Jikelele uFilipu uSheridan, ekutshatyalazweni kwimihlaba yaseVirginia ngexesha leMfazwe yombango, wachitha ama-bison yezilwanyana zaseMelika njengendlela yokukhawulela amaMerika asekuhlaleni. IMfazwe Yehlabathi I yabona umhlaba waseYurophu ubhujiswe ngamatye kunye negesi yetyhefu. Ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, amaNorway aqala ukuhlaselwa kwemigodi kwiidlambo zawo, ngelixa amaDatshi aphuphuma isithathu kwisimilo sawo, amaJamani awonakalisa amahlathi aseCzech, kwaye amaBrithani atshisa amahlathi eJamani naseFransi.
Iimfazwe kule minyaka idlulileyo zenze ukuba iindawo ezinkulu zingabinakuhlala kwaye zavelisa amashumi ezigidi zeembacu. Imfazwe "ikhuphisana nezifo ezasulelayo njengonobangela wokufa kunye nokusweleka," ngokukaJennifer Leaning weHarvard Medical School. Ukoyama ukwahlula impembelelo yokusingqongileyo kwemfazwe kwiindawo ezine: “ukuveliswa nokuvavanywa kwezixhobo zenyukliya, ukuqhushumbiswa komoya ojikeleze umhlaba kunye nolwandle, ukusasazeka nokuzingisa kwemigodi yomhlaba kunye nokungcwatywa komngcwabo, kunye nokusetyenziswa okanye ukugcinwa kwezikhohlakali zomkhosi, iityhefu kunye nenkunkuma.”
Ukuvavanywa kwezixhobo zenyukliya yi-United States kunye neSoviet Union kubandakanye okungenani iimvavanyo zemozulu ezingama-423 phakathi kowe-1945 nowe-1957 nowe-1,400 kuvavanyo lwasemhlabeni phakathi kowe-1957 nowe-1989. Umonakalo wale radiation awukaziwa ngokupheleleyo, kodwa usasazeka, Ulwazi lwexesha elidlulileyo. Uphando olutsha ngo-2009 lwacebisa ukuba iimvavanyo zenyukliya zaseTshayina phakathi kowe-1964 nowe-1996 zabulala abantu abaninzi ngokuthe ngqo kunovavanyo lwenyukliya lwalo naliphi na ilizwe. UJun Takada, ugqirha wezobuchwephesha waseJapan, wabala ukuba ukuya kuthi ga kwi-1.48 yezigidi zabantu abachaphazeleka ekuweni kwaye i-190,000 yabo inokuba isweleke kwizifo ezinxulumene nemitha evela kuvavanyo lwaseTshayina. E-United States, ukuvavanywa kwii-1950s kukhokelele kumawakawaka abantu ababhubha ngumhlaza eNevada, eUtah, naseArizona, eyona ndawo iphantsi kovavanyo.
Ngo-1955, umboniso bhanyabhanya uJohn Wayne, owaphepha ukuthatha inxaxheba kwiMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi ngokukhetha ukwenza imovie ezukisa imfazwe, wagqiba kwelokuba adlale uGenghis Khan. Umnqobi wafotwa e-Utah, kwaye umoyisi woyiswa. Kubantu abangama-220 ababesebenza kwifilimu, ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1980 abangama-91 kubo babenomhlaza kwaye abangama-46 babhubha ngawo, kuquka uJohn Wayne, uSusan Hayward, uAgnes Moorehead, kunye nomlawuli uDick Powell. Iinkcukacha-manani zibonisa ukuba ama-30 kuma-220 ayenokufumana umhlaza, hayi ama-91. Ngo-1953 umkhosi wavavanya iibhombu zeathom ezili-11 kufutshane naseNevada, kwaye ngoo-1980s isiqingatha sabemi baseSt. George, eUtah, apho ifilimu yadutyulwa khona, umhlaza. Ungabaleka ubaleka emfazweni, kodwa awunakufihla.
