EyeKhala

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Julayi 1. Ngaloo mini kwi-1656, iiQuaker zokuqala zafika eMelika, zize ziza kuba yiBoston. Ikoloni yamaPuritan eBoston yayisungulwe kakuhle yi-1650s ngemithetho eqinileyo esekelwe kwinkolo yayo. Xa abaQuaker befika bevela eNgilani kwi-1656, babingeniswa ngamacala okuloba, ukubanjwa, ukuvalelwa entolongweni, kunye nemfuno yokuba bashiye iBoston kwiinqanawa ezilandelayo. Umyalelo obangela iintlawulo ezinzima kwiinqanawa zokuhambisa ii-Quaker eBoston kungekudala zagqitywa ngabaPuritan. AmaQuaker awamisa umhlaba wabo ngokubhikisha aqhubeka ehlaselwa, atyhulwa, kwaye ubuncinane bodwa babulawa ngaphambi kokuba isigwebo sikaNkosana uCharles II sivimbele ukubulawa kwihlabathi elitsha. Njengoko abahlali abahlukahlukeneyo baqala ukufika eBoston Harbour, ii-Quakers zafumana ukwamkelwa okwaneleyo ukuseka i-coloni yabo ePennsylvania. Uloyiko lwamaPuritan, okanye u-xenophobia, lwadibanisa eMelika kunye nesiseko sokusekela inkululeko kunye nobulungisa kubo bonke. Njengoko iMelika yakhula, kwanjalo ukuhluka kwayo kwahluka. Ukwamukelwa kwabanye kwakubangelwa kakhulu yi-Quakers, eyayixelisa abanye izenzo zokuhlonela amaMerika, ubukhoboka obuphikisayo, ukulwa nemfazwe, nokuphishekela uxolo. I-Quaker yasePennsylvania ibonisa ukuba ezinye iikoloni iinkonzo zokuziphatha, ezezimali kunye neenkcubeko zenza uxolo kunokwenza imfazwe. AmaQuaker afundisa amanye amaMerika malunga nesidingo sokuphelisa ubukhoboka kunye nazo zonke iintlobo zobundlobongela. Uninzi lwezinto ezigqwesileyo ezisebenzayo ngembali yase-US ziqala ngamaQuakers ngokugxininisa ukuphakamisa izimvo zabo njengabantu abancinci abachasayo kwiimfundiso ezifunyenwe kwihlabathi jikelele.

Julayi 2. Ngaloo mini kwi-1964, uMongameli wase-US uLyndon B. Johnson wasayina uMthetho woLuntu woLuntu lwe-1964 emthethweni. Abantu abathunjiweyo baba ngabemi base-US abanelungelo lokuvota kwi-1865. Sekunjalo, amalungelo abo aqhubeka nokucinywa kulo lonke elaseMzantsi. Imithetho edluliselwe ngamanye amazwe ukuxhasa ulwahlulo, kwaye izenzo ezinobundlobongela ngamaqela amhlophe aphakamileyo afana neKuxlu Klan asongela inkululeko eyathembiswayo ngaphambili. Kwi-1957, iSebe lezoBulungisa lase-United States lidale iKhomishane yamaLungelo oLuntu ukuphanda olu lwaphulo-mthetho, olungazange lugxininiswe ngumthetho we-federal kude kube nguMongameli uJohn F. Kennedy uqhutywe nguMbutho weeLungelo loLuntu ukuphakamisa umyalelo-mali ngoJuni we-1963 othi: "Olu hlanga esekelwe ngabantu beentlanga ezininzi kunye nemvelaphi. Yayisiseko ngomgaqo wokuba bonke abantu badalwe ngokulinganayo, kwaye amalungelo abo bonke abantu ayancipha xa amalungelo omntu oyedwa asongelwa. "Ukubulawa kukaKennedy emva kweenyanga ezintlanu kwashiya uMongameli uJohnson ukuba alandele. Kwi-address yakhe yeNyunyana ye-Union, uJohnson wancenga wathi: "Masiyeke le ngqungquthela yeCongress njengesiqendu esenza ngaphezulu kwamalungelo abantu ngaphandle kweeseshoni zokugqibela ezidibeneyo." Njengoko ibhilikhwe yafikelela kwi-Senate, iingxabano ezishushu zaseMzantsi zadibana kunye ne-filimi ye-75-day. Umthetho woLuntu woLuntu lwe-1964 ekugqibeleni udluliselwe ngevoti ezimbini. Lo Mthetho uvimbela ukwahlula kuzo zonke iindawo zokuhlala zoluntu, kwaye unqanda ukucalulwa ngabaqeshi kunye nemibutho yabasebenzi. Kwakhona kwakha iKhomishoni yoTywala yeNgqesho elinganayo yokunika uncedo lwasemthethweni kwabemi abazama ukuphilisa.

Julayi 3. Ngalo mhla kwi-1932, Uluhlu Oluhlaza, ibhaltshi yokulwa nemfazwe ukubonakalisa ubundlobongela kunye nenkohlakalo yemfazwe, yenziwa okokuqala ngqa eParis kwintcintiswano yokucebisa. Ibhaliwe kwaye ichongiwe ngumdanisi waseJamani, utitshala kunye nomculi wezokhetho u-Kurt Jooss (1901-1979), ibhaltshi iboniswa "kumdaniso wokufa" oboniswe kwiingqungquthela eziqhelekileyo zaseJamani. Isiqendu ngasinye sesibhozo sichaza indlela eyahlukileyo apho uluntu luhambelana nomnxeba wokulwa. Inani lokufa ngokulandelelana lidukisa ezobupolitika, amajoni, umfaki weflegi, intombazana encinci, umfazi, unina, ababaleki, kunye nabaxhamli bezoshishino, bonke abo bangeniswa kumdaniso wokufa ngendlela efanayo abahlala ngayo ubomi babo. Kuphela umlinganiselo womfazi unikezela ukuchasana. Ujika waba yindoda evukelayo kunye nokubulala ijoni elibuya ngaphambili. Kulo mthetho, Ukufa kumrhola ukuba aqhutywe yinqwaba yokudubula. Ngaphambi kokuba kukhishwe izibhamu zokuqala, umfazi uphendukela ekufeni kwaye uyazithoba. Ukufa ngokukhawuleza kumnika umqubuzo wokuvuma, ngoko ukhangele kubaphulaphuli. Kuhlalutyo lwe-2017 Uluhlu Oluhlaza, umhleli we-freelance editor Jennifer Zahrt ubhala ukuba omnye umbuyekezi kwintsebenzo awayeyo kuyo wathi, "Ukufa kubheke ngathi sonke njengokungathi siyibuze ukuba siyayiqonda." UZahrt uyaphendula, "Ewe," njengokungavumelani ukuba ukubizwa kwelokufa kwimfazwe ngenye indlela eqinisekisiwe. Kufuneka kuphawulwe, nangona kunjalo, ukuba imbali yanamhlanje inikezela ezininzi iziganeko apho iqela elincinci labantu abanikezelweyo, elihlelwe njengentlangano yokungahambisani nobudlova, liye lakwazi ukucima umnxeba wokufa kwabafundi bonke.

Julayi 4. Ngomhla ngamnye unyaka, ngelixa i-United States igubha isimemezelo sayo sokuzimela ngaphandle kweNgilani kwi-1776, iqela elingekho ngogonyamelo elinobundlobongela eliseYorkshire, eNgilani liyazimela "i-Independence yaseMelika Day." I-Campaign ye-Accountability Accountability (MHAC), iinjongo zeenjongo zeqela ukususela ngo-1992 sele ihlolisise kwaye ikhanyise imbambano yobukhosi baseBrithani ngokumalunga neziseko zase-United States ezisemsebenzini. Ingqwalasela ephambili ye-MHAC yi-Menwith Hill yase-US yaseNorth Yorkshire, esungulwe kwi-1951. Ukuqhutywa yi-Arhente yeSizwe yoKhuseleko yeSizwe (iNSA), i-Menwith Hill yiyona ndawo inkulu kunazo zonke zase-US ngaphandle kwe-US ukwenzela ukuqokelela ulwazi kunye nokuhlola. Ngokubanzi ngokubuza imibuzo ephalamende nokuvavanya umthetho waseBrithani kwimingeni yenkundla, i-MHAC yakwazi ukucacisa ukuba isivumelwano se-1957 esisemthethweni phakathi kwe-US kunye ne-UK ngokuphathelele kwi-NSA Menwith Hill yadluliselwa ngaphandle kokuphenyelwa kwepalamente. I-MHAC ibonise ukuba imisebenzi eyenziwa yisekelo ekuxhaseni impi yehlabathi yase-US, i-US ebizwa ngokuba yi-System Missile Defence, kwaye iinzame zokuqokelela ngolwazi lwe-NSA ziye zachaphazela kakhulu inkululeko yoluntu kunye neenkqubo zokulanda ngeekhompyutha ezithe zafumana ingxoxo encinci yoluntu okanye yepalamente. Injongo ephezulu ebhengeziweyo ye-MHAC kukutshatyalaliswa ngokupheleleyo kuzo zonke iziseko zaseMelika kunye nezisiseko zase-UK. Inhlangano idibanisa kunye, kwaye isekela, namanye amaqela anentsholongwane emhlabeni jikelele abelana ngeenjongo ezifanayo kumazwe abo. Ukuba loo migudu iphumelele ekugqibeleni, iya kubonisa inyathelo enkulu ekujongeni ukutshabalalisa umhlaba jikelele. I-US isebenza ngokusesikweni se-800 emikhulu yemikhosi kumazwe angama-80 nakumazwe angaphandle.

