Isilimela

Juni 1
Juni 2
Juni 3
Juni 4
Juni 5
Juni 6
Juni 7
Juni 8
Juni 9
Juni 10
Juni 11
Juni 12
Juni 13
Juni 14
Juni 15
Juni 16
Juni 17
Juni 18
Juni 19
Juni 20
Juni 21
Juni 22
Juni 23
Juni 24
Juni 25
Juni 26
Juni 27
Juni 28
Juni 29
Juni 30

Juni 1. Kulo suku ku-1990, US UMongameli uGeorge Bush kunye nenkokheli yamaSoviet uMikhail Gorbachev basayine isivumelwano sembali sokuphelisa ukuveliswa kwezixhobo zamachiza kwaye baqale ukutshabalaliswa kweentlanga zombini zigcinwe. Isivumelwano sifuna ukuba kuncitshiswe iipesenti ezingama-80 zokugqibela kwezi zixhobo zimbini zamachiza, inkqubo eyaqala ngo-1992 phantsi kohlolo olwenziwa ngabahloli ababethunyelwe lilizwe ngalinye kwelinye. Ngama-1990s, uninzi lwamazwe lwalunobuchwephesha obufunekayo ekwakheni izixhobo zamachiza, kwaye i-Iraq, enye, yayisele izisebenzisile kwimfazwe yayo ne-Iran. Ngenxa yoko, enye injongo yesivumelwano sikaBush / Gorbachev yayikukudala imo yezulu entsha eza kudimaza amazwe amancinci ekufumaneni izixhobo zamachiza ezinokusetyenziswa emfazweni. Le njongo iphumelele. Ngo-1993, amazwe angaphezu kwama-150 atyikitya isivumelwano seChemical Weapons Convention, isivumelwano sokuthintela izixhobo zamachiza emhlabeni wonke nesavunywa yiNdlu yeeNgwevu yase-US ngo-1997. Kwakuloo nyaka, umbutho woorhulumente owawuse-The Hague, eNetherlands, owaziwa njengoMbutho ukuthintelwa kwezixhobo zemichiza, yasekwa ukuze ijongane nokuphunyezwa kokuvalwa kwezixhobo. Imisebenzi yayo yayiquka ukuhlolwa kwemveliso yezixhobo zemichiza kunye neendawo zokutshatyalaliswa, kunye nophando lwamatyala apho izixhobo zamachiza zazityholwa ukuba zisetyenzisiwe. Ukusukela ngo-Okthobha u-2015, malunga neepesenti ezingama-90 zesitokhwe sezixhobo zemichiza satshatyalaliswa. Oku kubonisa ukufezekiswa kwembali, ecebisa ukuba iinkqubo ezifanayo zokuvalwa kunye nokutshatyalaliswa kwezixhobo zenyukliya, kwaye ekugqibeleni izixhobo zomhlaba kunye nokupheliswa kwemfazwe, azikho ngaphaya komnqweno wabantu kunye nokuzimisela kwezopolitiko.

Juni 2. Ngaloo mini kwi-1939 umkhumbi waseJamani ogcwele iindwendwe zamaYuda ezithembekileyo zihamba ngokukhawuleza ukuba zibone izibane zaseMiami, eFlorida, kodwa zaphendulwa, njengoko uMongameli uFranlin Roosevelt wayevalele yonke imizamo kwiCongress ukuvuma ababaleki bamaYuda. Le yimihla efanelekileyo ekufuneka uyikhumbule ukuba izizathu zokulwa iimfazwe ngamanye amaxesha zixutywa kuphela emva kokuba iimfazwe ziphelile. Ngomhla we-Meyi 13, i-1939, abaphambukeli abangama-9 ababaleki be-SS eSt. Louis eLondon-America Line baya eCuba ukuba babalekele iinkampu zoxinzelelo eJamani. Babenemali encinci ngexesha lokunyanzeliswa ukuba bahambe, kodwa iimali ezihlawulelekileyo ezibekelwe uhambo zenza izicwangciso zokuqala kwilizwe elitsha ngakumbi ngakumbi. Xa befikile eCuba, bakholelwa ukuba ekugqibeleni baya kwamkelwa eMelika. Sekunjalo, ukungena emkhunjini kubangele ukuba bazibulale ngenxa yokungena kwisango laseCuba apho bengavunyelwe ukuhla. Umthetheli wamisa i-patrol yokuzibulala ukuze ahlale ejonge abagibeli ngexesha lobusuku abachitha echwebeni, bezama ukuqonda isizathu. Emva koko, balelwa ukuba bahambe. Umthetheli wahamba ngomda wonxweme waseFlorida enethemba lokubona iimpawu ezamkelekileyo, kodwa iinqwelo zase-US kunye neenqanawa zase-Coast Guard zafika kuphela ukuba zibangele. NgoJuni 7, kwakukho ukutya okufutshane okushiywa xa umthetheli wamxelela ukuba kuya kufuneka abuyele eYurophu. Njengoko ibali labo lisasazeka, iHolland, iFransi, i-Great Britain, neBelgium zanikela ukufumana ababaleki. NgoJuni 13-16, iSt. Louis yadibana kunye neenqanawa ezazihamba ngala mazwe, zifika njengoko iWWII yaqala.

Juni 3. Ngaloo mhla I-1940, iMfazwe yaseDunkirk iphelile ngoyiso lwaseJamani kunye kunye Imikhosi yama-Allies ekubalekeni ngokupheleleyo ukusuka eDunkirk ukuya eNgilane. Ukususela ngoMeyi 26 ukuya kuJuni 4, amabutho ahlangeneyo athatyathwa ngokuthe ngqo kumabhenqo, inkqubo enzima kakhulu. Amakhulu amabutho aseBrithani neFrentshi angamavili azinikela ngokuzithandela njengama-shuttle ukuya kwiinqanawa ezinkulu; Amajoni alindile iiyure ezixinene emanzini. Amasosha aseBrithani, amaFrentshi kunye namaBelgium asindiswa. Eyaziwa ngokuba ngu "Ummangaliso waseDunkirk" esekelwe kwienkolelo yokuba uThixo uphendule imithandazo, ngokwenene, bekuyiyo ekugqibeleni imifanekiso ephazamisayo yezinto eziphazamisayo zemfazwe. IJamani yahlasela umntla weYurophu kumazwe aphantsi kunye neFransi. I-blitzkrieg yalandelwa kwaye ngo-Meyi 300,000 amaDatshi azinikezele. Ngomhla ka-Meyi 12, ama-panzer aseJamani aye ngasentla enxweme ukuya eCalais naseDunkirk, iindawo zokungcebeleka zokugqibela ezazishiya. AmaBritani ahlulwa kakhulu kwaye iBrithani ngokwabo yayisongelwa. Phantse zonke izixhobo zayo ezinzima, amatanki, izixhobo zokuthutha, ukuthutha ngeenqwelo ezithuthi kunye nebutho le-22 elishiye kwilizwekazi, ininzi ithathwa ngamaJamani. Iipesenti ezingaphezu kwelishumi zazo zabulawa. Amajoni amawaka aseBritani alahleka ngexesha lokufuduka. Ngethuba lenziwa ukuba balinde ukuhlangulwa, ama-50,000 aseFransi abulawa. Ipesenti ezingama-90 ze-Dunkirk zabhujiswa ngexesha lokulwa. Amasosha e-16,000 aphunyeziweyo akhulisa iingxaki ngokubhekiselele kwimibono yaseBrithani neye-US kwimfazwe yokuba babengenaso ixesha okanye amandla okukhupha amaYuda aseJamani.

Juni 4. Ngomhla ngamnye unyaka, i-UN Day-sponsored International Day of Innocent Children Victims of Violence ibonwa emhlabeni jikelele. Usuku lwabantwana abaxhatshazwayo lwasungulwa ngo-Agasti 1982 ngumbutho okhethekileyo weZizwe eziManyeneyo ngokuphendula ngokufa kwabantu abaninzi baseBabhan e-Beirut kunye nezinye iidolophu zaseLebhanon emva kokuhlasela kwe-Israel yokuqala ye-Lebanone War ngo-Juni 4, 1982. Ngokwenza oko, iintsuku Zabantwana abaxhatshazwayo zenzelwe ukulungiselela iinjongo ezibini ezibanzi: ukuvuma abantwana abaninzi emhlabeni wonke abaxhoba ngokuphathwa kakubi ngokomzimba, ngokwengqondo nangokomzwelo, nokuba ngaba yimfazwe okanye uxolo, okanye ekhaya okanye esikolweni; kunye nokukhuthaza abantu kunye nemibutho ehlabathini lonke ukuba baqaphele umlinganiselo kunye nefuthe lokuxhaphazwa kwabantwana kunye nokufunda, okanye ukuthatha inxaxheba, iinjongo ezijolise ekukhuseleni nasekulondolozeni amalungelo abo. Njengoko uNobhala-Jikelele we-UN uJavier Perez de Cuellar ubhekise kwisigidimi sakhe kwi-1983 Children Day victims, "Abantwana abahluphekileyo nokungabikho kobuhlwempu kufuneka bakhuselwe kwaye banikwe amandla kwihlabathi elidala elidala le meko, kungekhona nje ngezenzo zabo ngqo kodwa ngokungqalileyo kwiingxaki zehlabathi ezifana nokuguquka kwemozulu kunye nokuhlala kwamadolophu. IiNtsuku ziyingxenye yeprogram yezemfundo ebanzi kwi-UN apho imicimbi ethile okanye imiba inxulumene neentsuku ezithile, iiveki, iminyaka kunye namashumi eminyaka. Imikhosi ephindaphindiweyo yokwakha ulwazi oluntu malunga neziganeko ezahlukeneyo okanye imiba, kwaye ikhuthaze amanyathelo ukulungisa abo bahlala behambelana neenjongo ze-UN.

