo wokunikezela kunye nokuphelisa imfazwe. I-United States yaphule iikhowudi zaseJapan kwaye yafunda itelegram. Kwidayari yakhe uTruman wabhekisela “kwitrafigram evela kuJap Emperor ecela uxolo.” UMongameli uTruman wayexelelwe ngamajelo aseSwitzerland nawasePortugal amajoni oxolo aseJapan kwinyanga ezintathu ngaphambi kweHiroshima. IJapan yakuchasa ukunikezela kuphela ngaphandle kwemiqathango kwaye yancama umlawuli wayo, kodwa i-United States yanyanzelisa loo miqathango de kwaba emva kokuwa kweebhombu, ngelo xesha yavumela iJapan ukuba igcine umlawuli wayo. Ke, umnqweno wokulahla iibhombu unokuyandisa imfazwe. Iibhombu azizange ziyifinyeze imfazwe.[xviii]

Umcebisi kaMongameli uJames Byrnes uxelele uTruman ukuba ukulahla iibhombu kuya kuvumela i-United States ukuba "inyanzelise imigaqo yokuphelisa imfazwe." Unobhala woMkhosi woMkhosi uJames James Forrestal wabhala kwidayari yakhe ukuba u-Byrnes "wayexhalabile ukuba amajoni aseJapan angangeni ngaphambi kokuba amaRussia angene." UTruman wabhala kwidayari yakhe ukuba amaSoviet ayelungiselela ukumatsha ngokuchasene neJapan kunye no “Fini Japs xa oko kusenzeka.” Uhlaselo lweSoviet lwalucwangcisiwe ngaphambi kweebhombu, ezingagqitywanga ngabo. I-United States ibingenazicwangciso zokuhlasela iinyanga, kwaye akukho zicwangciso kwisikali sokubeka emngciphekweni inani lobomi ootitshala besikolo sase-US abaya kukuxelela ukuba usindisiwe.[xix] Uluvo lokuba uhlaselo olukhulu lwaseMelika lwalukufuphi kwaye ekuphela kwendlela yokufumana izixeko zokutsala, ukuze iidolophu zokukhusela zisindise inani elikhulu lobomi baseMelika, yintsomi. Izazi ngembali ziyayazi le nto, njengoko besazi ukuba uGeorge Washington wayengenamazinyo ngomthi okanye ehlala ethetha inyani, kwaye uPaul Revere akazange akhwele yedwa, kwaye intetho ka-Patrick Henry malunga nenkululeko yabhalwa kumashumi eminyaka emva kokuba eswelekile, kwaye noMolly Umphanda wawungekho.[xx] Kodwa iintsomi zinamandla azo. Ubomi, ngendlela, ayisiyompahla eyodwa yamajoni ase-US. Abantu baseJapan nabo babenobomi.

UTruman wayalela ukuba kuqhushumbe iibhombu, enye kwi-Hiroshima ngo-Agasti 6 kunye nolunye uhlobo lwebhombu, ibhombu ye-plutonium, neyayifunwa ngumkhosi ukuyivavanya nokubonisa, e-Nagasaki nge-9 ka-Agasti. Ibhombu yaseNagasaki yasuswa kwi-11^th kwi9^th ukunciphisa amathuba okuba iJapan inikezele kuqala.[xxi] Kwakhona nge-9 ka-Agasti, iSoviet yahlasela amaJapan. Ngexesha leeveki ezimbini ezizayo, amaSoviet abulala ama-84,000 amaJapan ngelixa ephulukana nama-12,000 amajoni, kwaye i-United States yaqhubeka nokuqhushumisa iJapan ngezixhobo ezingezizo ezenyukliya-ukutshisa iidolophu zaseJapan, njengoko yayenzile eJapan ngaphambi kuka-Agasti 6.^th ukuba, xa kwafika ixesha lokukhetha iidolophu ezimbini ukuya kwi-nuke, bekungekho nto ishiyekileyo ukuba ikhethe. Emva koko amaJapan anikezela.