July 5. Ngaloo mini kwi-1811, iVenezuela yaba yindawo yokuqala yokuqala yaseSpain yaseMelika ukuvakalisa ukuzimela kwayo. Imfazwe yenkululeko yayisiliwe ukusuka ku-Epreli 1810. IRiphabhlikhi yokuQala yaseVenezuela yayinorhulumente ozimeleyo kunye nomgaqo-siseko, kodwa yathatha unyaka omnye kuphela. Abantu baseVenezuela bachasa ukulawulwa ngabelungu abamhlophe baseCaracas kwaye bahlala bethembekile kwisithsaba. Iqhawe elidumileyo, uSimón Bolívar Palacios, wazalelwa eVenezuela yosapho oludumileyo kwaye ukuxhathisa amaSpanish kwaqhubeka phantsi kwakhe. Wabizwa ngokuba ngu-El Libertador njengeRiphabhlikhi yesibini yeVenezuela kwaye u-Bolivar wanikwa amandla olawulo lobuzwilakhe. Waphinda wayityeshela iminqweno yabantu abamhlophe baseVenezuela. Kwakhona kwaphela unyaka omnye, ukususela ngo-1813-1814. UCaracas wahlala kulawulo lwaseSpain, kodwa ngo-1819, uBolivar wabizwa njengo-Mongameli weRiphabhlikhi yesithathu yaseVenezuela. Ngo-1821 iCaracas yakhululwa kwaza kwadalwa iGran Colombia, ngoku eyiVenezuela kunye neColombia. I-Bolivar yashiya, kodwa yaqhubeka nokulwa kwilizwekazi kwaye yabona iphupha lakhe lobumbano lweSpain America luza kwiziqhamo ezithile kwi-Confederation ye-Andes edibanisa oko ngoku kuyi-Ecuador, Bolivia, ne-Peru. Kwakhona, urhulumente omtsha wabonakala kunzima ukulawula kwaye akazange ahlale. Abantu baseVenezuela bacaphukisa ikomkhulu iBogota kude kakhulu eColombia, kwaye bayichasa iGran Colombia. UBolivar ulungele ukushiya elubhacweni eYurophu, kodwa wasweleka eneminyaka engama-47 ngesifo sephepha ngoDisemba 1830, ngaphambi kokuba aye eYurophu. Njengokuba wayesifa, umkhululi wenkululeko owayekhathazekile emantla o Mzantsi Melika wathi “Bonke abo babekhonza kwiinguqu balilima ulwandle.” Kunjalo ke ukungabi namsebenzi kwemfazwe.

Julayi 6. Ngaloo mini kwi-1942, u-Anne Frank oneminyaka elishumi elinesithathu ubudala, abazali bakhe nodadewabo bathuthela kwisigaba esingenalutho sakhiwo kwisakhiwo seofisi e-Amsterdam, eHolland apho u-Anne uyise ka-Anne waqhuba ishishini lobhankini. Apho usapho lwamaJuda-iJamani eyazalelwa eHolland emva kokuvuka kukaHitler ngo-1933 – yazifihla kumaNazi awayesele engene elizweni. Ngexesha lokuzimela kwabo, u-Anne wagcina idayari ebonisa amava osapho anokumenza adume kwihlabathi liphela. Xa usapho lwafunyanwa lwaza lwabanjwa kwiminyaka emibini kamva, u-Anne kunye nomama wakhe kunye nodadewabo basiwa kwinkampu yoxinaniso yaseJamani, apho bobathathu babulawa ziinyanga ezimbalwa ngenxa yetyhefu yomkhuhlane. Konke oku kulwazi oluqhelekileyo. Bambalwa abantu baseMelika, nangona kunjalo, bayazi lonke ibali. Amaxwebhu abhengezwe ngo-2007 abonisa ukuba iinzame zika-Otto Frank eziqhubekayo zeenyanga ezilithoba ngo-1941 zokufumana ii-visa eziza kungenisa usapho lwakhe e-US zaphazanyiswa yimilinganiselo yokuhlola yase-US. Emva kokuba uMongameli Roosevelt elumkise ngelithi iimbacu ezingamaJuda esele zise-US zinokuthi "zihlole ngokunyanzelwa," kukhutshwe igunya lolawulo elithintela ukwamkelwa kwe-US ziimbacu zamaJuda nezizalwane zawo ezisondele eYurophu, ngokusekwe kwingcinga yokuba amaNazi angabamba abo izalamane zithimbe ukuze zinyanzelise iimbacu ukuba zenze ubugqwirha kuHitler. Impendulo ibonakalisa ubuyatha kunye nentlekele enokubangelwa xa uloyiko olugqitywa yimfazwe kukhuseleko lwesizwe luthathe indawo yokuxhalaba kwabantu. Ayikuphakamisi nje kuphela ukuba u-Anne Frank owayenyanisekileyo unokucinezelwa kwinkonzo njengempimpi yamaNazi. Isenokuba negalelo ekufeni okungaphephekiyo kwamanani amaJuda aseYurophu.

Julayi 7. Ngaloo mini kwi-2005, uluhlu lweentlobo zokuhlaselwa kwabantu abatyhusezi zenzeke eLondon. Amadoda amathathu ahlamba iibhobho ezenziweyo ngokwahlukileyo kodwa kunyekanye kwiingxowa zabo zangaphambili eLondon Underground kunye neyesine benza okufanayo kwibhasi. Kubandakanywa ezine izigubhu, abantu abangamashumi amahlanu nabini beentlanga ezahlukeneyo bafa, kwaye amawaka asixhenxe akhatyelwa. Uphando lufumene ukuba i-95% yokuhlaselwa kobugqugquzeli bokuzibulala iyashukunyiswa ngumnqweno wokufumana umkhosi wempi ukuphelisa umsebenzi. Ezi hlaselo zazingekho ngaphandle kwalo mgaqo. Isizathu sokuphelisa umsebenzi wase-Iraq. Ngaphambi konyaka, ngo-Matshi i-11, i-2004, i-Al Qaeda ibhomu yabulala abantu base-191 eMadrid, eSpain, ngaphambi kokuba kunyulwe elinye iqela elithile elijongene nokulwa ne-Spain kwimpi ekhokelwa yi-US e-Iraq. Abantu baseSpain bavotela amaSocialists, bawasusa onke amabutho aseSpain esuka e-Iraq ngoMeyi. Kwakungekho mabhomu eBasipane. Ukulandela ukuhlaselwa kwe-2005 eLondon, urhulumente waseBrithani uzibophelele ekuqhubekeni kwemisebenzi enobudlova e-Iraq nase-Afghanistan. Ukuhlaselwa kobuphekula eLondon kulandele i2007, 2013, 2016, kunye ne2017. Okuthakazelisayo kukuba, kwimbali yehlabathi, ukuhlaselwa kwamaphekula okwehlabathi kuye kwaxutywa ukuba kuqhutywe ukucaphuka kwezipho zokutya, amayeza, izikolo, okanye amandla ahlanzekileyo. Ukunciphisa ukuhlaselwa ngokuzibulala kunokuncediswa ngokunciphisa ukubandezeleka, ukunyanzelwa, nokungabi nabulungisa, kunye nokuphendula izibheno ezingekho mthethweni, eziye zandulela izenzo zobundlobongela kodwa zivame ukunyanzeliswa. Ukuphatha olu lwaphulo-mthetho njengolwaphulo-mthetho, kunokuba izenzo zemfazwe zingaphula umjikelezo onobungozi.

Julayi 8. Ngaloo mini kwi-2014, kwimfazwe yeeveki ezisixhenxe ezaziwa ngokuba yi-2014 Gaza War, u-Israel waqalisa umoya weeveki ezisixhenxe waza wamgxeka ngokubhekiselele kwi-Hamas-Gaza Strip. Injongo ekhankanyweyo yokusebenza yayikuyeka umlilo ovela eGaza waya e-Israel, owanyuka emva kokuthunjwa kukaJuni kunye nokubulawa kwabantwana abathathu base-Israyeli ngabalandeli ababini baseHamas eWest Bank bebangela ukuchithwa kwe-Israel. Ngenxa yaloo nto, iHamas ifuna ukuvelisa uxinzelelo lwamazwe ngamazwe ku-Israyeli ukuphakamisa ukukhutshwa kwayo kweGaza Strip. Xa imfazwe iphelile, nangona kunjalo, ukufa kwabantu, ukulimala, nokungabikho kwamakhaya kwakunjalo kwicala elithile laseGazan-ngokugqithiseleyo abantu base2000 Gazan bafa, xa kuthelekiswa nama-Israyeli angamahlanu kuphela-ukuba iseshoni esikhethekileyo ye-International Tribunal yaseRussell ePalestina wabizwa ukuba uphando malunga nokubulawa kohlanga lwe-Israel. I-jury yayinzima kakhulu ukugqiba ukuba ukuhlaselwa kwe-Israel yokuhlaselwa, kwakunye nokujoliswa kwayo okungazikhethekanga, kubangelwa ubundlobongela obubhekiselele kuluntu, kuba bebagwebe i-collective punishment on the whole population. Kwakhona wamgatya ibango le-Israel ukuba izenzo zalo zinokuthi zilungele ukuzikhusela ekuhlaselweni kwe-rocket evela eGaza, ekubeni ezo zihlaselo zenza izenzo zokuchaswa ngabantu abahluphekileyo phantsi kokugweba ulawulo lwe-Israel. Nangona kunjalo, ijaji inqabile ukubiza izenzo ze-Israel "intshabalala," ekubeni loo nto ifunwa ngokusemthethweni ifuna ubungqina obunamandla bokuthi "injongo yokutshatyalaliswa." Kakade ke, kumawaka aseGazans abafile, abalimele nabangenamakhaya, ezi zigqibo zazingekho mphumo . Kwabo, nakwezinye ihlabathi, impendulo yonyani yodwa kwimfazwe yemfazwe isaluswe ngokupheleleyo.