Juni 5. Ngaloo mini kwi-1962, ingxelo yePort Huron yagqitywa. Le yayiyimanifesto eveliswe ngaBafundi beDemocratic Society, kwaye ibhalwe ikakhulu nguTom Hayden, umfundi kwiDyunivesithi yaseMichigan. Abafundi abaya kwiiyunivesithi zase-US ngeminyaka yoo-1960 baziva benyanzelekile ukuba benze okuthile malunga nokusilela kwenkululeko kunye namalungelo abantu abawabonayo kwilizwe “labo, nangenxa yabantu.” Isiteyitimenti siqaphele ukuba “Okokuqala, into eyonileyo neyenzakalisayo yokuthotywa komntu, efanekiselwa ngumzabalazo wasemazantsi wokulwa ubuhlanga, inyanzelise uninzi lwethu ukusuka ekuthuleni ukuya kubutshantliziyo. Okwesibini, inyani evalelweyo yeMfazwe ebandayo, efuziselwa bubukho beBhombu, yazisa ukuba thina, nabahlobo bethu, kunye nezigidi zabanye 'esazi' ngokuthe ngqo ngenxa yengozi yethu efanayo, singafa nanini na. … Ngamandla enyukliya izixeko zizonke zinokuxhotyiswa ngokulula, ukanti amazwe awongamileyo abonakala ngathi anako ukonakalisa intshabalalo enkulu kunaleyo yenzeke kuzo zonke iimfazwe zembali yoluntu. ” Baye boyika ukungathandani kwesizwe malunga noku: “Uqhushululu kwihlabathi liphela lokulwa ubukoloniyaliyali kunye ne-impiriyalizim, ukumiliselwa kwamazwe angoozwilakhe, isoyikiso semfazwe, ukuxinana kwabantu, ukuphazamiseka kwamazwe, itekhnoloji ephezulu-ezi meko bezivavanya ukuzimisela kwethu idemokhrasi nenkululeko… nathi ngokwethu sixhotyiswe ngongxamiseko, ukanti umyalezo woluntu lwethu kukuba akukho ndlela yimbi inokusetyenziswa ngoku. ” Okokugqibela, imanifesto ivakalise isibongozo esingxamisekileyo "sokutshintsha iimeko zobuntu… iinzame ezendeleyo kwinto yakudala, engazalisekanga yokufumana komntu ukufumana impembelelo kwimeko zakhe zobomi."

Juni 6. Ngalo mhla kwi-1968, kwi-1: I-44, umviwa wengameli uRobert Kennedy wabulawa ngamanxeba abulalayo abulawa ngumbulali nje emva kobusuku emini ngaphambi. Ukudubula kwenzeka ekhitshini lokuphekela i-Ambassador Hotel eLos Angeles, eyayiphuma nguKennedy emva kokubhiyozela uloyiso lwakhe kumongameli waseCalifornia oyintloko kunye nabaxhasi. Ukusukela lo msitho, abantu babuzile, beliya kwahluka njani ilizwe ukuba uRobert Kennedy ebengumongameli? Nayiphi na impendulo kufuneka ibandakanye i-caveat yokuba uKennedy wayengekho isihlangu ukuba anyulwe abe ngumongameli. Nokuba ngabarhwebi bamandla kwiDemocratic Party okanye abo babizwa ngokuba “Silent Majority” baseMelika- boyika ukuqhankqalaza kwabantsundu, iiHippies, kunye neekholeji ezinesidima- zazinokumnika inkxaso enkulu. Okwangoku, utshintsho lwenkcubeko kwi1960s lwenze ukuba kwakhiwe umanyano lwezinto abanazo nabangenazo abafuna ukuphelisa imfazwe eVietnam nokusombulula iingxaki zobuhlanga nentlupheko. UBobby Kennedy wayebonakala ngathi uninzi lomgqatswa onokuthi ayenze kakuhle le ntlangano. Kwintetho yakhe engagungqiyo kubantu abantsundu baphakathi esixekweni ngobusuku bokubulawa kukaMartin Luther King, kunye nendima yakhe yangasemva ekubonisaneni ngokuphela kweCuban Missile Crisis, wayebonakalise ngokucacileyo iimpawu zovelwano, inkanuko kunye neqela elinengqondo ingakhuthaza utshintsho. I-Congressman kunye nomzabalazo ophambili wamalungelo oluntu uJohn Lewis wathi ngaye: “Wayefuna… hayi ukutshintsha nje imithetho…. Wayefuna ukwakha uluvo ekuhlaleni. ” UArthur Schlesinger, umncedisi wephulo likaKennedy kunye nombhali webhayoloji, wagqabaza wathi: "Ukuba waye wanyulwa ukuba ngumongameli ngo-1968 ngesaphuma eVietnam ngo-1969."

Juni 7. Ngaloo mini kwi-1893, kwisenzo sakhe sokuqala sokungathobeli, uNksz Mohandas Gandhi wenqabile ukuthobela imithetho yokubandlululwa kolwaphulo lwaseMzantsi Afrika kwaye waxoshwa ngesohlwayo eMgungundlovu. Oku kwakhokelela kubomi obuchithwe ukulwa namalungelo oluntu ngokusebenzisa iindlela ezingezobugwenxa, ukuzisa inkululeko kumaNdiya amaninzi e-Afrika, nakwi-Indiya ukuzimela kwi-Great Britain. UGandhi, indoda ehlakaniphile kunye novuselelo, wayaziwa ngokomoya okwakubandakanya zonke iinkonzo. UGandhi wayekholelwa ku-"Ahimsa," okanye amandla athile othando, ukudibanisa kwifilosofi yakhe yepolitiki "yokubambelela ngokunyanisekileyo kwinyaniso okanye ukunyaniseka kwimeko elungileyo." Le nkolelo, okanye "iSyyagraha," yavumela uGandhi ukuba aguqule imibandela yezopolitiko abaziphatha kakuhle nabalungileyo ngokwenene. Nangona esaphila kwiimvavanyo ezintathu ebomini bakhe, ukuhlaselwa, izifo kunye nokuvalelwa kwexesha elide, uGandhi akazange azame ukuziphindisela. Endaweni yoko, wakhuthaza utshintsho lokuthula, ukhuthaze bonke ukuba benze okufanayo. Xa iBrithani ibeka iRhafu yeSalathisi engalunganga kumntu oyimpofu, wanikela ubomi kwi-Indiya Independence ntshukumo ngokukhokela uhambo lwaseIndiya elwandle. Abaninzi babulawa okanye bavalelwa ngaphambi kokuba iBritani ivume ukukhulula onke amabanjwa ezopolitiko. Njengoko iBrithani yayilahlekelwa ukulawula ilizwe, iIndiya yaphinde yazimela. Eyaziwa ngokuba nguYise wesizwe sakhe, igama likaGandhi latshintshile laba nguMahatma, elithetha "umphefumlo ophefumulayo." Naphezu kokungaboni kwakhe, kuye kwaphawula ukuba wonke urhulumente owayephikisana noGandhi ekugqibeleni wayefanele avelise. Isipho sakhe kwihlabathi kwakukugxotha kwakhe inkolelo yokuba imfazwe iyafuneka. Ukuzalwa kukaGandhi, ngo-Oktobha 2, ibhiyozelwa kwihlabathi lonke njengeSuku loLuntu lokuShatshazwa.

Juni 8. Ngaloo mini kwi-1966, abafundi be-270 kwiYunivesithi yaseNew York baphuma kwimikhosi yokugqwesa ukugqwesa ukubonisa ubungqina bezinga elihloniphekileyo kuNobhala wezoKhuseleko uRobert McNamara. Ngomhla omnye emva konyaka, isibini kwisithathu sabaphumeleleyo kwiYunivesithi yaseBrown bamfulathela uNobhala Welizwe uHenry Kissinger, isithethi sokuthweswa izidanga. Zombini ezi mbhikisho zivakalise ukwahlulwa baziva ngokwanda kwenani labafundi beekholeji zaseMelika kwizenzo zikarhulumente wabo kwimfazwe yaseVietnam. Ngo-1966, emva kokuba uMongameli uLyndon Johnson ebenyuse kakhulu ubukho bemikhosi yase-US kunye nemikhankaso yokuqhushumisa eVietnam, imfazwe yaba yeyabagxininisi kwezopolitiko. Babambe uqhankqalazo, batshisa amakhadi ayidrafti, beqhankqalaza imikhosi yezomkhosi kunye neDow Chemical ekampusini, kwaye bevuma iziqubulo ezinje ngo "Heyi, hee, LBJ, bangaphi abantwana obabuleleyo namhlanje?" Uninzi loqhanqalazo lwalusekwe ekuhlaleni- okanye kwikhampasi, kodwa phantse zonke zaphefumlelwa yinjongo efanayo: ukuqhawula ubudlelwane phakathi komatshini wemfazwe waseMelika kunye neyunivesithi, kunye neenjongo zayo "zenkululeko". Kwabafundi abathile, loo njongo inokuba ibangelwe kukwanda kwengqondo yokuqonda edla ngokufunyanwa kwizifundo zaseyunivesithi. Abanye abafundi bakhuthaza inkululeko yokuzimela eyunivesithi egxile kubafundi ngenxa yezizathu ezahlukeneyo, kwaye uninzi lwabo lwaluzimisele ukubeka umngcipheko ekonzakaleni okanye ekubanjweni ngokunyanzelwa ukuba kuthathwe amanyathelo angqalileyo njengokuhlala kwizakhiwo zaseyunivesithi nakwiiofisi zolawulo. Ukuzimisela ukugqitha kwimida yezomthetho kwiinjongo zokuziphatha kwabonakala kuvavanyo olwenziwe ngo-1968 ngu IMilwaukee Journal. Apho, amaphesenti angamashumi asixhenxe anesihlanu eesampula zabamele bonke abafundi bavakalisa inkxaso yabo ngokubhikisha okuhlelekile njengendlela "evumelekileyo yokubonisa izikhalazo zabafundi."