Into yokuba kukho isizathu sokusebenzisa izixhobo zenyukliya yintsomi. Into yokuba kungaphinda kubekho isizathu sokusebenzisa izixhobo zenyukliya yintsomi. Ukuba singasinda ekusebenziseni ngakumbi izixhobo zenyukliya yintsomi. Ukuba sikhona isizathu sokuvelisa izixhobo zenyukliya nangona ungasokuze uzisebenzise kusisidenge kakhulu ukuba ube yintsomi. Kwaye sinokusinda ngonaphakade sinazo kwaye zisanda izixhobo zenyukliya ngaphandle komntu ngabom okanye ngengozi ukuzisebenzisa kukuhlanya okusulungekileyo.[xxii]

Kutheni le nto ootitshala bembali yaseMelika kwizikolo zaseprayimari zase-US namhlanje-ngo-2021! - uxelele abantwana ukuba iibhombu zenyukliya zaphoswa eJapan ukusindisa ubomi - okanye "ibhombu" (isinye) ukunqanda ukukhankanya iNagasaki? Abaphandi kunye noonjingalwazi bathulule ubungqina iminyaka engama-75. Bayazi ukuba uTruman wayesazi ukuba imfazwe iphelile, kwaye iJapan ifuna ukuzinikezela, ukuba iSoviet Union yayizokuhlasela. Baye babhala konke ukuxhathisa ukuqhushumisa ngaphakathi kwezomkhosi wase-US nakurhulumente kunye noluntu lwenzululwazi, kunye nenkuthazo yokuvavanya iibhombu ukuba umsebenzi omninzi kunye neendleko zingene, kunye nenkuthazo yokoyikisa umhlaba kwaye ngakumbi iiSoviet, kunye nokubeka okuvulekileyo nokungabi nazintloni kwexabiso le-zero kubomi baseJapan. Ziveliswe njani ezo ntsomi zinamandla kangangokuba iinyani ziphathwa okwe-skunks epikinikini?

Kwincwadi ka-2020 kaGreg Mitchell, Ukuqala okanye ukuphela: Njani iHollywood- kunye neMelika- yaFunda ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhombu, sineakhawunti yokwenziwa kwefilimu ye-MGM ka-1947, Isiqalo okanye isiphelo, eyayenziwe ngocoselelo ngurhulumente wase-US ukukhuthaza ubuxoki.[xxiii] Ifilimu ibhombise. Yaphulukana nemali. Ilungelo lokuba lilungu loluntu lwase-US ngokucacileyo kwakungafanele libukele uxwebhu olungelulo olubi nolukruqulayo kunye nabadlali abadlala oososayensi kunye nabashushu ababenendlela entsha yokubulala. Isenzo esifanelekileyo yayikukuthintela nayiphi na ingcinga ngalo mbandela. Kodwa abo babengenakuyiphepha banikwa intsomi ebengezelayo yescreen esikhulu. Ungayibukela kwi-intanethi simahla, kwaye njengoko uMark Twain ngewayetshilo, kufanelekile yonke ipenny.[xxiv]

Ifilimu ivula oko uMitchell akuchazayo njengokunika ikhredithi e-UK nase-Canada ngendima yabo ekuveliseni umatshini wokufa-ekucingelwa ukuba yinto ethandabuzekayo ukuba kukho iindlela ezingezizo zokubhengeza kwimarike enkulu yemovie. Kodwa kubonakala ngathi ibekek 'ityala ngakumbi kunekhredithi. Lo ngumzamo wokusasaza ityala. Ifilimu yeqa ngokukhawuleza isola iJamani ngesoyikiso esondeleyo sokurhola umhlaba ukuba i-United States ayikhange iqale. (Unokuba nobunzima namhlanje ukwenza abantu abancinci bakholelwe ukuba iJamani izinikezele ngaphambi kukaHiroshima, okanye urhulumente wase-US wayesazi ngo-1944 ukuba iJamani yayilushiyile uphando ngebhombu ye-athomu ngo-1942.[xxv]Ke umlingisi owenza umbono ombi ka-Einstein utyhola uluhlu olude lwezenzululwazi kwihlabathi liphela. Emva koko omnye umntu ucebisa ukuba abafana abalungileyo baphulukana nemfazwe kwaye kungcono bakhawuleze bayile iibhombu ezintsha ukuba bafuna ukuyiphumelela.