Julayi 9. Ngaloo mini kwi-1955, uAlbert Einstein, uBertrand Russell kunye nezinye iinzululwazi ezisixhenxe zasixwayisa ukuba kufuneka kwenziwe ukhetho phakathi kwemfazwe nokusinda kwabantu. Izazinzulu ezibalaseleyo kwihlabathi liphela, kubandakanya uMax Born waseJamani, kunye no-Khomanisi wase-France u-Frederic Joliot-Curie, bajoyina u-Albert Einstein kunye no-Bertrand Russell kwilinge lokuphelisa imfazwe. Imanifesto, uxwebhu lokugqibela u-Einstein awalutyikityha phambi kokubhubha kwakhe, ifundeka ngoluhlobo: “Ngenxa yenyani yokuba nakweyiphi na imfazwe yehlabathi elizayo izixhobo zenyukliya ngokuqinisekileyo ziya kusetyenziswa, kwaye ezo zixhobo zisongela ubukho obuqhubekayo boluntu, sibongoza oorhulumente umhlaba uyayiqonda, kwaye uyamkele esidlangalaleni, ukuba iinjongo zabo azinakukhuthazwa yimfazwe yehlabathi, kwaye siyabakhuthaza, ngenxa yoko, ukuba bafumane iindlela zoxolo zokusombulula yonke imicimbi yempikiswano phakathi kwabo. Owayesakuba nguSosiba Wezomkhosi eUnited States uRobert McNamara wavakalisa uloyiko lwakhe lokuba intlekele yenyukliya ayinakuphepheka ngaphandle kokuba izixhobo zenyukliya zidiliziwe, esithi: “Intloko yomkhosi ophakathi eUnited States unegunya lokutshabalalisa izihlandlo ezingama-20 zebhombu yaseHiroshima. Kuma-8,000 e-US asebenzayo okanye asebenzayo e-warheads, i-2,000 ikwizilumkiso zokuvuselela iinwele… i-US ayikaze ixhase umgaqo-nkqubo 'wokusetyenziswa kokuqala,' hayi kwiminyaka yam esixhenxe njengonobhala okanye ukusukela oko. Sele sizilungiselele ukuqalisa ukusebenzisa izixhobo zenyukliya – ngesigqibo somntu omnye, umongameli… .umongameli ukulungele ukwenza isigqibo kwisithuba semizuzu engama-20 enokuthi isungule esinye sezixhobo ezonakalisayo emhlabeni. Ukubhengeza imfazwe kufuna isenzo seCongress, kodwa ukumiliselwa kwenyukliya kufuna inyani yemizuzu engama-20 ngumongameli kunye nabacebisi bakhe.

Julayi 10. Ngaloo mini kwi-1985, urhulumente waseFransi uqhubhise ibhokhwe waza wagxotha i-Greenpeace flagship I-Rainbow Warrior, ehambele kwi-wharf e-Auckland, isixeko esikhulu kwisixeko saseNew Zealand saseNorth Island. Ukuqhubela phambili inzala yayo ekukhuseleni imo, iGreenpeace yayisetyenziselwa ukuqhubela phambili enye yeeprojekthi zayo ezingaphephekanga ezijongene novavanyo lweNyukliya kwi-Pacific. I-New Zealand yayisekela ngokuqinileyo le mibhikisho, ibonisa indima yayo njengenkokeli kwinhlangano yamazwe angxamnye nokhuselo lwenyukliya. EFransi, ngakolunye uhlangothi, yabona ukuhlolwa kookrelekrele kubalulekile ekukhuselekeni kwayo, kwaye wayesaba ukunyanzelisa uxinzelelo lwamazwe ngamazwe olunokunyanzelisa ukuphela kwalo. AmaFrentshi abengazicwangcisi ngokukhethekileyo izicwangciso ze-Greenpeace ukuhamba ngomkhumbi ukusuka kwi-Auckland wharf kunye nesiteji esinye sesinye isibhikiso kwi-Atolulua ye-Mururoa e-Pacific ye-Pacific. Njengombutho, i-Rainbow Warrior ingakhokelela i-flotilla yamanqabana amancinci amancinci angakwaziyo amaqhinga angabonakaliyo e-French navy ayakufumana nzima ukulawula. Le nqanawa yayinkulu ngokwaneleyo ukuba ithwale izinto ezaneleyo kunye nezixhobo zonxibelelwano ukuze zigcine zombini ukuqhankqalaza kunye nokuhamba komnxeba kunye nehlabathi langaphandle kunye neengxelo kunye neefoto kwimibutho yeendaba zamazwe ngamazwe. Ukuze ugweme konke oku, i-Agent ye-French Secret Service eye yathunyelwa ukucima umkhumbi kwaye uyakukhusela ukuhamba. Isenzo sabakhokelela ekudakaleni okukhulu kwintsebenziswano phakathi kweNew Zealand neFransi kwaye yenza okukhulu ukukhuthaza ukuqhubela phambili kwilizwe laseNew Zealand. Ngenxa yokuba iBrithani kunye ne-United States behlulekile ukugweba lo msebenzi wesigebengu, kwaye kwaqina nzima eNew Zealand ngenkqubo engaphezulu yokuzimela ngaphandle.

July 11. Ngomhla ngamnye unyaka, umhla we-UN World-sponsored Day Population, owasungulwa kwi-1989, ugxininisa kwimicimbi enxulumene nokukhula kwabemi njengokucwangcisa intsapho, ukulingana ngokwesini, impilo yabantu kunye nemvelo, imfundo, ubulungisa bezoqoqosho kunye namalungelo abantu. Ukongeza kwezi nkxalabo, iingcali zabemi zikwazile ukuba ukukhula ngokukhawuleza kwabantu kumazwe ahlwempuzekileyo kubeka uxinzelelo kwizixhobo ezikhoyo ezinokukhokelela kukungazinzi kwezentlalo, ungquzulwano, kunye nemfazwe. Oku kuyinyani kwinxalenye ebalulekileyo kuba ukonyuka okukhawulezayo kubemi kuthanda ukuvelisa uninzi lwabantu abangaphantsi kwamashumi amathathu. Xa uluntu olunjalo lukhokelwa ngurhulumente obuthathaka okanye olawulayo, kwaye lusilela kokubini kwimithombo ebalulekileyo nakwimfundo esisiseko, ezempilo, kunye namathuba engqesho kubantu abancinci, iba yindawo enokubangela ungquzulwano kuluntu. IBhanki yeHlabathi ikhankanya i-Angola, iSudan, iHaiti, iSomalia neMyanmar njengemizekelo egqithileyo “yamazwe anengeniso ephantsi ephantsi koxinzelelo.” Kuzo zonke, uzinzo lusingelwa phantsi luxinano lwabemi irhafu ekhoyo indawo kunye nezixhobo. Zisakuba zigqityiwe kungquzulwano lwasekhaya, ezo ntlanga zikufumanisa kunzima ukuphinda kuqalise uphuhliso lwezoqoqosho- nokuba zityebile kubutyebi bendalo. Uninzi lweengcali zilumkisa ukuba amazwe anokwanda okuphezulu kwabemi kwaye engenazo izixhobo ezaneleyo zokubonelela abantu bawo anokubangela ukungazinzi kwindawo leyo. Ewe amazwe abizwa ngokuba aphucukileyo athumela ngaphandle izixhobo, iimfazwe, amaqela okusweleka, ukubhukuqa, kunye nongenelelo, endaweni yokunceda abantu kunye nokusingqongileyo, ikwanyusa ubundlobongela kwiindawo ezihlwempuzekileyo nezinabemi abaninzi behlabathi, ezinye zazo azisekho ngaphezulu, zihlwempuzeke ngakumbi. , kunaseJapan okanye eJamani.

Julayi 12. Ngaloo mini kwi-1817 uHenry David Thoreau wazalwa. Nangona mhlawumbi mhlawumbi eyaziwa ngokuba yi-philosophical transcendentalism-apho, njengoko Walden, wayejonge ukubonakaliswa kwendalo njengengcamango yemithetho yokomoya-uTreau naye wayengengomntu ongeyena mfana owayekholelwa ukuba ukuziphatha kakubi kungekhona ekuthobeleni igunya kodwa kwesazela sazela. Le ngcamango ichazwe kwisicatshulwa sakhe eside Ukungathobeli, ophefumlelweyo abameli bamalungelo omhlaba kamva njengoMartin Luther King noMahatma Gandhi. Imiba eninzi eyayikhathalela iTrereau yayikhoboka kunye neMfazwe yaseMexico. Ukukhanyela kwakhe ukuhlawula irhafu ukuxhasa imfazwe yaseMexico kwaholela ekubanjweni kwakhe, kunye nenkcaso yakhe ebukhosini bombhalo othi "Ubugqwetha eMassachusetts" kunye "Nokukhupha uMphathi uJohn Brown." Ukuzikhusela kukaThreau, uJohn Brown, ukugwetywa koBrown emva kokuzama kwakhe ukukhwela ngamakhoboka ngokubamba izixhobo kwiArsenal ye-Ferry. Ukuhlaselwa kwaphumela ekufeni komnye waseMelika waseMerika kunye nabalishumi elinesithathu abavukeli. UBrown wagwetywa ngokubulala, ukugwenxa, nokukhuthaza abantu ababugqila, kwaye ekugqibeleni waxhoma. Noko ke uThoreau waqhubeka ekhusela uBrown, ekuqapheliseni ukuba injongo yakhe yayinobuqili kwaye yazaliswa ngokubambelela kwesazela kunye namaLungelo eMgaqo-siseko wase-US. Imfazwe yoLuntu esilandelayo yayiza kubangela ukuba ukufa kwabantu base 700,000 bafe. UThoreau wafa njengoko imfazwe yaqala ngo-1861. Nangona kunjalo, abaninzi abaxhasa i-Union, kubini amasoldati kunye nabahlali, bahlala bephefumlelwe ngombono kaThoreau wokuphelisa ubukhoboka kwakudingeka kuhlanga oluthi luqonde ubuntu, ukuziphatha, amalungelo kunye nesazela.