Juni 9. Ngaloo mini kwi-1982 Jikelele u-Efraín Rios Montt wazivakalisa ukuba nguMongameli waseGuatemala, dukuthumela umongameli okhethiweyo. URios Montt wayegqwesa isikolo seSouth America esaziwayo (isikolo samasosha ase-US esiqeqeshwe abaninzi ababulali baseLatin American kunye nabathuthuli). URios Montt wamisa umkhosi wamajoni amathathu kunye naye njengomongameli. Ngaphantsi komthetho we-martial, umgaqo-siseko osisigxina, kwaye akukho mthetho, le junta inamacandelo e-secret, kunye nemibutho yezopolitiko kunye nemisebenzi yabasebenzi. URios Montt wagxotha amanye amabini e-junta ukuba ayeke. Wayebiza ukuba i-campesinos kunye nabahlali bee-communist, kwaye baqala ukuthumba, ukuxhaphaza nokubulala. Ibutho le-guerilla elenzelwe ukumelana neRios Montt, kwaye kwaqubuka imfazwe ye-36 yeminyaka. Amawaka angamawaka angewona abulawe abulawa kwaye "ayanyamalala" ngurhulumente ngezinga elingaphezu kwe-3,000 ngenyanga. Ulawulo lweReagan kunye namaSirayeli lisekela ukunyanzelisa ngeengalo kwaye zanikela ukuhlola nokuqeqeshwa. URios Montt ngokwakhe waxoshwa yi-1983. Kuze kube ngu-1996 ukubulawa kwaqhubeka eGuatemala kwiinkcubeko zokungahlawulwanga. Inqatshelwe ekusebenzeni kumongameli ngumGaqo-siseko, uRios Montt wayengumbutho weCongress phakathi kwe-1990 kunye ne-2007, ukuzivikela ngokushushisa. Xa ukukhusela kwakhe kuphelile, ngokukhawuleza wafumana uxanduva lokulwa nobuhlanga kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho olujongene noluntu. Ugwetyelwe iminyaka eyi-80 entolongweni, uRios Montt wayengaboshwa ngenxa yobungqiqo. URios Montt wafa ngo-Apreli 1, 2018, eneminyaka eyi-91. Ngo-Matshi 1999, uMongameli wase-US uBill Clinton uxolisa kwi-United States ngenkxaso yolawulo lokunyanzelisa. Kodwa isifundo esisisiseko somonakalo ekuthumeleni impi asikaze sifunde.

Juni 10. Ngaloo mini kwi-1963 uMongameli uJohn. F. Kennedy uthetha ngoxolo kwiYunivesithi yaseMelika. Kwiinyanga nje ezintlanu nje phambi kokubulawa kwakhe, amazwi kaKennedy ngobuhle beeyunivesithi kunye nendima yabo akhokelele kumazwi angalibalekiyo obulumko kubandakanya oku kulandelayo: “Ndinyule ke ngeli xesha nakule ndawo ukuba sixoxe ngesihloko apho ukungazi ihlala ininzi kwaye inyani ayifane ibonwe- kodwa sesona sihloko sibalulekileyo emhlabeni: uxolo lwehlabathi… Ndithetha ngoxolo ngenxa yobuso obutsha bemfazwe. Imfazwe iyonke ayinangqondo kwixesha apho amagunya amakhulu anokugcina amandla amakhulu enyukliya kwaye engavumi ukunikezela ngaphandle kokubhenela kuloo mikhosi. Ayenzi ngqondo kubudala xa isixhobo esinye senyukliya siqulathe phantse amaxesha alishumi amandla aqhushumbe asindiswa yiyo yonke imikhosi yomoya emanyeneyo kwiMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi. Akukho ngqiqweni kwixesha laxa ityhefu ebulalayo eveliswe kutshintshiselwano lwenyukliya iyakuqhutywa ngumoya namanzi nomhlaba nembewu iye kwiimbombo ezikude zomhlaba nakwizizukulwana ezingekazalwa… Okokuqala: Makhe sihlolisise indlela esilujonga ngayo uxolo ngokwalo. . Uninzi lwethu lucinga ukuba akunakwenzeka. Baninzi kakhulu abacinga ukuba ayonyani. Kodwa yingozi leyo, inkolelo yokuba woyisiwe. Kukhokelela kwisigqibo sokuba imfazwe ayinakuphepheka-ukuba uluntu luyekisiwe-ukuba sibanjwe yimikhosi esingakwaziyo ukuyilawula. Akuyomfuneko ukuba siyamkele loo mbono. Iingxaki zethu zenziwe ngabantu-ke, zinokusonjululwa ngumntu. ”

Juni 11. Ngaloo mini ku-1880 Jeannette Rankin wazalwa. Umfazi wokuqala otyunjwe kwiCongress wayengumfundi weYunivesithi yaseMontana owaqalisa umsebenzi wakhe kwintlalo yoluntu. Njengombini we-pacifist kunye ne-suffragist, i-Rankin bancedisa abafazi ukuba bazuze ilungelo lokuvota ngokusungula ibhili-mali esinika ilungelo lokuba ngabemi abazimeleyo kubayeni babo. Njengoko u-Rankin wahlala esihlalweni ngo-Ephreli 1917, ukubandakanyeka kwe-US kwi-WWI kwakuxutyushwa. Wavota NO, nangona kuchaswa kakhulu, okukhokelela ekulahlekeni kwekota lesibini. I-Rankin ke waya emsebenzini kwiNkomfa kaZwelonke yokuLawulwa kweMfazwe ngaphambi kokuqhuba iNkongele kwakhona ngesiqubulo esithi "Lungiselela umda woKhuselo; Gcina abantu bethu bevela eYurophu! "Uthi unomdla weyesibini kwi-1940 kubafazi abaxabisa ukuvota lakhe nge-WWI. U-Rankin wayeseCongress xa uMongameli uFranklin Roosevelt ecela iCongress ukuvota iSibhengezo seMfazwe eJapan esithatha iMelika ukuya kwiWWII. I-Rankin yayinguvo kuphela yokuvota. Ngaphandle kwexesha elide, waqhubeka nomsebenzi wakhe, kuquka ukulungelelanisa iJeannette Rankin Brigade ngomkhonto we-1968 eWashington ukumbhikisha iMfazwe yaseVietnam. U-Rankin wabiza iCongress ukujongana neemfuno zabantu, ukucacisa ukhetho olunikezwa ngabasetyhini "abavumela ukuba oonyana babo baye emfazweni ngenxa yokuba besaba amadoda abo aya kulahlekelwa yimisebenzi kwi-shishini ukuba bayabhikisha." Wayelela ukuba abemi base-US banikwa " ukhetho lwezinto ezimbi, kungekhona iingcamango. "Amazwi kaColin yayibonakala engaqondakali njengoko iimfazwe zaqhubeka naphezu kokunye okulula wayesebenzela ubomi. Wathi: "Ukuba sasizikhubaza, siza kuba lizwe elikhuselekileyo kwihlabathi."

Juni 12. Ngaloo mini kwi-1982 abantu abayizigidi eziboniswe ngezixhobo zenukliya eNew York. Lo ngumhla omuhle ukuchasa izixhobo zenukliya. Nangona iZizwe eziManyeneyo ziqhuba iSeshoni ekhethekileyo yokuShatshazwa, isihlwele saseCentral Park senza ingqwalasela ngamazwe ngamazwe aphikisana neentambo zamandla enyukliya. UDkt. Randall Caroline Forsberg wayengomnye wabaququzeleli be-"Nuclear Freeze," kunye nenani lababhikishi ababambene naye eNew York bekhokelela kulokho kwabonakala "yimbonakaliso enkulu yezopolitiko kwimbali yaseMelika." IForsberg yafumana "Iimbono zegenius" ezivela kwi-MacArthur Fellowship evuma umsebenzi wakhe kwihlabathi elinoxolo, elinoxolo ngokubhekisa ingqalelo kwiingxaki ezikhoyo kwiprogram yezixhobo zenukliya ezikhawulezayo. Ngelo xesha, uMongameli uRonald Reagan wayengenakuxabisa, ngoku uya kuphakamisa ukuba amalungu e-Nuclear Freeze ashukunywe "angabandakanyeki," "abaxhasi bamakhomanisi," okanye mhlawumbi "nabangaphandle." Ngekota yakhe yesibini, ulawulo lwakhe Ndandifumana uxinzelelo olufanelekileyo ukuba ndiqalise iintetho ekunciphiseni ubukhulu beenyukliya zenyukliya. Intlanganiso yahlelwa kunye neSoviet Union, kwaye iintetho zaqala phakathi koMongameli Reagan kunye nenkokeli yeSoviet uMikhail Gorbachev ukuphelisa izixhobo ezivela eMpuma naseNtshona Yurophu ngokuvuma ukuba "Imfazwe yenyukliya ayinakuyiphula, kwaye akufanele ilwa." landela intlanganiso eReykjavik, eIceland, apho isiphakamiso sikaGrbbachev sokuphelisa zonke izixhobo zenyukliya ngomnyaka we-2000 asamkelwanga yi-United States. Kodwa ngo-1987, iSivumelwano seNyukliya esiPhakathi-sine sityinwe ukuze kufuneke ukuba amazwe aqale ukunciphisa iinqwelo zabo.