Ngokuphindaphindiweyo sixelelwa ukuba iibhombu ezinkulu ziya kuzisa uxolo kwaye ziphelise imfazwe. Umlingisi kaFranklin Roosevelt ude enze isenzo sikaWoodrow Wilson, esithi ibhombu yeathom inokuphelisa yonke imfazwe (into eyothusayo inani labantu liyakholelwa ukuba liyenzile, nokuba bekuneminyaka engama-75 edlulileyo yemfazwe, abathi oonjingalwazi baseMelika bayichaza Uxolo Olukhulu). Sixelelwe kwaye saboniswa ububhanxa obungenanjongo, njengokuba i-US yaphosa amaphetshana e-Hiroshima ukulumkisa abantu (kunye neentsuku ezili-10- "Ziintsuku ezili-10 zesilumkiso ngaphezu kokuba besinikile ePearl Harbour," isimemezelo somlinganiswa) kwaye AmaJapan adubule inqwelo moya njengoko yayisiya kwindawo ekujoliswe kuyo. Ngokwenyani, i-US ayizange ilahle iphetshana ku-Hiroshima kodwa -kwindlela entle ye-SNAFU-yaphosa iitoni zamaphetshana e-Nagasaki kusuku olulandelayo emva kokuba kuqhushumbe ibhombu i-Nagasaki. Kwakhona, iqhawe lomdlalo bhanyabhanya lisweleka ngengozi ngelixa liqhubhana nebhombu ukuze lilungele ukusetyenziswa-idini elinenkalipho elungiselelwe uluntu egameni lamaxhoba okwenyani emfazwe - amalungu omkhosi wase-US. Ifilimu ikwathi abantu abaqhubhiswe yibhombu "ngekhe bazi ukuba babethwe yintoni," ngaphandle kokuba abenzi bemiboniso bhanyabhanya besazi ngentlungu yabo basweleke kancinci kancinci.

Olunye unxibelelwano oluvela kubenzi bamabhayisikobho ukuya kumcebisi wabo kunye nomhleli, uGeneral Leslie Groves, lubandakanya la magama: "Nakuphi na okuthetha ukwenza uMkhosi ubonakale ububudenge kuyakususwa."[xxvi]

Esona sizathu siphambili sokuba imovie iyabulala, ndiyacinga, ayisiyo yokuba iifilimu ziye zakhangela ukulandelelana kwezenzo zazo minyaka le, iminyaka engama-75, zongezwa umbala, zaza zenza zonke iintlobo zezixhobo zokothuka, kodwa sisizathu sokuba umntu abe ucinga ukuba ibhombu leyo oonobumba bonke abathetha malunga nabo bonke ubude befilimu yinto enkulu esele ishiywe. Asiboni ukuba yenza ntoni, hayi emhlabeni, kuphela esibhakabhakeni.

Incwadi kaMitchell ifana nokubukela isoseji eyenziwe, kodwa ikwafana nokufunda imibhalo evela kwikomiti edibanise icandelo elithile leBhayibhile. Le yintsomi eyintsusa yePolisa leHlabathi xa kusenziwa. Kwaye kubi. Kubi kakhulu. Kwa umbono wokuba lo mboniso bhanyabhanya uvela kwisazinzulu esifuna abantu baqonde ingozi, hayi ukuzukisa intshabalalo. Lo sosayensi ubhalele uDonna Reed, elo nenekazi lihle litshate noJimmy Stewart in Ubomi obumnandi, kwaye ibhola yaqengqeleka. Emva koko yaqengqeleka inxeba eliphuma iinyanga ezili-15 kwaye ngoku, kwavela i-cinematic turd.

Kwakungekho mbuzo wokuthetha inyani. Yimovie. Uyazenza izinto. Kwaye uyenza yonke ibe kwicala elinye. Iskripthi sale bhanyabhanya sasiqulathe ngamanye amaxesha zonke iintlobo zobubhanxa ezingazange zihlale, ezinje ngamaNazi anika amaJapan ibhombu yeathom - kwaye amaJapan amisela ilabhoratri yezenzululwazi zamaNazi, kanye njengokuba kubuyela kwilizwe lokwenyani koku ixesha umkhosi wase-US wawuseta iilebhu zenzululwazi yamaNazi (kungasathethwa ke ngokusebenzisa oosonzululwazi baseJapan). Akukho nanye kwezi ehlekisa ngakumbi kunale Indoda ekwinqaba ende, ukuthatha umzekelo wakutshanje weminyaka engama-75 yale nto, kodwa oku kwakusekuqaleni, le yayiyiseminal. Amampunge angakhange ayenze le filimu, wonke umntu khange aphele ekholwa kwaye efundisa abafundi amashumi eminyaka, kodwa ngokulula wayenokuba nayo. Abenzi bemiboniso bhanyabhanya banike ulawulo lokugqibela kumkhosi wase-US kunye ne-White House, hayi kwizazinzulu ezazineengxaki. Uninzi lwezinto ezintle kunye neempazamo zobuqhetseba zazikwisikripthi okwethutyana, kodwa zaxolelwa ngenxa yepropaganda efanelekileyo.