Umkhosi wazi ukuba izixhobo zamandla enyukliya ziza kubachaphazela abo behla, kwaye bahlolisise iziphumo, ngokuzibandakanya ngokufanelekileyo kwimvavanyo yoluntu. Kwezinye iindidi ezininzi kwixesha kunye nasemashumi eminyaka emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, ngokuphula umthetho we-Nuremberg we-1947, umkhosi kunye ne-CIA baye baxhomekeka kubalindi beemfazwe, amabanjwa, abahlwempuzekileyo, abakhubazekile ngengqondo kunye nabanye abantu ukuba bafune ukuzama injongo yokuvavanya izixhobo zenyukliya, iikhemikhali kunye ne-biological, kunye neziyobisi ezifana ne-LSD, apho i-United States ihambe ukuya ekufakeni umoya kunye nokutya kwidolophana yonke yaseFransi kwi-1951, kunye neziphumo ezinobungozi kwaye ezibulalayo.
Ingxelo elungiselelwe kwi-1994 kwiKomidi yeSenate yase-US yabasebenzi beeMantshi iqala:
Ngethuba leminyaka yokugqibela ye-50, amakhulu eminyaka abasebenzi bezempi baye babandakanyeka ekuhlolweni kwabantu kunye nezinye iziganeko ezizimeleyo ezenziwa yiSebe lezoKhuseleko (iDOD), kaninzi ngaphandle kolwazi lwe-servicemember okanye imvume. Kwezinye iimeko, amajoni avuma ukukhonza njengezifundo zabantu azifumanisa ngokwabo kwiimvavanyo ezichasene nezo zichazwe ngexesha abazinikele ngokuzithandela. Ngokomzekelo, amawaka eemfazwe zeMfazwe Yehlabathi II ezazinikela ngokuvakalayo ukuvavanya iingubo zasehlobo zatshintshana ixesha lokuphumayo, zifumene ngokwamagumbi egesi ukuvavanya umphumo wegesi lwesardard kunye ne-lewisite. Ukongezelela, maxa wambi amajoni amiselwe ngokuyalela amagosa ukuba 'amavolontiya' athathe inxaxheba ekuphandeni okanye abhekane nemiphumo emibi. Ngokomzekelo, amaninzi amabutho e-Persian Gulf aphengululwe ngabaqeshwa beKomiti babika ukuba babeyalelwe ukuba bathathe iigcino zokuhlola ngexesha le-Operation Desert Shield okanye ebanjweni. "
Ingxelo epheleleyo iqulethe izikhalazo ezininzi malunga nomfihlelo wemikhosi kwaye ibonisa ukuba iziphumo zayo zingaphawula kuphela into efihliweyo.
Kwi-1993, uNobhala we-Amandla waseMelika ukhulule iirekhodi ze-US zokuhlola i-plutonium ngokungaboniyo amaxhoba ase-US ngokukhawuleza emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II. I-Newsweek ivakalise ngokuqinisekileyo, ngoDisemba 27, 1993:
"Oososayensi abaye baqhuba loo mvavanyo kade kudala babenezizathu ezicacileyo: umzabalazo kunye neSoviet Union, ukwesaba imfazwe yenyukliya, imfuneko esiphuthumayo yokuvula zonke iimfihlelo ze-athomu, ngenjongo yokubambisa impi kunye neyeza."
Owu, kuhle ukuba kunjalo.
Izixhobo zokuvelisa izixhobo zenyukliya eWashington, eTennessee, Colorado, eGeorgia, nakwezinye iindawo zityhefuze imimandla engqongileyo kunye nabasebenzi babo, ngaphezu kwe-3,000 kubo abanikezelwa umvuzo kwi-2000. Xa i-2009-2010 yokuvakasha kwendwendwe yandithatha kwimizi engaphezu kwe-50 kwilizwe lonke, ndamangaliswa kukuba amaninzi amaqela oxolo edolophini emva kwedolophu ayejolise ekunqandeni umonakalo owenziwe ngeefriji zezixhobo zendawo kwimeko kunye nabasebenzi babo inkxaso evela koorhulumente bendawo, nangaphezulu kunokuba bajolise ekunqandeni iimfazwe e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan.
KwiSixeko saseKansas, abemi abakhuselekileyo bebambezelekile kwaye bafuna ukuvimba ukufuduswa nokunyuka kwefayili enkulu yezixhobo. Kubonakala ngathi uMongameli uHarry Truman, owayesenzile igama lakhe ngokuchasana nenkunkuma ngesikhali, wahlwanyela umkhiqizo ekhaya ehlambele umhlaba kunye namanzi ngaphezu kwe-60 iminyaka ngelixa izinto zokuvelisa izixhobo zokufa ezisetyenziswe kuphela nguTruman. Imveliso yabucala, kodwa i-fasta-break-subsidized factory iya kuqhubekeka ukuvelisa, kodwa kwinqanaba elikhulu, i-85 ipesenti yezixhobo zezixhobo zenukliya.