Juni 13. Ngaloo mini kwi-1971, iiPentagon Papers ezixutywe kwiNew York Times, zanikela iinkcukacha ngokubandakanyeka kwe-Vietnam eVietnam ekupheleni kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II ukuya kwi-1968. Ngo-Juni 13, i-1971, emva kweminyaka yokubhikisha ngokubhekiselele kuyilo loyilo, ukubulala okude eVietnam, kunye nokukhala ngenxa yokungazange iphendulwe nguRhulumente wase-United States, i-New York Times yafumana ulwazi "oluthathwe" olusuka kumhlalutyi wamasosha. Ekhungathekiswa yimizamo yakhe eqhubekayo yokumisa imfazwe, uDaniel Ellsberg waqhagamshelana neNew York Times, ebavumela ukuba babone isizathu esiyinyaniso sokuba i-United States ibe yinkqubo yempi: "Ukufunda ngokubanzi indlela iMelika eye eya e-Indochina ngayo , eqhutywe yiPentagon emithathu kwiminyaka edlulileyo, ibonisa ukuba iminyango emine iqhube phambili ikwazi ukuzinikela kwiVietnam yaseVietnam, ukulungele ukulwa neNyakatho ukukhusela uMzantsi, kunye nokukhungatheka okugqithiseleyo kule migudu-ngokubanzi ngaphezu kweengxelo zabo zikarhulumente ezivunywe ngelo xesha. "UStorter General of the US usemangalele i-Times ngokuphula umthetho ngokubhengeza imfihlelo karhulumente, ubenqamle iintsuku ezimbini kamva. IWashington Post yaqalisa ukupapasha ibali, kwaye yaziswa kwakhona phambi kweNkundla yaseStar. Ilizwe lilinde ukungakholwa kuze kube yilapho isigqibo sokutshatyalaliswa kwenkululeko yenkampani yenkcazo yagqitywa. INkundla ePhakamileyo inqume ukuba ipapashwe ngenye yezigwebo, uHugo L. Black, ekhupha le nkcazo elandelayo: "Ekutyhileni ukusebenza koorhulumente okhokelela kwiMfazwe yaseVietnam, amaphephandaba enza ngokufanelekileyo oko abaBawo abaQalayo babenethemba abathembele ukuba baya kwenza. "

Juni 14. Ngaloo mini kwi-1943 iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States inqamlekisile ukunyanzela iiflegi zonyanzeliso kubantwana besikolo. Isiqalo sokuqala esithi "Isibambiso kwiNgqamlezo," ebhaliweyo kwi-1800 ngokubhiyozela ukufunyanwa kweMerika, sifunde: "Ndiyathembisa ukunyaniseka kwiPlagi, kunye neRiphabliki ekumi kuyo, isizwe esinye, esingabonakaliyo, kunye noKhuseleko kunye noBulungisa kubo bonke. "Ngexesha le-WWII, iipolitiki zafumana inzuzo ekuguquleni lo mbambiso emthethweni. Amagama athi "aseUnited States," kunye "neeMerika" ahlanganisiwe; kunye ne-1945, isihloko satshintshwa, kwaye imimiselo ngokuphathelele ukukwazisa okufanelekileyo kweflegi yongezwa. Imithetho yoBuliso yatshintshwa xa ifaniswa kunye neYazi eJalimane ukusuka yokuqala: "Yima, uphakamise isandla sokunene ngesandla esicacekileyo ebunzini;" ku: "Yima, ubeka isandla sokunene phezu kwentliziyo." Amagama athi "phantsi UThixo "wongezwa emva kweSizwe soMnye, kwaye wasayinwa ngumthetho nguMongameli uEisenhower kwi1954. Ekuqaleni, i-35 ithi igunya lokuba abafundi beSikolo soLuntu baseK-12 bamele bawabingelele iiflegi ngosuku ngalunye ngezandla zabo ezintliziyweni xa besithi "Isibambiso Sokuthobeka." Njengoko isibalo sokubambisa sakhula sibe yi45, abaninzi babecinga uhanahaniso umthetho ofuna abantwana ukuba bathembise ukunyaniseka kwiflegi emele "Inkululeko kunye noBulungisa kubo bonke." Abanye baphawule ukungqubuzana phakathi kwesibambiso kunye neenkolelo zabo zonqulo, bekhankanya ukuphulwa kwamalungelo okuQulela okuQala. Nangona bekuvunywe yizinkundla kwi-1943 ukuba abafundi abanakufunwa ukuba bathembele kwiflegi, abo bangayimi, bayabingelela, kwaye banokubambisa imihla ngemihla baqhubeka begxeka, baxoshwa, banqunyanyisiwe kwaye babhalwe ngokuthi "Unpatriotic".

Juni 15. Ngaloo mini kwi-1917, kwaye ngo-Meyi 16, i-1918, i-Espionage kunye ne-Sedition Act yenziwa. UMthetho we-Espionage wamiselwa njengokuba i-US yaba nxaxheba kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi I ukuba avimbele abemi ukuba benze nantoni na eyayingakwazi ukuphazamisa umkhosi wokulwa neJamani kunye namahlakani ayo. Lo Mthetho ulungiswe ngaphantsi komnyaka kamva kwinto eyaziwa ngokuba nguMthetho wokuShitshiswa kwe-1918. UMthetho wokuLawulwa kweMveli wawubandakanya ngakumbi, wenza nantoni na eyenziwe, yathi, okanye ibhaliwe ngokubandakanyeka kwe-US kwi-WWI engekho mthethweni. Oku kwabashiya abaninzi abemi base-United States besoyika ukubanjwa ngenxa yokuvakalisa izimvo zabo ezichasene nomda wezempi okanye ukubandakanyeka kwimfazwe, kunye nokubuza oku kuphulwa kwelungelo lokuthetha inkululeko. Nakuphi na ukugxekwa komGaqo-siseko, umgaqo-nkqubo, iflegi, urhulumente, umkhosi, okanye umfaniswano wezempi wenziwa ngokungekho mthethweni. Kwaye kwaba mthethweni ukuba nabani na ongathintela ukuthengiswa kweebhondi zase-US, babonise ifulegi yaseJamani emizini yabo, okanye bathethe ngokuxhasa nayiphi na isizathu esekelwe ngamazwe ngoku aqwalaselwa njengeentshaba zase-US. Nakuphi na ukuphulwa kwale mithetho emitsha kukhokelela ekubanjweni kunye neentlawulo ezifikelela kwiiyure ezingamawaka ezilishumi, kunye nesigwebo esingaholela entolongweni ukuya kwiminyaka engamashumi amabini. Ubuncinane amaphephandaba angamashumi asixhenxe anesihlanu abavunyelwe ukuba banyathelise nayiphi na into emfazwe xa bekulindeleke ukuba baqhubeke, kwaye abantu be-2,000 babanjwe. Kwakukho abantu be-1,000, abaninzi kubo abafudukayo, bathotywa kwaye bavalelwe ngethuba ngeli xesha. Nangona uMthetho woBudlo lwaMkhosi wawususwe kwi-1921, ezininzi iimithetho phantsi koMthetho wobuNgcwahla zahlala zisasebenza e-US njengenye yemfazwe eyakhokelela kwenye.

Juni 16. Ngaloo mini kwi-1976, kubulawe iSoweto. I-700 abantwana babulawa ngenxa yokungafuni ukufunda isiBhulu. Ngaphambi kokuba iNkcubeko yamaZwe ithathwe kwi-1948, uMzantsi Afrika wajamelana nokuhlukana. Nangona imfundo yabamhlophe yayingabakhululeka, abantwana abantsundu babenganyanzelwanga yiNkqubo yeSikolo saseBantu. Izigidi ezingamashumi ama-90 ezikolo zamnyama zaseMzantsi Afrika zaziqhutywa ngabavangeli bamaKatolika abancediswa ngoncedo oluncinane. Ku-1953, uMthetho we-Bantu Education Act unqume konke ukuxhasa ngemali kwimali evela kwi-Afrika kubantu baseAfrika, ilandelwa yiNyuvesi yeMfundo yeYunivesithi evimbela abafundi abamnyama ukuba bangene kwiiyunivesithi ezimhlophe. Ukunyuka okubangele ukuvukela kweSoweto kwakumyalelo weBantu ukuba ulwimi lusetyenziswe ukufundiswa kunye noviwo ukuba nakuba ootitshala babengenalo kakuhle, isiBhulu. Njengoko ixesha lokuhlola lisondele, abafundi abavela kwizikolo eziphakamileyo eziphakamileyo baphefumulelwe YoMbutho weZiFundo zoMzantsi Afrika lu ngi selele IKomiti yeNtsebenzo yeBhunga labaBameli beSoweto (SSRC) ukucwangcisa ukumbhikisha okunokuthula ngokumalunga nale migqaliselo enzima. Umqalo waqala eSoweto ukudlula ezinye izikolo eziphakamileyo apho bahlanganiswa ngabafundi bezi zikolo, kwaye baqhubeka behlanganisana de kubekho amawaka ahamba kunye "kwiHolo kaMasipala kaMasipala wase-Orlando. Ngethuba lokufika kwabo, bephazamiseke ngamapolisa kwaye bahlaselwa i-gas gas and tear. Ngethuba lokuqothulwa kwamatye aqala, abaxhasi bahlanganiswe ngabafundi abamhlophe be-300 kunye nabasebenzi abamnyama abangabamnyama ekulwa nokulwa nobuhlanga kunye neBantu. Ukuphathwa kakubi kwamapolisa kwadibana nokunyamezela kwabafundi kunye nabalandeli abasaphila abaqhubekayo kwiinyanga ezinzima umzabalazo wokulingana ophefumlelweyo yilo Mkhosi woLutsha lwe-Afrika olukhunjulwayo.