Ukuba ikhona induduzo, kunokuba kubi ngakumbi. Into ephambili yayikukhuphiswano lwefilimu yenyukliya kunye ne-MGM kwaye yaqesha u-Ayn Rand ukuba ayile iskripthi sokuthand 'izwe. Umgca wakhe wokuvala wawusithi "Umntu unokuyisebenzisa yonke indalo - kodwa akukho mntu unokukwazi ukubamba umntu." Ngethamsanqa kuthi sonke, khange isebenze. Ngelishwa, ngaphandle kukaJohn Hersey Yintsimbi ka-Adano ukuba yimovie engcono kun Isiqalo okanye isiphelo, incwadi yakhe ethengiswa kakhulu kwiHiroshima ayizange ibhenele nakweyiphi na studio njengebali elilungileyo lemveliso yeemovie. Ngelishwa, UDkt Strangelove Ayizukuvela kude kube ngo-1964, apho abaninzi babekulungele ukubuza ukusetyenziswa kwe "bhombu" kwixa elizayo kodwa kungasetyenziswanga ngaphambili, kusenza konke ukubuzwa kosetyenziso kwixesha elizayo kube buthathaka. Obu budlelwane kwizixhobo zenyukliya buhambelana nemfazwe ngokubanzi. Uluntu lwase-US lunokubuza ngazo zonke iimfazwe ezizayo, kwaye kwanezo mfazwe ziye zaviwa kwiminyaka edlulileyo ye-75, kodwa hayi i-WWII, isenza konke ukubuzwa kweemfazwe ezizayo kubuthathaka. Ngapha koko, ukuvota kwakutshanje kufumanisa ukuzimisela okoyikisayo ukuxhasa imfazwe yenyukliya yoluntu lwase-US.

Ngelo xesha Isiqalo okanye isiphelo yayiprintwa kwaye ihluzwa, urhulumente wase-US wayethatha kwaye efihla yonke indawo yokufihla enokuthi ifumane iifoto ezizezona zineefoto okanye zeefayile zeendawo zebhombu. UHenry Stimson wayenomzuzu wakhe weColin Powell, etyhalela phambili esidlangalaleni ukuba enze eli tyala ngokubhala phantsi ngokuba yaphosa phantsi iibhombu. Iibhombu ezingakumbi zazisakhiwa ngokukhawuleza kwaye ziphuhliswa, kwaye bonke abantu bakhutshelwa kumakhaya abo esiqithi, baxoka, kwaye basebenza njengepropathi yeendaba apho baboniswa njengabathathi-nxaxheba abonwabileyo ekutshatyalalisweni kwabo.

UMitchell ubhala ukuba esinye sezizathu sokuba iHollywood ibuyiselwe emkhosini yayikukusebenzisa iinqwelo-moya zayo, njl., Kwimveliso, kunye nokusebenzisa awona magama abalinganiswa ebalini. Ndikufumanisa kunzima kakhulu ukukholelwa ukuba ezi zinto zibaluleke kakhulu. Ngohlahlo-lwabiwo mali olungenamda yayilahla kule nto-kubandakanya ukubhatala abantu ebabanika amandla e-veto- i-MGM ngeyazenzela iipropu zayo ezingathandekiyo kunye nelifu layo lamakhowa. Kumnandi ukucinga ukuba ngenye imini abo bachasene nokubulawa kwabantu abaninzi banokuthatha into efana nesakhiwo esikhethekileyo se-US Institute of “Peace” kwaye bafuna ukuba iHollywood ihlangabezane nemigangatho yoxolo ukuze ifilim apho. Kodwa ngokuqinisekileyo uxolo alunamali, iHollywood ayinamdla, kwaye nasiphi na isakhiwo sinokulingiswa kwenye indawo. I-Hiroshima ibinokulingiswa kwenye indawo, kwaye kwi-movie ayiboniswanga kwaphela. Eyona ngxaki iphambili apha yayiyingcinga kunye nemikhwa yokuzithoba.

Kwakukho izizathu zokoyika urhulumente. I-FBI yayihlola abantu ababandakanyekayo, kubandakanya oososayensi abanomdla njengo-J. Robert Oppenheimer abagcina ukubonisana ngefilimu, bekhala ngobubi bayo, kodwa bengoyiki ukuyiphikisa. Umothuko omtsha oBomvu wawukukhaba nje. Abanamandla babesebenzisa amandla abo ngeendlela eziqhelekileyo zesiqhelo.