Julayi 13. Ngaloo mini kwi-1863, phakathi kweMfazwe yombango, iqela lokuqala lokulwa kwamabutho ase-US lavuselela iintsuku ezine zeeNtshukumo eNew York City ezibeka phakathi kweyona nto ibonakalayo kunye neyona nto ibhubhisa kwiimbali zase-US. Ukuvuswa akuzange kubonakalise inkcaso yokuziphatha kwimfazwe. Ingcinezelo ebangela ukuba kubekho ukucinywa kweepotton ezithengiswayo ezivela eMzantsi ezazisetyenziselwa kwi-40 ipesenti yazo zonke iimpahla ezithunyelwa kwisikhululo sedolophu. Iingxakini eziveliswe ngumsebenzi wokulahlekelwa kwemisebenzi zagqitywa nguMongameli we-Emancipation Proclamation ngoSeptemba 1862. Umyalelo kaLincoln wakha ukwesaba phakathi kwabamhlophe abamhlophe ukuba amawaka abantu abamnyama abakhululekileyo abasuka eMzantsi basenokubakhombisa ngokukhawuleza kwi-market shrunken market. Ekhuthazwe ngoloyiko, abaninzi abamhlophe baqala ukumbamba ama-Afrika-aseMerika abanoxanduva lokulwa nemfazwe kunye nekamva labo lezoqoqosho. Umhlathi womthetho wokubhalisa umkhosi ekuqaleni kwe-1863 eyabangela ukuba abatyebi bavelise indawo okanye bathenge indlela yabo yokuphuma, baqhube amadoda amaninzi abamhlophe ukuba ahlasele. Ukuphoqeleka ukubeka ubomi babo emngciphekweni ngenxa yeManyano abavakalelwa ngayo, bahlanganiselwe ngamawaka ngoJulayi 13th ukuba baqhube izenzo zogonyamelo kubantu abamnyama, amakhaya kunye namashishini. Uqikelelo lwenani labantu ababuleweyo baya kwi1,200. Nangona ukugqithiswa kwaphela ngoJulayi 16 ngokufika kwimikhosi yamagunya, imfazwe yaphinde yavelisa imiphumo engathandekiyo. Sekunjalo, iingelosi ezingcono ziza kudlala indima. I-New York ye-African-American abolitionist movement yabuya yabuya isuka kwi-dormancy ukunyusa ukulingana kwamnyama kwisixeko kwaye yatshintshe uluntu lwayo ukuba lube ngcono.

July 14. Ngaloo mini kwi-1789, abantu baseParis baqhubhisa baza baqothula iSastille, iinqaba zasebukhosini nentolongo eyayifikile ukufuzisela inkohlakalo yama-French Bourbon. Nangona belambile kwaye behlawula irhafu ephezulu apho abafundisi kunye nabahloniphekileyo babenakho ukuxolelwa, abahlali kunye nabasebenzi basezidolophini abajikeleza ukuya eBastille bafuna kuphela ukuthatha isibhamu somkhosi esilondolozwe apho ngenxa yokunikezelwa kwemikhosi ukumkani wayenqume ukumisa ngeParis. Xa kwakunzima ukulwa neengxoworha ezingalindelekanga, ke ke, abaxhasi bawakhulula amabanjwa waza babamba igosa lorhulumente. Lezo zenzo ziphawula isiqalo sokufuzisela seMbubuko yaseFransi, iminyaka elishumi yeengxubusho zezopolitiko ezadala iimfazwe kwaye zadala ukuBuyiswa koBugubha ngokumelene nama-revolutionaries apho abantu abangamashumi amawaka, kuquka ukosi no-ukumkanikazi, babulawa. Ngenxa yale miphumo, kunokubakholelwa ukuba isiganeko esinentsingiselo ngakumbi kwiNgqungquthela yokuQala kweNguquko yenzeke ngo-Agasti 4, 1789. Ngaloo mini iPhalamende elitsha leNational Constituent Assembly lahlangana kwaye laqalisa ukuguqulwa okutshintshileyo okuphelisa ngokugqibeleleyo imimandla yamandulo yeFransi, nayo yonke imigaqo yayo yakudala, amalungiselelo enkcitho, kunye namalungelo afanelekileyo abancinci nabafundisi. Ngokona nkoliso, abahlali beFransi bawamkela ukuguqulwa, bebabona njengeempendulo kwizikhalazo zabo ezinzulu. Sekunjalo, i-Revolution ngokwayo yayiza kulula iminyaka elishumi, de kube yinto yokunqoba kweNapoléon yamandla ezopolitiko ngoNovemba 1799. Ngokwahlukileyo, ukuguqulwa kwe-4 ka-Agasti yedwa kubonisa ukuzimisela okunjalo kwiindawo ezikhethekileyo ukuba zibeke uxolo kunye nenhlalakahle yesizwe phambi kwezinto ezizimeleyo ukuze kulungelelaniso lwehlabathi.

Julayi 15. Ngaloo mini kwi-1834, i-Inquisition yaseSpain, eyaziwa ngokusemthethweni njengeNkundla yeNgqungquthela ye-Inquisition, yachithwa ngokucacileyo ngexesha lolawulo oluncinane lukaMbhinqa uElizabeth Isabel II. Iofisi yayifakwe phantsi kwegunya likapapa ngo-1478 ngamaKumkani amaKatolika aseSpain, uKumkani uFerdinand II waseAragon kunye no-Queen Isabella I waseCastile. Injongo yantlandlolo yayikukunceda ukudibanisa ubukumkani obutsha obabumanyene baseSpain ngokususa ubuqhetseba okanye ukuphambuka kwamaJuda okanye amaSilamsi aguqukele kubuKatolika. Iindlela ezikhohlakeleyo nezithobayo ziye zasetyenziswa ukulandela isiphelo kunye nolwaphulo olwandayo lokungahambelani nenkolo. Ngaphezulu kweminyaka engama-350 yokuNcina amakholwa, malunga nama-150,000 amaJuda, amaSilamsi, amaProtestanti kunye nabefundisi abangaphantsi kwamaKatolika batshutshiswa. Kubo, kwabulawa abangama-3,000 5,000 ukuya kuma-160,000 XNUMX, ubukhulu becala ngokutshiswa esibondeni. Ukongeza, malunga nama-XNUMX amaYuda angavumiyo ukubhaptizwa njengamaKristu agxothwa eSpeyin. Inkundla yokuNcina amakholwa yaseSpain iya kuhlala ikhunjulwa njengenye yezona ziqendu zibuhlungu embalini, ukanti ukubakho kwamandla okunyanzelisa kuhlala kuhleli nzulu kuyo yonke iminyaka. Iimpawu zayo zihlala zifana: ulawulo olwandayo lwenginginya yobutyebi kunye nokuxhamla kwabantu abongamileyo; ubutyebi obunciphayo kunye nenkululeko yabantu; kunye nokusetyenziswa kweendlela eziguqukayo, zokuziphatha kakubi okanye ezinobundlobongela ukugcina izinto zinjalo. Xa ezo mpawu zibonakala kwihlabathi lanamhlanje, zinokuhlangatyezwa ngokufanelekileyo ngumzabalazo wezopolitiko ochasayo ohambisa ulawulo kubemi ngokubanzi. Abantu ngokwabo banokuthenjwa ngokugqwesileyo ekuxhaseni iinjongo zobuntu ezinyanzela abo babalawulayo ukuba bangafuni igunya lokuphakama, kodwa ukulunga okuqhelekileyo.

Julayi 16. Ngaloo mini kwi-1945 i-US iphumelele ukuvavanya ibhomu yokuqala ye-athomu yehlabathi at Udidi lwe-Alamogordo ibhomu e-New Mexico. Ibhokhwe yayiyimveliso yento okuthiwa iManhattan Project, umzamo wophando kunye nophuhliso oqale ngokusesikweni ekuqaleni kwe-1942, xa kuvela ukwesaba ukuba amaJamani ahlakulela ibhomu lawo. Iprojekti yase-US igqityiwe kwisiko eLos Alamos, eNew Mexico, apho iingxaki zokufumana ubunzima obunzima bokubangela ukuqhuma kwenyukliya kunye nokuqulunqwa kwebhomu ekhutshwayo. Xa uvavanyo lwebhomu lwangcoliswa kwintlango yaseMexico yaseMexico, yavuthisa inqaba ehleli kuyo, yathumela ukukhanya kweenyawo ze-40,000 inyawo emoyeni, kwaye yavelisa amandla okubhubhisa we-15,000 kwiitani ze-TNT ze-20,000. Ngaphantsi kweenyanga kamva, ngo-Agasti 9, i-1945, ibhobho yesakhiwo esifanayo, ebizwa ngokuba yi-Fat Boy, yachithwa kwiNagasaki, eJapan, yabulala i-60,000 eqingqiweyo kubantu base-80,000. Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, uhlanga lweempahla zenyukliya lwenziwe phakathi kwe-US kunye ne-Soviet Union ekugqibeleni, okanye ubuncinci bexesha elifutshane, lihlanganiswe ngoluhlu lwezivumelwano zokulawula izikhali. Ezinye zaphinda zatshitshiswa ngulawulo lwe-US olufuna inzuzo yezempi yamacandelo kwiintsebenziswano zamandla jikelele. Noko ke, bambalwa bangabambana, nokuba kusetyenziswe izixhobo zenyukliya ezinamandla kunamandla nakwezinye iintlobo zezixhobo zenuzi, kwaye kubalulekile ukuba kuqinisekiswe izivumelwano zokungaxhatshali phakathi kwezi zombini zikhulu zamandla enyukliya. Abaququzeleli bomnqophiso omtsha wokuvala zonke izixhobo zenyukliya banikezwa uMvuzo weNobel woxolo kwi-2017.