Juni 17. Ngaloo mini kwi-1974, i-Iranian Republican Army yaseYurophu yaqhubhisa iindlu zePalamente eLondon, yalimala lishumi elinanye. Isenzo esinobuchule besinye sezixhaphazo ezininzi kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu "Iingxaki." Kwi-1920, kwizame zokuphelisa ubundlobongela, iPalamente yaseBrithani idlulisele uMthetho olwahlula iIreland, kunye neengxenye zombini ziyingxenye ye-United Kingdom. Esikhundleni sokuthula okuhlosiweyo, umsebenzi wesigqirha wanda phakathi kwamaProtestanti aseNyakatho nakumaKatolika asemazantsi afuna i-Ireland emele kunye nehlangeneyo. Umsebenzi waseBrithani amabutho e-1969 wandisa ubundlobongela. IRA iqhube iithagethi eNgilani ukusuka kwi-1972 ukuya kwi-1996. Umkhankaso welizwe jikelele uthi i-175 iphila. Izivumelwano zokugqibela zokupheliswa komlilo zenziwa kodwa zawa. Ukubulawa kwepropati ephakamileyo kwiinkathazo kwafika xa i-IRA yangomhla yabulala iBritish Lord Louis Mountbatten e-Northern Ireland e-1979 ngebhobho ekhunjini lakhe. Isivumelwano se-1998 esihle ngoLwesihlanu sagqiba umzabalazo, kunye nokulungiswa kwamandla karhulumente. Kwiminyaka eminyaka yokuhlaselwa kwesibindi esasungulwa ngabagadi bee-paramistitarian zombini kunye ne-unionist, phantse i-3600 ubomi. Kodwa ingozi ihleli nje ngaphantsi komhlaba. Isiphumo esincinci sevoti yase-UK yokumka kwiYurophu YaseYurophu, ebizwa ngokuba yiBrexit, yavelisa ingxabano malunga namalungiselelo amasiko esizayo, ekubeni iIreland yayizahlukana phakathi kweYurophu yeNyunyana kunye neYurophu engeyona iYurophu. Ibhomu yemoto e-Londonderry, eNyakatho ye-Ireland, yayicelwa kwi-Real Reform Republic yase-Ireland, iqela elilwa neIreland elimanyeneyo iminyaka eyikhulu emva kokuhlukanisa. Le ntshukumo, njengamakhulu eminyaka kwiminyaka, ibonise ukungabi nantlupheko kobundlobongela kunye neziphumo ezingabonakaliyo zokuphefumula abantu.

Juni 18. Ngaloo mini kwi-1979, isivumelwano se-SALT II sokukhawulela iimfono ezide kunye neibhomu sayinwe ngabaPresidente uCarter noBrezhnev. Esi sivumelwano phakathi kweUnited States of America kunye neManyano yamaRiphabliki aseSoviet senziwa njengabo bobabili baba: "Unonophelo ukuba imfazwe yenyukliya ibe nemiphumo emibi kubo bonke uluntu ..., "kunye"Ukuqinisekiswa umnqweno wokuthatha amanyathelo okunciphisa umda kunye nokunciphisa okunye ukuphuculwa kweengalo ezicwangcisiweyo, ekucingeni injongo yokufezekisa izixhobo ezingapheliyo kunye nokugqiba ngokupheleleyo. "UMongameli uCarter wathumela isivumelwano kwiCongress apho ingxoxo yaqhubeka kwaze kwaba yilapho iRashiya ihlasela i-Afghanistan ayibonakali. Kwi-1980, uMongameli uCarter wachaza ukuba, kungakhathaliseki ukuba, iUnited States yayiya kuhambelana nemimiselo ephambili yesivumelwano ukuba iRashiya iya kubuyiselwa, kwaye uBrzhnev wavuma. Isiseko seemvumelwano ze-SALT saqala xa uMongameli Ford wadibana noBrezhnev ukuba abeke isiseko esabeka umda kwiindlela ezininzi zokuzimela ezizimeleyo, ukulungiswa kwezakhiwo ezintsha ezisezantsi-based-continental ballistic missile. , iinqwelo zokuthuthwa kweemoto zenyukliya, kwaye igcinwe isivumelwano esivumelekileyo nge-1985. UMongameli uNixon wavuma, njengokuba uMongameli uReeagan, owathi wachaza ukuphulwa yiRashiya kwi-1984 ne-1985. Ku-1986, uReagan wamemezela ukuba "... i-US kufuneka isekelwe izigqibo malunga nesakhiwo sayo samandla esicwangcisekileyo kwimeko kunye nobukhulu besongelo obubangelwa yi-Soviet force force kwaye kungekhona kwimigangatho equkethwe kwisakhiwo se-SALT ...." Wongezelela ukuba ii-US ziya "... qhubeka usebenzise ukukhuseleka okukhulu, ngelixa ukhusela ukukhuseleka okucwangcisiweyo, ukwenzela ukukunceda ukukhupha umoya ofunekayo ukwenzela ukunciphisa amathuba amaninzi kwiinqhinga zombini zombini."

Juni 19. Ngomhla ngamnye unyaka, abaninzi baseMerika bhiyozela "Okweshumi," i-19^th NgoJuni kwi-1865 xa ama-Afrika-aseMelika esengumkhoboka eGalveston, eTexas bafunde ukuba bekhululiwe ngokusemthethweni 2-1 / 2 kwiminyaka ngaphambili. Isibhengezo sika-Mongameli u-Lincoln sika-Emancipation, esikhutshwe ngoSuku loNyaka oMtsha, ngo-1863, wayegunyazise ukukhululwa kwawo onke amakhoboka kumazwe kunye neendawo ezivukelayo kwi-Union kwi-Civil War, kodwa abanini-makhoboka baseTexas babekhethe ngokungazukuthobela lo myalelo bade banyanzelwa. . Olo suku lwafika xa amajoni eManyano angamawaka amabini afika eGalveston ngoJuni 19, 1865. UMajor General Gordan Granger wafunda ngokuvakalayo uxwebhu olwalwazisa abantu baseTexas ukuba “… ngokuhambelana nesibhengezo esivela kwiSigqeba saseUnited States, onke amakhoboka bakhululekile… kwaye unxibelelwano olukhoyo phakathi [kweenkosi namakhoboka] lube lolo phakathi komqeshi nomsebenzi osebenzayo. ” Phakathi kwamakhoboka akhululweyo, indlela ezazisabela ngayo iindaba yayisothusa kakhulu ibe yimincili. Abanye balibele ukufunda okungakumbi ngobudlelwane obutsha bomqeshi nomqeshwa, kodwa abanye abaninzi, beqhutywa kukuvuya kwenkululeko yabo, bemka kwangoko bayokwakha ubomi obutsha kwiindawo ezintsha. Ukujongana nemiceli mngeni emikhulu, abo babefudula bengamakhoboka ngokuhamba kwexesha benza i "Shumi elinethoba" yenkululeko yabo isihlandlo sonyaka sokudibana namanye amalungu osapho eGalveston ukutshintshiselana ngeziqinisekiso kunye nemithandazo. Kule minyaka, ukubhiyozelwa kwasasazeka kwezinye iindawo kwaye kwakhula ekuthandeni, kwaye ngo-1980 i-Junete yeshumi yaba yiholide yaseburhulumenteni yaseTexas. Namhlanje, imibutho emitsha yesizwe neyeshumi elinanye isebenzisa esi sikhumbuzo ukukhuthaza ulwazi kunye nokuxabisa imbali kunye nenkcubeko yase-Afrika-yaseMelika, ngelixa ikhuthaza ukuziphuhlisa kunye nokuhlonipha zonke iinkcubeko.