Njengokuveliswa kwe Isiqalo okanye isiphelo Imimoya eya ekugqityweni, yakha umfutho ofanayo owenziwe yibhombu. Emva kwezikripthi ezininzi kunye namatyala kunye nohlaziyo, nomsebenzi omninzi kunye nokuncamisa iesile, kwakungekho ndlela yokuba isitudiyo singayikukhupha. Xa ekugqibeleni yaphumayo, abaphulaphuli babancinci kwaye uphononongo ludibene. INew York mihla le PM Ndifumene ifilimu "eyomelezayo", ndicinga ukuba yayiyeyona nto ibalulekileyo. Umsebenzi ufezekisiwe.

Isiphelo sikaMitchell kukuba ibhombu yaseHiroshima yayisisiqalo sokuqala, kwaye i-United States kufuneka iphelise umgaqo-nkqubo wayo wokuqala. Kodwa ke yayingeyonto injalo. Yayikukuphela kwesitrayikhi, isitrayikhi sokuqala nesokugqibela. Kwakungekho ezinye iibhombu zenyukliya ezaziza kubuya zibuye "njengogwayimbo lwesibini." Ngoku, namhlanje, ingozi yenzeke ngengozi njengokusebenzisa ngenjongo, nokuba yeyokuqala, yesibini, okanye eyesithathu, kwaye isidingo kukuba ekugqibeleni sijoyine uninzi loorhulumente behlabathi abafuna ukuphelisa izixhobo zenyukliya kunye - Ewe kunjalo, kuvakala ngathi uphambene kuye nabani na oye wangena ngaphakathi kwiintsomi zeWWII.

Kukho imisebenzi yobugcisa ebhetele kakhulu kunendlela Isiqalo okanye isiphelo esinokuphethukela kuyo ukuze sigqibe intsomi. Umzekelo, Golden Age, inoveli epapashwe nguGore Vidal ngo-2000 eneziqinisekiso ezivuthayo ngu Washington Post, kwaye Ukuhlaziywa kwencwadi yeNew York Times, ayikaze yenziwe i-movie, kodwa ibalisa ibali elikufutshane nenyaniso.[xxvii] In Golden Age, Silandela emva kwayo yonke iminyango evaliweyo, njengoko iBritane inyanzelisa ukubandakanyeka kwe-US kwiMfazwe yesibini (II), njengoko uMongameli Roosevelt esenza ukuzibophelela kwi-Nkulumbuso u-Churchill, njengabafudumeleyo besebenzisa ingqungquthela yeRiphabhlikhi ukuqinisekisa ukuba omabini amaqela atyumba abagqatswa ngo-1940 ukukhankasela uxolo ngelixa uceba imfazwe, njengoko uRovelvelt elangazelela ukubaleka ixesha elingazange libonwe njengomongameli wexesha lemfazwe kodwa kufuneka azanelise ngokuqala uyilo kunye nokukhankasela njengomongameli wexesha lokuyilwa ngexesha lobungozi belizwe, nanjengoko uRoosevelt esebenza ukucaphukisa IJapan ukuba ihlasele ishedyuli oyifunayo.

Ke kukho umbhali-mbali kunye neWWII igqala leWoward Zinn yincwadi ka-2010, Ibhomu.[xxviii] UZinn uchaza umkhosi wase-US wenza ukusetyenziswa kwawo kokuqala kwe-napalm ngokuyilahla kuyo yonke idolophu yaseFrance, etshisa nabani na kunye nantoni na eyichukumisileyo. I-Zinn yayikwenye yeenqwelomoya, ithatha inxaxheba kolu lwaphulo-mthetho lubi. Phakathi ku-Epreli 1945, imfazwe yase-Yurophu yayisele iphelile. Wonke umntu wayesazi ukuba iyaphela. Kwakungekho sizathu semikhosi (ukuba ayisiyiyo i-oxymoron) yokuhlasela amaJamani amiswe kufutshane neRoyan, eFrance, kuncitshiswe ukutshisa amadoda, abafazi nabantwana baseFrance. AmaBritane ayesele eyitshabalalisile idolophu ngoJanuwari, ngokufanayo eyibhombisa ngenxa yokufutshane nemikhosi yaseJamani, kwinto eyayibizwa ngokuba yimpazamo embi. Le mpazamo ilusizi yayihlanjululwe njengenxalenye yemfazwe, njengoko kwakunjalo ukuqhushumba komlilo okufezekise ngempumelelo iithagethi zaseJamani, njengoko kwaba njalo ngebhombu yaseRoyan nge napalm. UZinn usola i-Supreme Allied Command ngokufuna ukongeza "uloyiso" kwiiveki zokugqibela zemfazwe esele iphumelele. Ubeka ityala kwiibhongo zabaphathi bemikhosi. Utyhola umnqweno waseMelika Womoya wokuvavanya isixhobo esitsha. Kwaye ubeka ityala kuye wonke umntu obandakanyekayo- ekufuneka azibandakanye naye - “ngeyona njongo inamandla kunazo zonke: umkhwa wokuthobela, imfundiso yendalo yonke yazo zonke iinkcubeko, ukuba ungaphumi emgceni, ungacingi nokucinga ngento engeyiyo sabelwe ukuba sicinge, intshukumisa embi yokungabi nasizathu okanye umnqweno wokulamlela. ”