July 17. Ngaloo mini kwi-1998, umnqophiso owamkelwe kwinkomfa yezopolitiko eRome, eyaziwa njengeRome Statute, wasungula iNkundla yezoPhulo lwaMazwe ngamazwe. Injongo yeNkundla kukusebenza njengendlela yokugqibela yokuzama iinkokheli zempi kunye nezopolitiko kunoma yiphina isizwe esisayinayo kwiintlawulo zobuhlanga, ubugebengu bezobufa, okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho olujongene noluntu. I-Rome Statute ebeka iNkundla yaqalisa ukusebenza ngoJulayi 1, i-2002, isayinwe okanye isayinwe ngamazwe angama-150-nangona kungekhona yi-US, i-Russia okanye i-China. Ngaloo nto, urhulumente wase-US uye waqhubeka echasene nenkundla yamazwe ngamazwe enokubamba iinkokeli zakhe zempi kunye nezopolitiko ukuba zibe nemigangatho yemigangatho yomthetho jikelele. Ulawulo lukaClinton luthathe inxaxheba ekusebenzisaneni ngokubambisana nomnqophiso obekwa iNkundla, kodwa wafuna ukuhlolwa kweBhunga loKhuseleko lwamaxesha ayenokubangela ukuba i-US ivumelane naluphi na uxhutshiso oluchasene nalo. Njengoko iNkundla igxininisa ukuphunyezwa kwi-2001, ulawulo lwe-Bush luyichasa ngamandla, ixoxisana ngezivumelwano zomhlaba kunye namanye amazwe okujolise ekuqinisekiseni ukuba abantu base-United States baya kuhlonywa ngokushushiswa. Iminyaka emva kokuphunyezwa kweNkundla, ulawulo lweTrump mhlawumbi luchaze ngokucacileyo ukuba kutheni urhulumente wase-US uhlala echasa. NgoSeptemba 2018, ulawulo lwalela ukuba kuvalwe i-ofisi ye-Palestine Liberation Organization eWashington kwaye isongela izigwebo kwiNkundla ukuba kufuneka iqhube uphando uphando lwezobugebengu bolwaphulo-mthetho yi-US, i-Israel, okanye nayiphi na idibeneyo. Ngaba oku kungabonakali ukuba ukuphikiswa kwe-US kwiNkundla yeNkundla yeziLwaphulo-mthetho kuyenzi ngaphantsi kokukhusela umgaqo wolawulo lwentlanga kunokuba ukhusele inkululeko engapheliyo yokusebenzisa ngokufanelekileyo?

Julayi 18. Lo mhla ubonisa umkhosi wonyaka weSizwe samazwe ngamazwe kaNelson Mandela weZizwe ngezizwe. Ukuhambelana nomhla wokuzalwa kukaMandela, kwaye wabanjwa ngokuhlonipha iminyango yakhe eninzi kwinkcubeko yoxolo nenkululeko, uMhla wavakaliswa ngokusemthethweni yi-UN ngoNovemba 2009 kwaye yaqala ukuphawula ngoJulayi 18, 2010. Njengommeli welungelo lomntu, intolongo yesazela, kunye nomongameli wokuqala okhethwe ngentando yenkululeko eMzantsi Afrika, uNelson Mandela wanikela ngobomi bakhe kwizinto ezininzi ezibalulekileyo ekukhuthazeni intando yesininzi kunye nenkcubeko yoxolo. Ziquka, phakathi kwamanye, amalungelo oluntu, ukuphakanyiswa kobulungisa bezentlalo, ukuxolelana, ubudlelwane bobuhlanga, kunye nokulungiswa kwemibango. Mayelana noxolo, uMandela wathi ngentetho ye-2004 kaJanuwari eNew Delhi, eNdiya: "Inkolo, ubuhlanga, ulwimi, intlalo kunye nezenkcubeko zizinto ezicebisa intuthuko yabantu, zongezelela ubutyebi beentlobo zethu. Kutheni bamele bavunyelwe ukuba babe yimbangela yokwahlukana nobundlobongela? "Igalelo likaMandela ekuxolweni alinakwenziwa ngokunyanisekileyo nokuzama ukuphelisa umkhosi wehlabathi jikelele; Ugxininiso lwakhe, okungaqinisekiyo oluxhasa ukuphela kwalo, kukuza kuzisa amaqela ahlukeneyo kumanqanaba angingqi nakwazwelonke ngomxholo omtsha woluntu olwabiwo. I-UN ikhuthaza abo banqwenela ukuhlonipha uMandela ngosuku lwakhe ukunikela imizuzu ye-67 ngexesha labo-ngomzuzu omnye kwi-67 yeminyaka yenkonzo karhulumente-ukuba enze isenzo esincinci sokubambisana nomntu. Phakathi kweziphakamiso zalo zokwenza oku zezi nanyathelo ezilula: Nceda umntu athole umsebenzi. Hamba inja eyincinci kwindawo yokuhlala yezilwanyana. Tshatana nomntu ovela kwimvelaphi eyahlukileyo.

Julayi 19. Ngaloo mini kwi-1881, i-Set Bull, intloko yeSioux isizwe saseNdiya se-Greater Plains yaseMelika, inikwe abalandeli bakhe kwi-Army yase-US emva kokuwela emuva eMadota Territory emva kweminyaka emine edingisiwe eCanada. Ukuhlala uBull kukhokele abantu bakhe bawela umda baya eCanada ngoMeyi ka-1877, emva kokuthatha kwabo inxaxheba kunyaka ongaphambili kwi-Idabi lePhondo eliKhulu. Leyo yayiyeyokugqibela kwiiMfazwe ezinkulu zeSioux ngeminyaka yoo-1870, apho amaThafa angamaIndiya ayesilwela ukukhusela ilifa lawo njengabazingeli abanenyathi abazimeleyo nababesilwa ngokungenelela ngabantu abaMhlophe. I-Sioux yayiphumelele kwi-Little Big Horn, yaze yabulala nomphathi owaziwayo we-US Seventh Cavalry, uLieutenant Colonel George Custer. Uloyiso lwabo, nangona kunjalo, lwakhokelela ekubeni umkhosi wase-US uphindaphinde phantsi kwimizamo yokunyanzela amaIndiya angamaThafa ukuba abhukishe. Kungenxa yesi sizathu sokuba ukuhlala kukaBull kukhokele abalandeli bakhe kukhuseleko lwaseCanada. Emva kweminyaka emine, nangona kunjalo, ukucinywa kwenyathi kwethafa laseThafa, ngenxa yenxalenye yokufuna ukuzingela ngokugqithileyo kurhwebo, kwabazisa abathinjiweyo kwindlala. Bekhohlwe ngabasemagunyeni base-US nabaseCanada, uninzi lwabo lwaya emazantsi ukuya kwindawo yogcino. Ekugqibeleni, uSitting Bull wabuyela e-United States enabalandeli abali-187 kuphela, abaninzi badala okanye abagulayo. Emva kweminyaka emibini eluvalelweni, inkosi eyayisakuba nekratshi yabelwa ukubekelwa indawo eSingle Rock eSouth Dakota yanamhlanje. Ngomnyaka we-1890, wadutshulwa waza wabulawa ekubanjweni kwamagosa ase-US kunye namaNdiya ayesaba ukuba uya kunceda ukukhokela ukunyuka kweMdaniso woMdaniso ojolise ekubuyiseleni indlela yokuphila yaseSioux.

Julayi 20. Ngaloo mini kwi-1874, uLieutenant Colonel George Custer uholele umkhosi ojikelezayo oqukethe amadoda angaphezu kwe-1,000 namahashe kunye neenkomo ze-US Seventh Cavalry kwiiNtaba eziMnyama zaseMzantsi Dakota zangaphambili. IsiVumelwano saseFort Laramie sowe-1868 sasibekele bucala imihlaba yokubhukisha kwingingqi yaseBlack Hills eDakota Territory kwizizwe zamaIndiya angamaSioux aseMantla eGreat Plains avumayo ukuhlala apho, athintela nabamhlophe ukuba bangene. Injongo ye-Custer yohambo olusemthethweni yayikukuphinda iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde yenzelwe i-Custer yenjongo esemthethweni yokuphinda ibuye ibuye ibuye ibuye iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde iphinde yenzeke ngokusemthethweni Iinjongo ze-Custer ezisemthethweni ngenjongo yokubuyisela kwakhona iindawo ezinokubakho kwimikhosi yempi okanye kufuphi ne-Black Hills ezinokulawula iintlanga zaseSioux ezingazange zisayine kwiLaramie Treaty. Ngokwenyani, nangona kunjalo, olu hambo lwalufuna ukufumana oovimba abagciniweyo bezimbiwa, amaplanga, kunye negolide iinkokheli zase-US ezazizimisele ukufikelela kuzo ngokutyeshela umnqophiso. Njengokuba kwenzekile, iphulo lafumanisa igolide, etsala amawaka wabasebenzi mgodini ngokungekho mthethweni kwiBlack Hills. I-US ishiye ngokufanelekileyo iSivumelwano seLaramie ngoFebruwari 1876, kunye no-Juni 25 olandelayo^th I-Battle of the Little Bighorn enyakatho-mpuma yeMonton yabangela ukunqoba okungalindelekanga kweSioux. NgoSeptemba, nangona kunjalo, umkhosi wase-US, usebenzisa amaqhinga awanqanda iSioux ukuba abuyele kwi-Black Hills, wawaxabisa kwimfazwe ye-Slim Buttes. I-Sioux ibiza le nto "Imfazwe apho silahlekelwa khona i-Black Hills." Kodwa i-US, nokuba kunjalo, iyakwazi ukutshatyalaliswa ngokuphawulekayo kokuziphatha. Ekunciphiseni iSioux yelizwe elikhuselekile eliphambili kwiinkcubeko zabo, lathintela umgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle ngaphandle kwemida yabantu kunye neenjongo zabo zolawulo lwezoqoqosho nezomkhosi.