Ndajoyina iinzondo ezininzi zendawo kwindawo yokubhikisha ngaphandle kwamasango e-factory, afana nemibhikisho ndiyinxalenye yamaziko e-Nebraska naseTennessee, kwaye inkxaso evela kubantu abaqhubiweyo yayiyimpumelelo: ezininzi iimpendulo ezintle kunokuba zibi. Omnye umntu owayeka imoto yakhe ekukhanyeni wasitshela ukuba ugogo wakhe wasweleka ngumhlaza emva kokuba enze amabhomu apho kwi-1960s. UMaurice Copeland, owayeyinxalenye yethu yokubhikisha, wandixelela ukuba wayesebenze kwisityalo kwi-32 iminyaka. Xa imoto yaphuma ngaphandle kwamasango ane-intombazana encinci, uCopeland wathi izinto ezinobuthi zisesambatho sendoda kwaye mhlawumbi wayenxibe le ntombazana kwaye mhlawumbi yambulala. Andiyi kuqinisekisa ukuba, ukuba kukho nto, ukuba yintoni kwiingubo zendoda, kodwa uCopeland wathi iziganeko ezinjalo ziyinxalenye yesityalo seKansas iminyaka emashumi, kungabikho urhulumente, okanye umnini-bucala (u-Honeywell), okanye umanyano wabasebenzi (i-International Association of Machinists) ngokukwazisa ngokufanelekileyo abasebenzi okanye uluntu.
Ngokutshintshwa kukaMongameli Bush kunye noMongameli Obama kwi-2010, abachasene neentengo zokukhulisa izityalo babenethemba lokutshintsha, kodwa ulawulo luka-Obama lunike le projekthi inkxaso epheleleyo. Urhulumente wesixeko ukhuthaze umzamo njengomthombo wemisebenzi kunye nengeniso yerhafu. Njengoko siza kubona kwicandelo elilandelayo kweli sahluko, kwakungekho.
Ukuveliswa kwezixhobo yeyona nto incinci kuyo. Iibhombu ezingezizo ezenyukliya kwiMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi zatshabalalisa iidolophu, iifama, kunye neenkqubo zokunkcenkceshela, zavelisa iimbacu ezingama-50 ezigidi nabantu abafudukayo. Ibhombu yaseMelika eVietnam, eLaos, naseCambodia ivelise iimbacu ezizizigidi ezili-17, kwaye ukuphela kuka-2008 bekukho i-13.5 yezigidi zeembacu kunye nabafuna indawo yokubalekela kwihlabathi liphela. Imfazwe yamakhaya ende eSudan yakhokelela kwindlala apho ngo-1988. Imfazwe yamakhaya yaseRwanda yatyhala abantu bangena kwiindawo ezinabantu abasengozini yokuphela, kuquka iigorila. Ukufuduswa kwabemi kwihlabathi liphela ukuya kwiindawo ezinokuhlalwa kancinci konakalise iinkqubo zendalo.
Iimfazwe zihamba ezininzi emva. Phakathi kwe-1944 kunye ne-1970 i-US yamasosha aseMelika ayichitha ezininzi izixhobo zamakhemikhali kwiindawo zase-Atlantic nasePacific. Kwi-1943 izibhamu zaseJamani zatshise umkhumbi wase-US e-Bari, eItali, eyayithwala ngasese izigidigidi zegesi zesardadi. Abanqwelisi abaninzi base-US bafa ngenxa yetyhefu, eyathi i-United States ingathembekanga ukuba iyisebenzisa "njengonqabileyo," nangona igcina imfihlo. Iinqanawa kulindeleke ukuba igcine igesi kwi yolwandle iminyaka. Okwangoku iUnited States neJapan zashiya iinqanawa ze-1,000 phantsi kwePacific, kuquka amatshini angamatshini. Kwi-2001, enye nqanawa, i-USS Mississinewa yafunyanwa ukuba ioli. Kwi-2003 umkhosi wasusa oko ioli ebenokuyenza.