Ukubuya kukaZinn evela emfazweni eYurophu, wayekulindele ukuba athunyelwe emfazweni ePacific, ade abone kwaye onwabile kukubona iindaba zebhombu yeatom iphoswe eHiroshima. Kuphela yiminyaka kamva apho uZinn weza kuqonda ulwaphulo-mthetho olungenakuthintelwa lokulinganisa okukhulu kokuwa kweebhombu zenyukliya eJapan, izenzo ezifanayo nangezinye iindlela kwibhombu yokugqibela yaseRoyan. Imfazwe neJapan yayisele iphelile, amaJapan efuna uxolo kwaye ezimisele ukunikezela. IJapan yacela kuphela ukuba ivunyelwe ukugcina umlawuli wayo, isicelo esanikwa kamva. Kodwa, njenge-napalm, iibhombu zenyukliya zizixhobo ezazifuna ukuvavanywa.

UZinn naye ubuyela umva ukuze achaze izizathu zokuba i-United States yayisemfazweni ukuqala. I-United States, i-Ngilani, ne-France zazingamagunya asebukhosini axhasana kugonyamelo lwamazwe aphesheya kwiindawo ezinjengePhilippines. Bachasene okufanayo neJamani neJapan, kodwa hayi ubundlongondlongo uqobo. Uninzi lwethini kunye neerabha zaseMelika zivela kuMazantsi mpuma wePasifiki. I-United States yacacisa iminyaka emininzi ukungabikho kwenkxalabo kumaYuda ahlaselwa eJamani. Ikwabonakalise ukungabikho kwenkcaso kubuhlanga ngokunyanga ama-Afrika aseMelika kunye namaJapan aseMelika. UFranklin Roosevelt uchaze amaphulo obuqhushumbisi be-fascist kwiindawo zasekuhlaleni njenge "inkohlakalo engenabuntu" kodwa emva koko wenza njalo kwizinga elikhulu kwiidolophu zaseJamani, ezalandelwa yintshabalalo kwizinga elingazange libonwe eHiroshima naseNagasaki - iintshukumo ezize emva kweminyaka ihlazisa amaJapan. Eyazi ukuba imfazwe ingaphela ngaphandle kokuqhushumisa, kwaye esazi ukuba amabanjwa emfazwe ase-US azakubulawa yibhombu eyawa e-Nagasaki, umkhosi wase-US waya phambili waphosa iibhombu.

Ukudibanisa kunye nokuqinisa zonke iintsomi ze-WWII yeyona ntsomi iphambili yokuba uTed Grimsrud, olandela uWalter Wink, uyibiza ngokuba "yintsomi yobundlobongela obuhlangulayo," okanye "inkolelo engeyonyani yokuba sinokufumana 'usindiso' ngogonyamelo.” Njengomphumo wale ntsomi, ubhala watsho uGrimsrud, “Abantu kwihlabathi langoku (njengakwihlabathi lakudala), kwaye hayi abantu baseMelika, babeka ukholo olukhulu kwizixhobo zobundlobongela ukubonelela ngokhuseleko kunye nokuba noloyiso. phezu kweentshaba zabo. Inani labantu abathembekileyo ababeke kwezi zixhobo linokubonwa ngokucacileyo kubungakanani bezinto abazinikelayo ukulungiselela imfazwe. ”[xxix]