Julayi 21. Ngaloo mhla kwi-1972, umculi we-standup winner George Carlin wabanjwa ngamacala okuziphatha kakubi kunye nokuhlambalaza emva kokwenza "amazwi ayisixhenxe awakwazi ukuwasebenzisa kwiThelevishini" rhoqo kwisiqhamo somculo sase-Summerfest eMilwaukee. UCarlin wayeqale umsebenzi wakhe wokuma ekupheleni kweminyaka yee-1950 njengesiqhulo esicocekileyo esaziwayo ngokudlala kwakhe ngobuchule kunye nokukhumbula kwakhe ukukhuliswa kwabasebenzi baseIreland eNew York. Ngo-1970, nangona kunjalo, wayesele enezindevu, neenwele ezinde kunye nejean, kwaye wayedla ngokuhlekisa, ngokutsho komnye umgxeki, wayethe phithi “ziziyobisi nolwimi olubi.” Inguquko yabangela ukubuyela umva kwangoko kubanini beeklabhu zasebusuku kunye nabaxhasi, ke uCarlin waqala ukubonakala kwizindlu zekofu, iiklabhu zabantu kunye neekholeji, apho abaphulaphuli abancinci, abancinci bamkela umfanekiso wakhe omtsha kunye nezinto ezingenantlonelo. Kwandula ke kwafika uSummerfest 1972, apho uCarlin wafumanisa ukuba “amagama asixhenxe” angavumelekanga babengasamkelwa eqongeni laseMilwaukee kunxweme lwakumabonwakude. Kumashumi eminyaka alandelayo, nangona kunjalo, la magama afanayo- kunye noonobumba bokuqala be-spfccmt – aye amkelwa ngokubanzi njengenxalenye yendalo yeengxoxo ezihlekisayo. Ngaba olu tshintsho lubonakalisile ukungqubana kwenkcubeko yaseMelika? Okanye ngaba yayiluloyiso lwentetho yasimahla engafakwanga eyabanceda abancinci ukuba babone ukuhanahanisa okucekethekisayo kunye nokuchaswa kobomi babucala baseMelika? Umhlekisi u-Lewis Black wayekhe wanikezela ngombono wokuba kutheni uburharha bakhe obunamabhongo angazange abonakale engathandwa. Khange ibe buhlungu, uqaphele, ukuba urhulumente wase-US kunye neenkokheli zakhe bamnika ukuhamba rhoqo kwezinto ezintsha anokusebenza kuzo.

Julayi 22. Ngaloo mini kwi-1756, i-pacifist Religious Society of Friends kwi-colonial yasePennsylvania, eyaziwa ngokuba yi-Quakers, isungulwe "uMbutho wobuhlobo wokuFumana kwakhona nokuLondoloza uxolo kunye namaNdiya ngeMilinganiselo yasePacific." Isigaba salolu nyathelo sisetyenziswe kwi-1681, xa umlawuli weNgesi uWilliam Penn, owayengumQeaker wokuqala kunye nomsekeli wePhondo lasePennsylvania, wasayina isivumelwano soxolo kunye noTamany, inkokeli yaseNdiya yeSizwe saseDelaware. Ukufikelela ngokubanzi kwi-Friendly Association eyayifunayo yayiququzelelwe yienkolelo zonqulo zamaQuaker ukuba uThixo unokufumana ngaphandle kokuxolelana nabafundisi kunye nokuba abafazi bayalingana ngokomoya nabantu. Ezi zibambano zihambelaniswe nesiqhelo kunye nesimo esilinganayo senkcubeko yaseMerika, okwenza kube lula kumaNdiya ukuba amkele iiQuakers njengabathunywa bevangeli. KwiiQuaker, uMbutho wawufanele ube ngumzekelo obalaseleyo kumaNdiya nakwabanye baseYurophu ukuba kufuneka kuqhutywe njani ubudlelwane bezentlalo. Ngoko ke, ngokuqhelekileyo, ngokungafani namanye amaziko aseYurophu, uMbutho ngokwenene wachitha imali yakhe kwinhlalakahle yase-Indiya, akazange amgwebe izinkolo zaseNdiya, kwaye wamkela amaNdiya kwindlu yokuhlangana yaseQuaker yokunqula. Kwi-1795, ii-Quakers zenze ikomiti yokuzisa amaNdiya kwinto abavakalelwa ngayo ukuba yimpumelelo ebalulekileyo kwimpucuko, njengezolimo. Banikezela ngeengcebiso zokuziphatha, bebongoza uSeneca, umzekelo, ukuba acoce, ahlambuluke, afike ngexesha, kwaye akhuthele. Abazange benze nantoni, nangona kunjalo, ukuguqula nayiphi na amaNdiya ekukholweni kwabo. Kuze kube namhlanje, uMbutho woMhlobo owaziwayo uqhubeka uqaphele ukuba indlela eqinisekileyo yokwakha ihlabathi elibhetele likunxulumene noxolo, inhlonipho kunye nolwalamelwane phakathi kweentlanga.

Julayi 23. Ngaloo mhla kwi-2002, uNdunankulu waseBrithani uTony Blair wadibana noomkhulu baseburhulumenteni base-UK, ukukhusela, kunye neengcaphephe kwi-10 Downing Street, indawo yokuhlala yaseburhulumenteni yaseLondon, ukuxubusha ukuxhomekeka kwe-US ekhokelwa yi-Iraq. Imizuzu yaloo ntla nganiso yabhalwa kwincwadi eyaziwa ngokuba yi-Downing Street "Memo," eyapapashwa ngaphandle kokugunyaziswa ngokusemthethweni I-London [yeSonto] ngoMeyi 2005. Ukubonakalisa kwakhona ukuba iMfazwe Lixoki, i-Memo ibonisa ngokucacileyo ukuba i-US Bush Administration yenze ingqondo yayo yokulwa ne-Iraq ngaphambi kokuba ingazange iphumelele ukufuna imvume ye-UN ukuba yenze njalo, kodwa ukuba iBritish yayivumile ukuthatha inxaxheba kwimfazwe njengamaqabane omkhosi. Esi sivumelwano sifikelele nangona ukuthotyelwa kwamagosa aseBrithani ukuba ityala lokulwa ne-Iraq "lincinci." Ulawulo lwe-Bush lwalusekelwe ecaleni lombutho weSaddam kwiinkxaso zawo ezihlangeneyo zobugandlo kunye nezixhobo zokutshabalalisa. Kodwa ngokwenza njalo, amagosa aseBrithani athi, ulawulo lwaluye lwazinzisa ubunzima balo kunye neenkcukacha ukuba zivumelane nomgaqo-nkqubo walo, kungekhona umgaqo-nkqubo ukulungelelanisa ulwazi kunye neengqinisiso. I-Downing Street Memo ayizange ibonakale ngokukhawuleza ngokwaneleyo ukuba ikhuphe iMfazwe yase-Iraq, kodwa inokunceda ekuncedeni ukuba iimfazwe ze-US ezizayo zingenakwenzeka xa iindaba zaseburhulumenteni zase-US zenze konke okusemandleni ukuzithumela uluntu. Kunoko, abeendaba benza konke okusemandleni ukukhusela ubungqina bobuqhetseba be-Memo xa bugqitywa ekugqibeleni emva kweminyaka emithathu.

Julayi 24. Lo mhla ku-1893 ubonisa ukuzalwa e-Negley, e-Ohio, yinto enkulu ekhohliweyo kuMlamli waseMelika uAmon Hennacy. Abazali abazalwa ku-Quaker, u-Hennacy wayesebenzisa uphawu lomntu loxolo. Akazange adibanise nabanye ngokuhlasela ngokuthe ngqo inkqubo enzima yokulwa ne-US exhasa imfazwe. Esikhundleni salokho, ekuthiwa ngu-One-Man Revolution, "wabhenela isazela kubantu abaqhelekileyo ngokukrakra kwemfazwe, ukubulawa kombuso kunye nezinye iintlobo zobundlobongela zihlala zisengozini yokubanjwa okanye ngokuzila ukudla ixesha elide. Uthi u-Hennacy wayengumKristu ongu-antiarchist, uHannacy wenqaba ukubhalisa kwinkonzo yezemfazwe kwiimfazwe zehlabathi zombini, ekhonza iminyaka emibini entolongweni ngenxa yokuchasana kwakhe okokuqala kwindawo yokuvalelwa yedwa. Kananjalo wenqaba ukuhlawula irhafu yengeniso, eya kusetyenziswa kwinxalenye yokuxhasa umkhosi. Kwimbali yakhe Incwadi ka-Amon, UHennacy ucele abemi baseMelika ukuba bangafuni ukubhalisa i-draft, bathenge iimfazwe zemfazwe, benze izixhobo zemfazwe, okanye bahlawule irhafu yemfazwe. Wayengalindelanga iindlela zezopolitiko okanye iziko ukuzisa utshintsho. Kodwa ngokuqinisekileyo wayekholelwa ukuba yena ngokwakhe, kunye nabanye abambalwa abathanda uxolo, abanobulumko, nabanobindi, abanokuthi, ngokubonisa umzekelo wabo ngamazwi nangezenzo zabo, bathuthukisa ubunzima babantu babo ukuba baqinisekise ukuba iingxabano kuzo zonke nqanaba liza kusombululwa ngeendlela zokuthula. UHennacy wafa ngo-1970, xa iMfazwe yaseVietnam yayisekude. Kodwa mhlawumbi wayejonge phambili umhla oza kuthiwa u-peaceline isiqulatho saloo nto yayingeyona nto inokwenene kodwa yinyani: "Masithi bawanike imfazwe kwaye akukho namnye owafika."