Mhlawumbi izixhobo ezifa kakhulu ezishiywe emva kweemfazwe yimigodi yomhlaba kunye neibhola zeqoqo. Iingamashumi ezigidi zazo ziqikelelwa ukuba zilele emhlabeni, zingaboni naziphi na izivakalisi ukuba uxolo luye lwaziswa. Uninzi lwamaxhoba abo ngabantu, ipesenti enkulu yabantwana. Ingxelo yeSebe leSizwe le-1993 yase-US ibiza ngokuba yimibhobho yomhlaba "ungcoliseko olunobungozi kakhulu nolusasazekayo olujongene noluntu." Imigodi yomhlaba ibonakalisa indawo ngeendlela ezine, kubhala uJennifer Leaning:
"Ukwesaba kweemigodi kunqabela ukufikelela kwimithombo yobutyebi bemvelo kunye nomhlaba ohlazileyo; Abantu bakunyanzeliswa ukuba bahambe ngokukhethekileyo kwiindawo eziphantsi kunye nezibuthathaka ukuze kuphephe iindawo zamagquma; le nkqubela yokufudukela kwezinto eziphilayo; kunye nokuqhuma kwemigodi yomhlaba kuyaphazamisa inkqubo ebalulekileyo yomhlaba namanzi. "
Isixa somhlaba esichaphazelekayo asiyinto encinci. Izigidi zehektare eYurophu, eNyakatho Afrika, nase-Asia ziphantsi kokuvalwa. Ingxenye yesithathu yomhlaba eLibiya ifihla imigodi yomhlaba kunye nemiqulu yeMfazwe yehlabathi engachangekanga. Uninzi lweentlanga zehlabathi ziye zavuma ukuvinjelwa kweemigodi yomhlaba kunye neibhola zeqoqo. I-United States ayikho.
Ukususela ngo-1965 ukuya ku-1971, i-United States yavelisa iindlela ezintsha zokutshabalalisa izityalo nezilwanyana (kubandakanywa nobomi bomntu); yatshiza iipesenti ezili-14 zamahlathi aseMzantsi Vietnam ngamayeza okubulala ukhula, yatshisa umhlaba wefama, yaza yadubula imfuyo. Enye yezona zinto zimbi kakhulu zemichiza yokubulala ukhula, iAgent Orange, isasongela impilo yabantu baseVietnam kwaye ibangele isiqingatha sesigidi sokuzalwa. Ngexesha loMlo we-Gulf, i-Iraq yakhupha i-10 yezigidi zeelitha zeoyile kwiPersian Gulf yaza yabeka imithombo yeoyile engama-732 ngomlilo, ibangela umonakalo omkhulu kwizilwanyana zasendle kunye netyhefu yamanzi aphantsi komhlaba ngokuchithwa kweoyile. Kwiimfazwe zayo eYugoslavia nase-Iraq, i-United States ishiye ngasemva i-uranium ephelileyo. Uphando lwe-1994 lwe-US lweeMfazwe zooVeteran kwiMfazwe yase-Gulf War e-Mississippi yafumanisa iipesenti ezingama-67 zabantwana babo abakhulelwe ekubeni imfazwe yayinezifo ezinzima okanye iziphene zokuzalwa. Iimfazwe eAngola zaphelisa iipesenti ezingama-90 zezilwanyana zasendle phakathi kowe-1975 nowe-1991. Imfazwe yamakhaya eSri Lanka yawisa imithi emihlanu yezigidi.
ImiSebenzi yaseSoviet kunye ne-US yase-Afghanistan yonakalise okanye iwonakele eziliqela zeedolophu kunye nemithombo yamanzi. I-Taliban ithengise ngokungekho mthethweni imithi ePakistan, okubangelwa kukungqothulwa kwamahlathi. Iibhomu ze-US kunye nababaleki abadinga imithi baye bongeza umonakalo. Amahlathi ase-Afghani asondele. Ininzi yeentaka ezifudukelayo ezazisetyenziselwa ukudlula e-Afghanistan azikwenzi njalo. Umoya kunye namanzi aphethwe ngetyhefu kunye neziqhumane kunye nama-rocket propellants.