Abantu abakhethi ngabom ukuba bakholelwe kwiintsomi zeWWII kunye nobundlobongela. UGrimsrud uyacacisa: “Inxalenye yempumelelo yale ntsomi ibangelwa kukungabonakali kwayo njengentsomi. Sivame ukucinga ukuba ubundlobongela buyinxalenye yendalo yezinto; Sibona ukwamkelwa kobundlobongela kuyinyani, kungasekelwanga kwinkolelo. Ke asizazi ngokwethu malunga nokholo-lokwamkelwa kobundlobongela. Sicinga thina azi njengenyaniso elula yokuba ubundlobongela busebenza, ukuba ubundlobongela buyimfuneko, ukuba ubundlobongela abunakuphepheka. Asiqondi ukuba endaweni yoko sisebenza kwinkolo, kwiintsomi, kwinkolo, malunga nokwamkelwa kobundlobongela. ”[xxx]

Kuthatha iinzame zokubaleka intsomi yobundlobongela obuhlangulayo, kuba ibikho ukusukela ebuntwaneni: "Abantwana beva ibali elilula kwiikhathuni, kwimidlalo yevidiyo, kwiimuvi nakwiincwadi: silungile, iintshaba zethu zikhohlakele, ekuphela kwendlela yokujongana ngobubi kukoyisa ngogonyamelo, masiqengqele.

Intsomi yobundlobongela obuhlangulayo inxibelelana ngqo nokubaluleka kwelizwe. Intlalontle yesizwe, njengoko ichaziwe ziinkokeli zayo, imi njengeyona nto ibaluleke kakhulu ebomini apha emhlabeni. Akunakubakho thixo phambi kwesizwe. Le ntsomi ayisekanga nje kuphela inkolo yokuthand 'izwe embusweni, kodwa ikwanika isohlwayo sesizwe esinganyanzelekanga sesizwe. . . . Imfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi kunye nesiphumo sayo esithe ngqo sakhawulezisa kakhulu ukuvela kwe-United States yaba liqela lezomkhosi kwaye. . . lomkhosi uxhomekeke kwinkolelo yobundlobongela obuhlangulayo ngokuzondla. Abantu baseMelika bayaqhubeka nokwamkela intsomi yobundlobongela obuhlangulayo kwanaxa bejongana nobungqina obuqinisekileyo bokuba umkhosi wezomkhosi uye wonakalisa idemokhrasi yaseMelika kwaye utshabalalisa uqoqosho lweli lizwe kunye nemeko engqongileyo. . . . Kutshanje ngo-1930, inkcitho kwezomkhosi eMelika yayincinci kwaye imikhosi yezopolitiko yayinamandla ekuchaseni ukubandakanyeka 'ekubanjweni ngabangaphandle'. ”[xxxi]

Phambi kweWWII, uGrimsrud uthi, “xa iMelika yayisilwa emfazweni. . . Ekupheleni kwembambano isizwe sanyanzeliswa. . . . Ukusukela ngeMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, akukabikho kuncitshiswa ngokupheleleyo kuba sisuke ngqo kwiMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi saya kwiMfazwe ebandayo saya kwiMfazwe yobunqolobi. Oko kukuthi, siye sangena kwimeko apho 'onke amaxesha ingamaxesha emfazwe.' . . . Kutheni le nto abangengobantu abaphezulu, abathwala iindleko ezimbi ngokuhlala kwimfazwe engagungqiyo, bangenise kweli lungiselelo, kwanakwiimeko ezininzi benikezela ngenkxaso enkulu? . . . Impendulo ilula: isithembiso sosindiso. ”[xxxii]

[i] USabatini ugqibe ekubeni abe noxinzelelo, uloyiko kunye nempilo enkenenkene. Jonga uLuana Rosato, Iphephandaba, “U-Miss Italia, u-Alice Sabatini: 'Dopo la vittoria sono caduta in depressione',” nge-30 kaJanuwari 2020, https://www.ilgiornale.it/news/spettacoli/miss-italia-alice-sabatini-vittoria-depressione-1818934 .html

[ii] UGeoffrey Wheatcroft, Guardian, “Intsomi Yemfazwe Elungileyo,” ngoDisemba 9, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2014/dec/09/-sp-myth-of-the-good-war

[iii] Ibali eliluhlaza, i-YouTube.com, "UTrump uhlekisa ngokuqamba igama leziseko zeConfederate ngokucebisa ukuba zithiywe ngegama likaAl Sharpton," nge-19 kaJulayi 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D7Qer5K3pw4&feature=emb_logo

[iv] Studs Terkel, Imfazwe Efanelekileyo: Imbali Yomlomo WeMfazwe Yehlabathi II (I-New Press, i-1997).