Juni 20. Leli yiSuku loBubaleki belizwe. UNobhala-Jikelele weZizwe eziManyeneyo, u-Antonio Guterres, wonyulwa ngoJanuwari 2017 emva kokuchitha ubomi bakhe bonke esebenza ukuyeka ukubandezeleka okungapheliyo okubangelwa ziimfazwe kubantu abamsulwa. Uzalelwe eLisbon ngo-1949, wafumana isidanga sobunjineli kwaye wasazi kakuhle isiPhuthukezi, isiNgesi, isiFrentshi kunye neSpanish. Ukunyulwa kwakhe kwiPalamente yasePortugal ngo-1976 kwamazisa kwiNdibano yePalamente yeBhunga laseYurophu apho wayephethe khona iKomiti yeDemografi, iMfuduko kunye neeMbacu. Iminyaka engamashumi amabini esebenza njengoMkomishinala oPhezulu weZizwe eziManyeneyo weeMbacu evumela uGuterres ukuba abone ngaphezu kweninzi yokubandezeleka, indlala, ukungcungcuthekiswa, izifo, kunye nokusweleka kwamadoda, abafazi, nabantwana, kwiinkampu zeembacu nakwiindawo zemfazwe. Ngelixa wayesebenza njenge-Nkulumbuso yase-Portugal ukusukela ngo-1995 ukuya ku-2002, wayehlala ebandakanyeka kwimizamo yamanye amazwe njengo-Mongameli we-European Council. Ukuxhaswa kwakhe kukhokelele ekwamkelweni kwe-Agenda yeLisbon yemisebenzi kunye nokukhula, kunye nokuchongwa yi-UN ngoDisemba ka-2000 wosuku lweembacu kwihlabathi. Umhla wama-20 kuJuni wakhethwa ekukhumbuleni iNdibano yesiXeko sabaPhepheli eyayibanjwe kwiminyaka engamashumi amahlanu ngaphambili, nokwamkela ukunyuka okuqhubekayo kwenani leembacu kwihlabathi liphela ukuya kwizigidi ezingama-1951. Amagama kaGuterres akhethwe ukuba azise iwebhusayithi yeWorld Refugee Day: “Oku ayikokwabelana ngomthwalo. Imalunga nokwabelana ngoxanduva lwehlabathi, ngokusekwe hayi kuphela kwingcinga ebanzi yoluntu lwethu kodwa nakwizibophelelo ezithile zomthetho wamanye amazwe. Iingxaki zengcambu yimfazwe nentiyo, hayi abantu ababalekayo; iimbacu ziphakathi kwamaxhoba obugrogrisi bokuqala. ”

Juni 21. Ngaloo mini kwi-1971, iNkundla yezoBulungisa yamazwe ngamazwe inqume ukuba uMzantsi Afrika uza kuphuma eNamibia. Ukusukela ngo-1915 ukuya ku-1988 iNamibia yaziwa njenge-Mzantsi Ntshona Afrika, ithathwa njengephondo loMzantsi Afrika. Yayikholoniyali ephezulu, kuqala yiJamani emva koko yiBritane. UMzantsi Afrika wawuzimele geqe kwiBritane ngeMfazwe yeHlabathi yokuQala, kodwa yahlasela ngempumelelo indawo yaseJamani ukuxhasa uBukhosi. I-League of Nations ibeke i-SW Africa phantsi kwegunya lase-Bhritane kulawulo lwase Mzantsi Afrika. Emva kweMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, iZizwe eziManyeneyo zaqhubeka nomgaqo-nkqubo. Ngo-1960 uMbutho waBantu woMzantsi Afrika (i-SWAPO) yayingumbutho wezopolitiko, eqala iphulo labanqolobi noMkhosi Wabantu Wenkululeko waseNamibia (ISICWANGCISO). Ngo-1966, i-UN General Assembly yasirhoxisa isigunyaziso soMzantsi Afrika, kodwa uMzantsi Afrika waliphikisa igunya lawo waza wanyanzelisa ucalucalulo, urhulumente wabamhlophe kuphela, kunye nama-bantustans, okanye ama-ghetto. Ngo-1971 iNkundla yezoBulungisa yaMazwe ngaMazwe yaxhasa igunya le-UN kwelaseNamibia yaza yagqiba kwelokuba ubukho boMzantsi Afrika eNamibia babungekho mthethweni. UMzantsi Afrika walile ukurhoxa, kwaza kwaqala imfazwe eyothusayo kuloo mmandla udlulela eAngola, owawuncediswa apho yimikhosi yaseCuba. Edinwe eyimfe, kwaye esoyika ubukho beCuba, uMzantsi Afrika watyikitya isivumelwano sokupheliswa komlilo ngo-1988. Imfazwe yathatha ubomi bamajoni oMzantsi Afrika ayi-2,500 1990, yaze yabiza iwaka lezigidi zeerandi ngonyaka. Inkululeko yaseNamibia yabhengezwa ngo-XNUMX. Ukombiwa kwemigodi yedayimani, amanye amatye anqabileyo kunye neuranium eNamibia kwawuxhokonxa umdla woMzantsi Afrika wokuthanjiswa kwale ndawo. Olu lusuku olulungileyo lokujonga izizathu eziyinyani zekoloniyali, iimfazwe ezilandelwayo, kunye neziphumo zazo.

Juni 22. Ngaloo mini kwi-1987, abangaphezu kwe-18,000 baseJapan batshabalalisa uxolo babumba i-10.4-mile yoluntu ukukhusela ukuqhutyelwa kwezempi zase-Okinawa. Idabi laseOkinawa lowe-1945 yaba lelona hlaselo lakha labulala abantu kwiMfazwe yasePasifiki— “inkanyamba yentsimbi” yeentsuku ezingama-82 eyashiya ama-200,000 100,000 efile. Ngaphezulu kwama-65,000 amajoni aseJapan abulawa, athinjwa, okanye azibulala; Amanyeneyo ahlupheka ngaphezu kwama-1952; kwaye ikota yabemi baseOkinawa babulawa. Ngaphantsi kwesivumelwano se-27, i-US yafumana ulawulo olupheleleyo lwe-Okinawa yaza yalawula esiqithini iminyaka engama-1972, ithimba umhlaba wabucala wokwakha iziseko kunye neendawo zokuhamba ngenqwelomoya-kubandakanya neKadena Air Base, eyathi kamva yenziwa ziibhombu zaseMelika ukuhlasela iKorea neVietnam. Ngaphezulu kweminyaka engamashumi asixhenxe, iPentagon ingcolise ulwandle, umhlaba, kunye nomoya ngearsenic, i-uranium ephelileyo, igesi yemithambo, kunye neekhemikhali ezibulala izidumbu, zinika uOkinawa igama lesidlaliso, "Ingqumba yeJunk yePacific." Ngo-25,000, umnqophiso omtsha wavumela iJapan ukuba iphinde ilawule i-Okinawa kodwa ama-22,000 amabutho ase-US (kunye nama-2000 amalungu omndeni) ahlala apho. Kwaye uqhanqalazo olungenabundlobongela luhleli lukhona rhoqo. Ngo-25,000, amatshantliziyo angama-2019 enza ikhonkco lomntu elijikeleze iKadena Air Base. Nge-32, iziseko ezingama-48 zase-US kunye neendawo zoqeqesho ezingama-20 zigubungele i-XNUMX% yesiqithi. Ngaphandle kweminyaka yokuxhathisa, i-Pentagon yaqala ukwandisa ubukho bayo nge-Marine Air Base entsha eHenoko emantla e-Okinawa. Inqanawa entle kaHenoko yayiza kungcwatywa phantsi kweetoni zesanti, isoyikisela kungekuphela i-coral, kodwa neefudo zaselwandle, i-dugongs ezisemngciphekweni, kunye nezinye izidalwa ezinqabileyo.

Juni 23. Ngomhla ngamnye unyaka, iMini yeNkonzo kaRhulumente yeziManyeneyo ibonwa yimibutho yenkonzo karhulumente kunye namasebe ehlabathini lonke. Ukumiselwa yiNdibano Jikelele ye-UN ngoDisemba i-2002, Usuku lweNkonzo kaRhulumente luxhomekeke ekuqapheliseni ukuba inkonzo yombutho ebonakalayo ibaluleke kakhulu ekukhuthazeni ulawulo oluyimpumelelo kunye nophuhliso loluntu noqoqosho. Injongo yoMhla wokubhiyozela umsebenzi wabantu kwimimandla yasekuhlaleni nakwehlabathi jikelele abazimisele ukusebenzisa amandla abo kunye nezakhono ukuze basebenze kakuhle. Ingaba abaxhasi bahlawulwa ngabasebenzi bezithuthi njengabathumeli beeposi, abathala-mathala kunye nootitshala, okanye abantu abanikezela ngeenkonzo ezingenakuhlawulwa kwimibutho enjengamasebe ovolontiya kunye namagumbi e-ambulensi, bahlangabezana neemfuno zabantu eziyimfuneko kwaye zibalulekile ekuhlaleni uluntu. Ngenxa yesi sizathu, Usuku lweNkonzo kaRhulumente lujoliswe ekukhuthazeni abantu abaselula ukuba bafune imisebenzi kwiqumrhu likarhulumente. Imibutho kunye namasebe ethatha inxaxheba kwiSuku zisebenzisa iindlela ezahlukeneyo ukuhlangabezana neemfuno zayo. Zibandakanya ukubeka izitampu kunye namadokodo okuza kunika ulwazi malunga nenkonzo karhulumente; ukulungelelanisa isidlo seentsuku kunye nezivakalisi ezivakalisi; ukuqhuba imivuzo yangaphakathi; kunye nokwenza izibhengezo ezizodwa ukuhlonipha abasebenzi bakarhulumente. Uluntu jikelele lukhuthazwa ukuba lujoyine umoya woLuku lweNkonzo kaRhulumente ngokubonga abo banikezela iinkonzo zokhuseleko kunye nezomthetho kunokuba kuthethwa ngenkonzo yokuthatha inxaxheba kwimfazwe. Sonke sinokuzibuza: Singaba phi ngaphandle kwabasebenzi bakarhulumente ababuyisela amandla ethu emva kwesiphepho esibi, sigcine izitrato zethu zikhululekile kumanzi okuthuthwa kwamanzi, kwaye siqokelele udoti wethu?