Julayi 25. Ngaloo mini kwi-1947, i-US Congress yadlulisela uMthetho woKhuseleko kaZwelonke, owamisela isiseko esikhulu sokwenziwa komgaqo-nkqubo welizwe langaphandle ngexesha leMfazwe yongqonge. Lo Mthetho unamalungu amathathu: ahlanganisana neSebe leNavy neSebe leMfa phantsi kweSebe elitsha loKhuseleko; Yayisungula iBhunga lezoKhuseleko likaZwelonke, elihlawuliswe ngokulungiselela imibiko emfutshane kuMongameli ngokuphuma kokunyuka kolwazi lwezopolitiko kunye nolwazi; kwaye yamisa i-Central Intelligence Agency, eyayihlawuliswa nje kuphela ngokuqokelela iinkcukacha ezivela kumasebe emfundo emfundo kunye neSebe leeRhulumente, kodwa kunye nokuqhuba imisebenzi yokuzimela kwiintlanga zangaphandle. Ukususela ekusekeni kwabo, ezo arhente zikhule ngokukhawuleza ngokwegunya, ubukhulu, ibhajethi kunye namandla. Nangona kunjalo, zombini iziphelo apho ezo zixhobo zisetyenzisiweyo, kunye neendlela ezigcinwa ngazo, ziye zaphakamisa imibuzo ephakamileyo yokuziphatha neyokuziphatha. I-CIA isebenza ekusithekeni ngenxa yokulawulwa komthetho kunye nokubakho kolawulo lwentando yesininzi. Umvuzo weNdlu ye-White House kunye nemfazwe kawonkewonke ngaphandle kweC congressional okanye iZizwe eziManyeneyo okanye igunya likawonkewonke. ISebe lezoKhuselo lilawula uhlahlo lwabiwo-mali olubizwa ngokuba ngu-2018 lukhulu kunelo elincinci ezisixhenxe ezisixhenxe ezisemaphandleni ezisebenzisayo, kodwa kusekho kuphela i-ejensi karhulumente wase-US engazange iphicothwe. Izinto ezininzi ezonakaliswayo kwi-militarism zingasetyenziselwa ukunceda ukuhlangabezana neemfuno eziphathekayo ezingokwenyama nezomnotho zabantu abaqhelekileyo eMelika nasehlabathini lonke.

Julayi 26. Ngalo mhla kwi-1947, uMongameli uHarry Truman wasayina umyalelo olawulayo ojoliswe ekupheliseni ubandlululo lobuhlanga kwii-Armed Forces zase-US. Umyalelo kaTruman wawuhambelana nenkxaso exhaphakileyo yenkxaso yokuphelisa ulwahlulo ngokobuhlanga, injongo enokuba wayeyithemba ukuyifumanisa indlela yokuthobela imithetho. Xa loo mizamo iboniswe ngongelo lwe-filibus yaseMzantsi, umongameli waphumelela oko akwaziyo ngokusebenzisa amandla akhe aphezulu. Okubaluleke kakhulu kuye kwaba kukungcoliswa kwempi, kungekho nxalenye encinci kuba yayingenako ukunyanzelwa kwezopolitiko. Ama-American aseMelika ayenze malunga ne-11 pesenti yabo bonke ababhalisiweyo ababophelelekile kwinkonzo yempi kunye nenani eliphezulu lama-inducte kuwo onke amasebe omkhosi ngaphandle kwe-Marine Corps. Nangona kunjalo, amagosa abasebenzi abasebenza kuwo onke amasebe omkhosi babonisa ukungabikho kokuhlanganiswa, ngamanye amaxesha nakwibala. Ukuhlanganiswa okuzeleyo akuzange kufike kwiMfazwe yaseKorea, xa ukubulawa okukhulu kunyanzelekile ukuba kuqulunqwe iiyunithi ezihlukeneyo ukuze zihlangane ukuze zisinde. Nangona kunjalo, ukukhwabanisa kwemikhosi yokuxhoba kwakumele kuphela isinyathelo sokuqala kubulungisa bobuhlanga eUnited States, elalihlala ingaphelelanga nangemva kwemithetho ebalulekileyo yamalungelo oluntu kwi-1960s. Ngaphandle kwaloo nto, kwakhona, ibeka ingxaki yobudlelwano boluntu phakathi kwezizwe zehlabathi-njengoko, njengoko kuboniswe eHiroshima naseNagasaki, yahlala ibhuloho kakhulu kuHarry Truman. Sekunjalo, nangona uhambo lweeekhilomitha eziliwaka, kufuneka amanyathelo okuqala. Kuphela kwenkqubela phambili ekuboneni ezinye iimfuno njengethu ukuba ngelinye ilanga siyakwazi ukubona umzalwana wobuzalwana kunye noodade kwihlabathi elinoxolo.

Julayi 27. Ngaloo mini kwi-1825, i-US Congress ivume ukusekwa kweeNdawo zaseNdiya. Oku kwacaca indlela yokufudukela ngokunyanzeliswa kwezinto ezibizwa ngokuba yiZihlanu eziThuthukileyo eziMzimbeni "kwiNtaba yeeNyembezi" ukuya kwi-Oklahoma namhlanje. Umthetho wokuSusa iNdiya wasayinwa nguMongameli Andrew Jackson kwi-1830. Izizwe ezihlanu ezichaphazelekayo yi-Cherokee, Chickasaw, iChoctaw, i-Creek, ne-Seminole, zonke ziphoqelelwa ngokungahambi kakuhle ukuba zenzeke phantsi komthetho wase-US okanye zihambe kwiindawo zazo. Ebizwa ngokuba yiZizwe eziPhucukileyo, zidibanise kwiididi ezahlukahlukeneyo kwiinkcubeko zasentshona kwaye, kwimeko yeCherokee, yavelisa ulwimi olubhaliweyo. Abafundi banomncintiswano nabahlali abamhlophe phakathi kwentukuthelo enkulu. Ama-Seminoles alwa, kwaye ekugqibeleni ahlawulelwa ukuba ahambe. AmaCreeks asuswe ngamandla ngempi. Akukho mbambano owenziwe kunye neCherokee, owazisa ityala labo ngeenkundla kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States apho balahlekelwa khona. Kwakukho uphuhliso olukhulu kwezopolitiko kumacala omabini kwaye emva kweminyaka emithandathu, iSivumelwano seNew Echota savakaliswa nguMongameli. Kwabanika abantu amabini amabini ukuwela ngasentshona ngaphaya kweMississippi ukuba bahlale kwi-Territory yaseNdiya. Xa bengakhange bahambe, bahlaselwa ngonya, amakhaya abo atshiswa kwaye aphangwa. Amashumi amabini anesixhenxe ama-Cherokees aqokelelwe aze agxothwe kwinkampu yokuxininisa, athuthelwe kwiimoto zendlela, kwaye ke unyanzelekile ukuba ahambe. Abangamawaka amane bafa kwi "Trail of Tears." Ngo-1837, ulawulo lukaJackson lwalususwe yimfazwe kunye neendlela zobugebengu, abantu be-46,000 baseMerika, ukuvula ii-25 zezigidi zelizwe ukuya kwiindawo zokuhlala ezimhlophe kunye nokugqila.

Julayi 28. Kwi-1914, i-Austria-Hungary ikhankanya imfazwe eSerbia, iqala iWWI. Emva kokuba indlalifa yesihlalo sobukhosi saseAustro-Hungarian, uFranz Ferdinand, wabulawa kunye nomfazi wakhe waseSerbia ngokuphindisela ngenxa yeengxabano eziqhubekayo nelizwe lakhe, iMfazwe Yehlabathi I yaqala. Ukukhula kobuzwe, ukulwa nempi, impiriyali, kunye nemibutho yemfazwe eYurophu kulindeleke ukuba uhlasele. Njengoko iintlanga zazama ukuzikhulula kumlawuli wobunyanisi, i-Industrial Revolution yayikhuphe umkhosi weengalo. Ulwalamano lwaluvumele uMbuso wase-Austro-Hungary ukuba ulawulwe ezininzi iintlanga ezilishumi elinesithathu, kwaye ukunyuka kwama-imperialism kwanyusa ukwandiswa kwamandla empi. Njengoko iikholoni zaqhubeka, imibuso yaqala ukudibanisa ize ifune ukusebenzisana. Ubukhosi base-Ottoman kunye ne-Jamani ne-Austria, okanye i-Central Powers, ihambelane noMbuso wase-Austro-Hungarian, ngoxa iSerbia yaxhaswa nguMandla oManyeneyo waseRashiya, eJapan, eFransi, e-Itali naseBrithani. I-United States yajoyina ii-Allies kwi-1917, kwaye abemi belizwe lonke bafumana ukuhlupheka kwaye baphoqelelwe ukuba bakhethe icala. Amadoda angaphezu kwezigidi ezithoba, kunye nabemi abangenakubalwa ngaphambi kokuwa kwe-German, Russian, Ottoman, ne-Austro-Hungarian Empires. Imfazwe iphelile kunye nokuhlaliswa kwezinto ezichaseneyo eziye zanceda ekukhokeleni kwimfazwe yehlabathi elandelayo. Ubuzwe, ubukhosi kunye neimperiyali zaqhubeka naphezu kweentlungu ezibangelwa abantu emhlabeni wonke. Ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi I, izibhikiso ezibangelwa ukugqitywa kweendleko zemfazwe zaye zahlanjululwa kwiintlanga ezahlukahlukeneyo, ngelixa iindlobongela zemfazwe zazingena njengegunya elinamandla lolawulo lwentlalo.