[v] IWikiLeaks, “Iintetho eziHlawulwayo zeHRC,” https://wikileaks.org/podesta-emails/emailid/927

[vi] I-United States yeQhinga lokuSebenza ngeBhombu: Umzabalazo waseJapan wokuphelisa iMfazwe, ngoJulayi 1, 1946, https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/library/research-files/united-states-strategic-bombing-survey-japans-struggle-end- Imfazwe = documentid = NA & pagenumber = 50

[vii] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 164.

[viii] Imemorandam yeBard, ngoJuni 27, 1945, http://www.dannen.com/decision/bardmemo.html

[ix] UChristian Kriticos, Izigidi, "Isimemo sokuNqikaza: UJohn Hersey 'uHiroshima' ngama-70,” nge-31 ka-Agasti ka-2016, https://themillions.com/2016/08/imemo-hesitate-john-herseys-hiroshima.html

[X] UChristian Kriticos, Izigidi, "Isimemo sokuNqikaza: UJohn Hersey 'uHiroshima' ngama-70,” nge-31 ka-Agasti ka-2016, https://themillions.com/2016/08/imemo-hesitate-john-herseys-hiroshima.html

[xi] Isicelo sika-Leo Szilard kuMongameli, https://www.atomicarchive.com/resource/documents/manhattan-project/szilard-petition.html

[xii] Ingxelo yeKomiti kwiNgxaki zezoPolitiko nezeNtlalo, https://www.atomicarchive.com/resource/documents/manhattan-project/franck-report.html

[xiii] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 144.

[xiv] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 161.

[xv] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 166.

[xvi] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 176.

[xvii] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 176-177. Incwadi ithi zintandathu kwezi sixhenxe, endaweni yesixhenxe kwezisibhozo. UKuznick undixelela ukuba ekuqaleni wayengabandakanyi uHalsey kuba wafumana inkwenkwezi yakhe emva kokuphela kwemfazwe.

[xviii] Kwimeko yokulungisa imigaqo yokunikezela kunye nokuphelisa imfazwe kwangoko ngaphandle kweebhombu zenyukliya, jonga uOliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 146-149.

[xix] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 145.

[xx] URay Raphael, Ukusekwa kweentsomi: Amabali Afihla iXesha lethu elidlulileyo lokuthanda izwe (I-New Press, i-2014).

[xxi] UGreg Mitchell, Ukuqala okanye ukuphela: Njani iHollywood- kunye neMelika- yaFunda ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhombu (I-New Press, i-2020).

[xxii] UEric Schlosser, UkuLawula nokuLawula: Izixhobo zeNyukliya, iNgameko yaseDamasko, kunye ne-Illusion of Safety (Iincwadi zePenguin, 2014).

[xxiii] UGreg Mitchell, Ukuqala okanye ukuphela: Njani iHollywood- kunye neMelika- yaFunda ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhombu (I-New Press, i-2020).

[xxiv] "Ukuqala okanye ukuphela = Ifilimu yakudala," https://archive.org/details/TheBeginningOrTheEndClassicFilm

[xxv] U-Oliver Stone kunye noPeter Kuznick, Imbali engaziwayo yeUnited States (USimon & Schuster, 2012), iphe. 144.

[xxvi] UGreg Mitchell, Ukuqala okanye ukuphela: Njani iHollywood- kunye neMelika- yaFunda ukuyeka ukukhathazeka nokuthanda ibhombu (I-New Press, i-2020).

[xxvii] UGore Vidal, IGolide yeGolide: iNoveli (Ivintage, 2001).

[xxviii] UWoward Zinn, Ibhomu (Iincwadi zezibane zeSixeko, ngo-2010).

[xxix] UTed Grimsrud, Imfazwe elungileyo eyayingeyiyo kwaye kutheni kubalulekile: iMfazwe yesibini yeLifa leMveli (Iincwadi zeCascade, 2014), iphe. 12-17.

[xxx] UTed Grimsrud, Imfazwe elungileyo eyayingeyiyo kwaye kutheni kubalulekile: iMfazwe yesibini yeLifa leMveli (Iincwadi zeCascade, ngo-2014).

[xxxi] UTed Grimsrud, Imfazwe elungileyo eyayingeyiyo kwaye kutheni kubalulekile: iMfazwe yesibini yeLifa leMveli (Iincwadi zeCascade, ngo-2014).

[xxxii] UTed Grimsrud, Imfazwe elungileyo eyayingeyiyo kwaye kutheni kubalulekile: iMfazwe yesibini yeLifa leMveli (Iincwadi zeCascade, ngo-2014).