Juni 24. Ngalo mhla kwi-1948, uMongameli uHarry Truman wasayina umthetho kuMthetho weNkonzo yokuThetha, owaba sisiseko seenkqubo zamanqanaba e-US njengamanje ekuqulunqeni amabhinqa enkonzweni yempi. Umthetho uchaze ukuba onke amadoda aneminyaka eli-18 nangaphezulu kufuneka abhalise kwiNkonzo yokuKhetha kwaye abo baphakathi kweminyaka eli-19 nengama-26 banelungelo lokuyilwa kwinkonzo yeenyanga ezingama-21. Bambalwa abantu abancinci baseMelika abachasa uyilo kude kube phakathi kwe1960s, xa abafundi beekholeji abaninzi baqala ukuyidibanisa nokungathandabuzi malunga nokwandiswa kwemfazwe yaseMelika eVietnam. Abanye bakucaphukisile ukuhlengahlengiswa okususelwa kwisiseko ngokunikezelwa ziibhodi eziyidrafti zalapha ekhaya ngenxa yezizathu zenqanaba losapho okanye ukuma kwezemfundo. Ngomnyaka we-1966, iCongress yapasisa umthetho owawucacisa inkqubo yokuchasana kodwa yenza okuncinci ekunqandeni ukuchasana kwabafundi kwidrafti. Ngokuhamba kwexesha, nangona kunjalo, kwenziwa uhlengahlengiso kuMthetho weeNkonzo eziKhethiweyo osuse amandla abo okubhaliswa, kwaye, namhlanje, umkhosi wase-US umiselwe ngokupheleleyo njengombutho wokuzithandela wonke. Uninzi lwabantu baseMelika abaneminyaka yobudala ngokungathandabuzekiyo bayayixabisa inkululeko ebanika yona yokuqhubeka nobomi babo. Akufanelekanga ukungahoywa, nangona kunjalo, ukuba uninzi lwabafana abazinikelayo ekusebenzeni umatshini wesizwe benza oko ikakhulu kuba ibanika ekuphela kwendlela abanokufumana ngayo umsebenzi, indima ehlonitshwayo kwinkcubeko, kunye nokuzithemba. Bambalwa phakathi kwabo abajonga ngokupheleleyo ukuba ezi zibonelelo zinokuza kuphela ngomngcipheko wobomi babo kunye nokwenzakala okungathethekiyo kunye nokungabikho kokusesikweni kwabanye. Inkonzo ekhethiweyo ihlala isendaweni yoyilo lomkhosi wexesha elizayo, isenzo esiye sapheliswa kumazwe amaninzi.

Juni 25. Ngaloo mhla ngo-1918, u-Eugene Debs, inkokheli ye-United States 'Socialist Party kunye ne-orator ephumeleleyo eyaziwayo ngokuhlaselwa kwakhe ngabantu abaphezulu besizwe, wabanjwa ngenxa yokuthetha ngokuchasene nokuthatha inxaxheba kwe-US kwiMfazwe yeHlabathi yokuQala. Ama-Debs kunye ne-Socialists ayengekho yedwa ekuchaseni kwabo, nangona kunjalo. Ukungena kwe-United States kwimfazwe e-1917 kwakusakhawuleza ukuphazamisa inkqubela kwiCongress kunye nakubantu baseburhulumenteni be-libertarians kunye nabadlali be-pacifists benkolo. Ekuphenduleni, iCongress yadlulisela uMthetho wobuSawula, okwenze ukuba kubekho mthethweni ukuba nabani na ukuba bavuselele inkcaso ephikisayo kwimfazwe. Noko ke, ama-Debs ayengaphili. Enkulumweni yaseCanton, e-Ohio ngoJuni 18, i-1918, wayethetha inyaniso ngemfazwe ngokubanzi ehlala efanelekileyo ngaphezu kwekhulu leminyaka kamva. Wayexela wathi, "Kwimbali yehlabathi, iiklasi zekhosi zihlala zivakalisa iimfazwe. Isifundo sodidi luhlala lukulwela imfazwe .... Udinga ukwazi ukuba ulungile kunento engaphezu kwekhoboka kunye ne-cannon fodder .... "Kodwa inkulumo yeCanton, nokuba kunjalo, iya kuba yinto yokugqibela yamaDebhu ngaphambi kokuba ibanjwe. NgoSeptemba 12, i-1918, wafunyanwa ngumgwebo kwiNkundla yeSithili yase-US eCleveland ngokuphula uMthetho wobuNgcwaba. Kwiinyanga ezisixhenxe kamva isigwebo sagxininiswa kwisibheno seNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseMelika kunye neeDebhu zagwetywa iminyaka eyi-10 kwintolongo yaseburhulumenteni. Ukuvalelwa kwakhe kwiseli e-Atlanta, nangona kunjalo, akazange amvimbele ukuba angene kuMongameli kwi-1920. Abo basebenzela uxolo namhlanje banokukhuthazwa kukuba, nangona uvalelwa entolongweni, wathabatha malunga nama-votenti aphakamileyo kwivoti.

Juni 26. Ngomhla ngalunye unyaka we-UN Day International kwiNkxaso yabaseNtshutshiso yokuThathulwa kugqitywa ngamazwe angamalungu e-UN, amaqela oluntu kunye nabantu ngabanye emhlabeni jikelele. Ukumiselwa ngoDisemba i-1997 ngesigqibo seNdibano yeZizwe eziManyeneyo, iNkxaso yamaxhoba okuThuthukiswayo iyaqaphela i-UN Convention ngokuchasene nokuThatywa kunye nezinye iziNkohlakalo, eziMntu okanye eziNyango okanye ezisohlwayo eziye zaqala ukusebenza ngoJuni 1987 kwaye ngoku zivunyiwe ngamazwe amaninzi. Injongo yesiganeko sonyaka kukuncedisa ukuqinisekisa ukusebenza ngokusemthethweni kweNgqungquthela yokulwa noThutho, obona ukuhlanjululwa njengezophulo-mthetho kumfazwe phantsi komthetho wamazwe kwaye uyayinqabela ukusetyenziswa kwayo njengesixhobo semfazwe phantsi kweemeko. Sekunjalo, kwiimfazwe zanamhlanje, ukusetyenziswa kohlanjiso kunye nezinye iindlela zokuphathwa kakubi, ukuhlambalaza kunye nokungahloneli bunyango zihlala ziqhelekileyo. Ukusetyenziswa okubhaliweyo kokuhlanjululwa yi-United States kuya kutshutshiswa kwaye kungenzi phantsi. Umkhosi oxhaswe yi-UN kwiNkxaso yabaseNtshutshiso yokuThuthuka inendima ebalulekileyo ekubizeni ingqwalasela kwingxaki. Imibutho efana neBhunga loKhuseleko loLuntu kwiiNkcazo zokuThatshazwa kunye ne-Amnesty International ziye zadlala indima ebonakalayo ekuhleleni iziganeko ezijikelezayo kwihlabathi ukukhuthaza ulwazi ngabantu malunga nemiba enxulumene nokuhlushwa kwabantu. Le mibutho iphinde ikhuthaze inkxaso ngenkqubela kunye neenkqubo ezizodwa ezifunekayo ukunceda amaxhoba okuhlushwa abuyele ekuhlaselweni kwabo. Ukuxhaswa yi-arhente njenge-UN Voluntary Fund ye-Victims of Torture, amaziko okuvuselela kunye nemibutho ehlabathini lonke ibonise ukuba amaxhoba angenza ukuba utshintsho lube lukhuni ukuya ekuphiliseni.

Juni 27. Ngaloo mini ku-1869 uEmail Goldman wazalelwa. Ukukhula e-Lithuania, iGoldman wasinda kwiRussian Revolution kunye nokuxhashazwa kwabantu abaninzi ukufuduka. Ngeminyaka elishumi elinesihlanu, umtshato olungiselelwe ngaphambili nguyise wakhe okhokelela uGoldman, kunye nodade, ukuba abalekele eMelika. E-New York, iintsuku ezilishumi neyesighofu zeeyure ezichithwe ekusebenzeni kwipekthi yengubo yamkhokelela ukuba ajoyine unyanzelana wabasebenzi abasandul 'ukubizwa ngokuthi iiyure ezimbalwa. Njengoko wayeqala ukuthetha ngamalungelo wabasetyhini kunye nabasebenzi, uGoldman waziwa ngokuba yi-anti -ististist ye-feminist eyayishukumisa ukuziphatha ngokukhawuleza. Wayehlala ehlala ebanjwe. Xa uMongameli uWilliam McKinley wabulawa, uGoldman wagxekwa uhlanga njengelinye leentetho zakhe ezaziye zafunyanwa ngumbulali. Ngo-1906, waqala iphephancwadi, "uMama uMhlaba," ukufundisa abafundi kwiingcamango zobufazi kunye ne-anarchism. Njengoko i-US ingene kwi-WWI, umthetho ofana noMthetho wokuLawulwa kwemali wawuphelisa intetho yamahhala, i-labeling i-pacifists njengento engaphethiyo. UGolmanman waqhubeka nokukhuthaza imizamo yokulwa nemfazwe ngokusebenzisa iphephancwadi lakhe, kwaye waququzelela "I-No-Conscription League" kunye namanye amanyanzelayo uLeonard Abbott, u-Alexander Berkman kunye no-Eleanor Fitzgerald, ukuchasa "zonke iimfazwe ngoorhulumente beengxowa-mali." Yena noBerkman babanjwa ngenxa yokuqulunqa ukubhaliswa kwezinto ezibhalwe phantsi, bahlawuliswe i-$ 10,000, baza bagwetywa iminyaka emibini entolongweni. UGoldman wabuyiselwa eRashiya xa ekhululwa. Ngoxa wayesekho, wabhala ukudideka kwam kwiRashiya, ilandelwa ngumntu wakhe, ukuphila kwam ngobomi. Iminyaka yakhe yokugqibela isetyenzisiwe ukuhamba nokuqeqesha kubalandeli lonke elaseYurophu. Wavunyelwa ukuba abuyele e-United States emva kohambo lwakhe lweshumi ngaphambi kokungcwatywa kwakhe e-Chicago wanikwa emva kokufa kwakhe kwi-1940.