Kule mizekelo yeentlobo zomonakalo ongqongileyo owenziwe yimfazwe kufuneka zifakwe iinkcukacha ezibini malunga nendlela iimfazwe zethu zilwa ngayo kwaye kutheni. Njengoko sibonile kwisahluko sesithandathu, iimfazwe zivame ukulwa nezixhobo, ngakumbi ioli. I-oyile inokwenziwa okanye ifakwe, njengaseMfazweni yaseGulf, kodwa ngokuyinhloko isetyenziselwa ukuhlambela umoya ojikelezayo, ukubeka sonke esichengeni. I-oyile kunye nabathandi bemfazwe badibanisa ukusetyenziswa kweoli kunye nozuko lwemfazwe, ukuze amandla avuselelekayo angangobungozi bentlekele yehlabathi ayabonwa njengeendlela ezikhohlakeleyo kwaye zingenakuphilisa ukusetyenziswa kwamashishini ethu.
Ukusebenzisana kwemfazwe ngeoli kuyaphaya koko, nangona kunjalo. Iimfazwe ngokwazo, nokuba zingalwanga okanye zilwa neoli, zichithe ubuninzi balo. Umthengi womhlaba ophezulu weoli, eqinisweni, ngumkhosi waseMelika. Asiyikulwa kuphela neemfazwe kwiindawo zehlabathi ezenzeka ukuba zityebile kwioli; Sitshisa ioli ngakumbi ukulwa nale mpi kunokuba senze nawuphi na umsebenzi. Umbhali kunye nomdwebi wemifanekiso uTed Rall ubhala:
ISebe leMerika leMfazwe lizwe elibi kunazo zonke emhlabeni, ukubethelwa, ukulahlwa, nokuchitha izidalwa ezinambuzane nezidlova, izifo, i-solvents, i-petroleum, i-lead, i-mercury kunye ne-uranium epholileyo. Ngokutsho kukaSteve Kretzmann, umlawuli we-Oil Change International, i-60 ekhulwini ye-carbon dioxide ephuma phakathi kwe-2003 ne-2007 evela kwi-Iraq e-US, ngenxa yexabiso elikhulu leoli kunye negesi efunekayo ukuze kugcinwe amakhulu eminyaka amabutho aseMerika kunye iikontraki zangasese, ingakhankanywa ngamatye akhishwe ngamagada e-fighter, iinqwelo ze-drone, kunye neemfucu kunye nezinye izidanga eziya e-Iraq. "
Sihlambela umoya kwinkqubo yetyhefu emhlabeni ngazo zonke iintlobo zezixhobo. Umkhosi wase-US utshisa malunga ne-340,000 yemiphanda yeoyile suku ngalunye. Ukuba iPentagon ibililizwe, ibizakuma-38 kwindawo yokusetyenziswa kweoyile. Ukuba uyisusile iPentagon kusetyenziso lweoyile lulonke eUnited States, emva koko iUnited States isazokuma kwindawo yokuqala kungabikho mntu naphi na kufutshane. Kodwa ubuya kuyisindisa imeko yokutsha kweoyile ngakumbi kunamazwe amaninzi, kwaye ngewawusindisile iplanethi yonke imikhosi yethu yasemkhosini ekwaziyo ukuyibasa nayo. Alikho elinye iziko eUnited States elisebenzisa phantse ioyile njengasemkhosini.
Ngo-Oktobha i-2010, i-Pentagon yamemezela izicwangciso zokuzama ukutshintshelwa kwindlela yokuvuselela amandla. Inkxalabo yempi yayingabonakali eqhubekayo kwiplanethi okanye iindleko zemali, kodwa kunoko abantu baqhubeka bevuthela ama-fuel tankers ePakistan nase-Afghanistan ngaphambi kokuba bafikelele kwiindawo zabo.
Ziyintoni na ukuba iingqongileyo azizange zibeke phambili iimfazwe zokugqibela? Ngaba bayakholelwa ukuba imfazwe ihleli, okanye ngaba bayakoyika ukujamelana nabo? Unyaka ngamnye, i-US Environmental Protection Agency ichitha i-622 yezigidi ezizama ukubonisa indlela esinokuyivelisa ngayo ngaphandle kweoli, ngelixa umkhosi uchitha amakhulu amabhiliyoni avutha ioli kwiimfazwe ezilwa ukulawula ioli. Izigidi zeedola ezisetyenziselwa ukugcina ijoni ngalinye kumsebenzi wasemzini unyaka zingenza imisebenzi ye-20 yamandla obumnyama kwi-$ 50,000 nganye. Ngaba lo lukhetho olunzima?