Julayi 29. Ngalo mhla kwi-2002, uMongameli uGeorge W. Bush wachaza i-'Axis of Evil 'ekuthiwa yayixhasa ubugrogrisi, kwidilesi yakhe ye-Union of the Union. I-Axis yayiquka i-Iraq, i-Iran kunye neNyakatho Korea. Kwakungekho nje ibinzana eliqhelekileyo. Isebe likaRhulumente laseMelika lichonge amazwe ekuthiwa anika inkxaso kwizenzo zobunqolobi zamanye amazwe. Ukohlwaywa ngokungqongqo kula mazwe. Isohlwayo zibandakanya, phakathi kwezinye iimeko: ukuvalwa kokuthunyelwa kwamanye amazwe okunxulumene neengalo, izithintelo kuncedo lwezoqoqosho, kunye nokuthintelwa kwezemali kubandakanya ukuthintela nawuphina ummi wase-US ekubandakanyeni intengiselwano yezemali norhulumente woluhlu lwabanqolobi, kunye nokuthintela ukungena kwi-United. Amazwe. Ngaphandle kwesohlwayo, i-United States ikhokele imfazwe e-Iraq eqala ngo-2003, kwaye isoyikisela kaninzi uhlaselo olufanayo e-Iran nase North Korea iminyaka emininzi. Ezinye iingcambu zeengcinga ezimbi zinokufumaneka kupapasho lwetanki elibizwa ngokuba yiProjekhthi yeNkulungwane eNtsha yaseMelika, enye yazo yathi: bamanyene, okanye basongela ilizwe lakowabo laseMelika. ” Iwebhusayithi yetanki lokucinga yaphinde yehliswa. Owayesakuba ngumlawuli olawulayo walo mbutho wathi ngo-2006 “sele bewenzile umsebenzi wabo,” esithi “iimbono zethu zamkelwe.” Iimfazwe eziyintlekele neziyimpumelelo zeminyaka eyalandela u-2001 zineengcambu ezininzi kwinto eyayinombono onempembelelo kwimfazwe engapheliyo kunye nobundlongondlongo-umbono oxhomekeke ngokusisiseko kwingcinga ehlekisayo yokuba izizwe ezincinci, ezihlwempuzekileyo, nezizimeleyo zenza isoyikiso Amazwe Amanyene.
ISILUNGISO: LENA BEKUFANELE KUBE NGUJANUWARI, ANGABE NGUJULY.

Julayi 30. Lo mhla, njengoko ukhankanywe kwi-2011 ngesigqibo seNdibano Yesizwe-jikelele, ubonisa umkhosi wonyaka we-International Day of Friendship. Isisombululo siyabona abantu abatsha njengeenkokeli zexesha elizayo, kwaye zibeka ingqalelo ekugxininiseni ekubandakanyekeni kwimisebenzi yoluntu equka iinkcubeko ezahlukeneyo nokukhuthaza ukuqonda jikelele kunye nokuhlonipha iintlobo ezahlukeneyo. Usuku Lwehlabathi Lobuhlobo lulandela emva kwezigqibo ezimbini ze-UN zangaphambili. Isisombululo seNkcubeko yoXolo, esashicilelwe kwi-1997, siyaqaphela ukulimala okukhulu nokubandezeleka kubangelwa abantwana ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo zengxabano kunye nodlova. Yenza imeko yokuba ezi zibetho ziyakuthintela ngakumbi xa iingcambu zabo zijoliswe ngombono wokuxazulula iingxaki. Olunye udlulileyo lweSuku loMhlaba woBungane luyi-1998 isinqumo se-UN esichaza i-International Decade yeNkcubeko yamaXolo noXhobongela kubantwana behlabathi. Ukuqwalaselwa kwi-2001 ngokusebenzisa i-2010, esi sigqibo siphakamisa ukuba intloko yoxolo lwamazwe ngamazwe kunye nentsebenziswano kukufundisa abantwana kuyo yonke indawo ngokubaluleka kokuhlala ngoxolo nokuvisisana nabanye. Usuku lwaMazwe ngamazwe woBungane luvela kule mizekelo ekukhuthazeni isigidimi sokuba ubuhlobo phakathi kwamazwe, iinkcubeko kunye nabantu ngabanye banokukunceda ukuvelisa isiseko sokwethenjwa okufunekayo kwimimandla yehlabathi jikelele ekunokubambana nemimandla eninzi yecandelo elinciphisa ukhuseleko lwabantu, uphuhliso lwezoqoqosho, ukuhlalisana koluntu , noxolo kweli hlabathi lanamhlanje. Ukugcina uMhla woBungane, i-UN ikhuthaza oorhulumente, imibutho yamazwe ngamazwe kunye namaqela oluntu ukuba abambe iziganeko kunye nemisebenzi ebangela inzame zentlalo yamazwe ngamazwe ukukhuthaza ingxoxo ejolise ekufezeni ubumbano lwehlabathi jikelele, ukuqonda kunye nokuxolelana.

Julayi 31. Ngaloo mini ku-1914 uJean Jaurès wabulawa. Inkokeli enobuntu kunye ne-pacifist ye-French Socialist Party, uJaures wayichasa kakhulu imfazwe, wathetha ngokuchasene ne-impiriyalizim eyikhuthazayo. Wazalelwa ngo-1859, ukufa kukaJaures kuye kwaqwalaselwa ngabaninzi njengesinye sezizathu zokungena kweFrance kwiMfazwe yeHlabathi yokuQala. Iingxoxo zakhe zezisombululo zoxolo kwimpikiswano zatsala amashumi amawaka kwizifundo zakhe nakwimibhalo yakhe, kunye nokujonga izibonelelo zobumbano olumanyeneyo lwaseYurophu ekonyukeni kwezomkhosi. UJaures wayekwinkqubo yokulungiselela abasebenzi kuqhankqalazo lomanyano ngaphambi kokuba imfazwe iqale xa wadutyulwa wabulawa ehleli kufutshane nefestile kwivenkile yokutyela yaseParis. Umbulali wakhe, ubuzwe baseFrance u-Raoul Villain, wabanjwa emva koko wagwetywa ngo-1919 ngaphambi kokuba abaleke eFrance. Owayesakuba ngumchasi uMongameli uFrancois Hollande wasabela ekubulaweni kukaJaures ngokubeka isithsaba kwindawo yokutyela, kwaye evuma nomsebenzi wakhe wobomi bonke "woxolo, umanyano, kunye nokudibana kweriphabliki." IFransi emva koko yangena kwi-WWI ngethemba lokuguqula ukulahleka okubonakalayo kwenqanaba kunye nomhlaba ofunyenwe yiJamani emva kweMfazwe yaseFranco-Prussian. Amagama kaJaures asenokuba akhuthaze ukhetho olusengqiqweni ngakumbi: “Liyakuba njani ikamva, xa amawaka ezigidi ngoku alahlwe emfazweni echithwa kwizinto eziluncedo ukwandisa impilo yabantu, kulwakhiwo lwezindlu ezifanelekileyo kubasebenzi, ekuphuculeni ezothutho, ekubuyiseleni umhlaba kwakhona? Umkhuhlane we-impiriyalizim uye waba kukugula. Sisifo soluntu oluqhutywa kakubi nesingakwaziyo ukusebenzisa amandla aso ekhaya. ”

Olu xolo Almanac lukwazisa amanyathelo abalulekileyo, inkqubela phambili, kunye nothintelo kwintshukumo yoxolo oluye lwenzeka ngosuku ngalunye lonyaka.

Thenga ushicilelo olushicilelweyo, okanye PDF.

Yiya kwiifayile zomsindo.

Yiya kwisicatshulwa.

Yiya kwimizobo.

Olu xolo Almanac kufuneka luhlale lulungile unyaka nonyaka de yonke imfazwe ipheliswe kwaye kubekho uxolo oluzinzileyo. Inzuzo evela kwintengiso yoshicilelo kunye neenguqulelo zePDF zixhasa umsebenzi World BEYOND War.

Isicatshulwa sivelisiwe kwaye sihlelwe ngu UDavid Swanson.

Umsindo orekhodiweyo I-Tim Pluta.

Izinto ezibhalwe ngu URobert Anschuetz, uDavid Swanson, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, u-Erin McElfresh, uAlexander Shaia, uJohn Wilkinson, uWilliam Geimer, uPeter Goldsmith, uGar Smith, uThierry Blanc, noTom Schott.

Iingcamango zezihloko ezingeniswe yi UDavid Swanson, uRobert Anschuetz, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, uDarlene Coffman, uDavid McReynolds, uRichard Kane, uPil Runkel, uJill Greer, uJim Gould, uBob Stuart, uAlaina Huxtable, uT Thierry Blanc.

umculo isetyenziswe ngemvume evela “Ukuphela kweMfazwe,” Ngu-Eric Colville.

Umculo weaudio nokudibanisa NguSergio Diaz.

Imizobo ngu Parisa Saremi.

World BEYOND War yintshukumo yehlabathi engavisisaniyo yokuphelisa imfazwe kwaye iseke uxolo olunobulungisa nolizinzileyo. Injongo yethu kukudala ulwazi ngenkxaso eyaziwayo yokuphelisa imfazwe kunye nokuphuhlisa ngakumbi le nkxaso. Sisebenzela ukuqhubela phambili ngombono wokungathinteli nje nayiphi na imfazwe ethile kodwa ukutshabalalisa iziko lonke. Silwela ukubuyisela inkcubeko yethu kwimfazwe apho uxolo lungendawo apho iindlela zokungqubana kwengxabano zithathe indawo yegazi.