Juni 28. Ngaloo mini kwi-2009 umkhosi wamasosha, ekugqibeleni uxhaswa yi-United States, wagqitha urhulumente okhethwe ngentando yeninzi waseHonduras. Umongameli wasekhohlo weli lizwe, uManuel Zelaya, wanyanzelwa ukuba aye elubhacweni eCosta Rica emva kokuba amajoni angaphezulu kweshumi abalekele kwindawo awayehlala kuyo kwakusasa kwaye ambamba. Intshukumo iqukumbele umlo omde malunga nesindululo esenziwe kwangolo suku, apho umongameli wayenethemba lokubonisa inkxaso ethandwayo yokujonga utshintsho olunokwenzeka kuMgaqo-siseko welizwe. Abachasi bezopolitiko, nangona kunjalo, baphikisana ngelithi eyona njongo kaZelaya yayikukususa umda womGaqo-siseko okhoyo ngokuhlala kukaMongameli kwisithuba seminyaka emine. Kungekudala emva koqhushululu, uMongameli wase-US u-Barack Obama wathi, "Siyakholelwa ukuba oluvukelo belungekho semthethweni kwaye uMongameli uZelaya usengumongameli wase Honduras…" Olo luvo, nangona kunjalo, kungekudala lwaphakanyiswa zizenzo zikaNobhala Wezwe uHillary Clinton. Kwimemori yakhe ka-2014, Iinqununu ezinzima, UClinton uyabhala: "Ndathetha kunye nabahlobo bam malunga ne-hemisphere .... Senze isicwangciso kwisicwangciso sokubuyisela umyalelo eHonduras kwaye siqinisekise ukuba ukhetho olukhululekile nolungenakulungelelwanga luya kubanjwa ngokukhawuleza nangokusemthethweni, oluza kubangela umbuzo kaZelaya. "Akungalindelekanga, urhulumente waseburhulumenteni obambisene ne-US owamkela I-2010 inikeze umvuzo wokubambisana nabasebenzi bee-top, bavula umnyango kurhulumente wenkohlakalo, ubundlobongela kunye nohlaselo oluqhubekayo iminyaka. Abaqhubele phambili be-Honduras baqhubekile ukuhlela nokusebenza kanzima kwixesha elizayo apho urhulumente otyunjwe ngokusemthethweni angasebenza ngokunyanisekileyo kubo bonke, kubandakanywa nalabo abachazwe phantsi kwaye bahluphekile.

Juni 29. Ngaloo mini kwi-1972, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States igweba kwimeko kaFurman v. Georgia ukuba isigwebo sokufa, njengoko sasiqeshwe yilizwe, sasingekho mthethweni. Isigqibo seNkundla sasebenza nakwezinye iimeko ezimbini, UJackson v. Georgia kwaye Isebe v. TexasEzi zinto zombini zazichaphazela umgaqo-siseko wesigwebo sentambo ngenxa yokugwetyelwa ukudlwengula. Iinyani ezikhokelela kwityala likaFurman v. IGeorgia zezi: UFurman wayeqhekeza indlu yabucala xa ilungu losapho lamfumanisa. Ukuzama ukubaleka, uFurman wakhubeka wawa, ebangela ukuba umpu awayewuphethe uhambe ubulale umhlali wasekhaya. Ekulingweni, uFurman wagwetyelwa ukubulala wagwetyelwa ukufa. Umbuzo kule meko, njengakwezinye ezimbini, yayikukuba isigwebo sentambo sasiphula umthetho wesiTshintsho sesiThathu sokuthintela isohlwayo esikhohlakeleyo nesingaqhelekanga, okanye isiTshintsho seshumi elinesine, esiqinisekisa bonke abantu ukhuseleko olulinganayo lomthetho. Uluvo lweNkundla kwiphepha elininzi, ngokusekwe kwisigqibo se-5-4, sathi ukubekwa kwesigwebo sentambo kuwo omathathu la matyala kwakusisihlwayo esikhohlakeleyo nesingaqhelekanga kwaye kwaphula uMgaqo-siseko. NguJaji Brennan noMarshall kuphela, nangona kunjalo, abakholelwa ukuba isigwebo sentambo asihambisani nomgaqo-siseko kuzo zonke iimeko. Abanye abathathu abagwebi abavumelana nenkoliso yezimvo bagxile kulwazelelelo apho isigwebo sokufa sasinyanzeliswa khona, sihlala sibonisa ubuhlanga ngokuchasene nabamangalelwa abamnyama. Isigqibo seNkundla sanyanzela amazwe kunye nendlu yowiso-mthetho ukuba baphinde bacinge ngemithetho yabo yamatyala amakhulu ukuze kuqinisekiswe ukuba isigwebo sentambo asizukuqhutywa ngendlela engenantsingiselo okanye enocalucalulo.

Juni 30. Ngaloo mini kwi-1966, ii-GI zokuqala, i-Fort Hood Three, zange zithunyelwe eVietnam. UDavid Private Samas, Private Dennis Mora, kunye noBucala bokuQala beKlasi uJames A. Johnson badibana noFort Gordon, eGeorgia ngaphambi kokuba babelwe kwakhona kwi-142^nd Ibhatali ye2^nd ICandelo loKhuselo eFort Hood, eTexas. Iimyalelo zabo zokuthunyelwa zikhutshwe nangona zichasene nemfazwe eqhubekayo eVietnam. Iiprotesti ezenzeka kuwo wonke ama-US zabakhokelela ukuba basebenzise ikhefu le-30 ngosuku olunikeziweyo ngaphambi kokuba umhla wabo wokuthunyelwa ukufumana ummeli, kunye nokudibanisa nabasebenzi bokulwa nemfazwe. Baye bakwazi ukuhlangabezana noDave Dellinger, uFred Halstead, no-AJ Muste, ama-pacifists awaziwa kakuhle kunye neKomiti yeParade echaphazelekayo, kwaye wamisa inkomfa yenkampani e-New York City. Aba bathathu bafika, baxhaswa ngamakhulu abaxhasayo kumaqela omalungelo oluntu kwiNgqungquthela yoPhicotho, apho babemema amanye amaGIs ukuba bajoyine ekunqatsheni kwabo ukunyuswa. Ukukhanyela kwabo kwakumane nje umnxeba wesizathu: "Imfazwe yaseVietnam kufuneka imiswe ... Asifuni nxalenye yemfazwe yokubhubha. Siphikisa inkunkuma yezobugebengu beMerika kunye nezibonelelo. Sivumi ukuya eVietnam! "Amapolisa athunyelwa ukuba athumele iThathu kwi-Fort Dix, NJ, apho babeyalelwe ukuba bahambe ngokukhawuleza kwiSaigon ngokuMisela uMlawuli oPhezulu. Kwakhona, benqaba, bememezela ukuba iMfazwe yaseVietnam engekho mthethweni. Aba bathathu bavalelwe entolongweni, e-court-martialed ngoSeptemba, baza bagweba iminyaka emithathu kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo bayenqaba zonke izibheno. Ngethuba leminyaka emithathu, amakhulu emisebenzi yenkonzo yomsebenzi kunye namaqhawe aziva aphefumlelwe ukuba ajoyine inxaxheba kwimfazwe yokulwa nemfazwe.

Olu xolo Almanac lukwazisa amanyathelo abalulekileyo, inkqubela phambili, kunye nothintelo kwintshukumo yoxolo oluye lwenzeka ngosuku ngalunye lonyaka.

Thenga ushicilelo olushicilelweyo, okanye PDF.

Yiya kwiifayile zomsindo.

Yiya kwisicatshulwa.

Yiya kwimizobo.

Olu xolo Almanac kufuneka luhlale lulungile unyaka nonyaka de yonke imfazwe ipheliswe kwaye kubekho uxolo oluzinzileyo. Inzuzo evela kwintengiso yoshicilelo kunye neenguqulelo zePDF zixhasa umsebenzi World BEYOND War.

Isicatshulwa sivelisiwe kwaye sihlelwe ngu UDavid Swanson.

Umsindo orekhodiweyo I-Tim Pluta.

Izinto ezibhalwe ngu URobert Anschuetz, uDavid Swanson, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, u-Erin McElfresh, uAlexander Shaia, uJohn Wilkinson, uWilliam Geimer, uPeter Goldsmith, uGar Smith, uThierry Blanc, noTom Schott.

Iingcamango zezihloko ezingeniswe yi UDavid Swanson, uRobert Anschuetz, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, uDarlene Coffman, uDavid McReynolds, uRichard Kane, uPil Runkel, uJill Greer, uJim Gould, uBob Stuart, uAlaina Huxtable, uT Thierry Blanc.

umculo isetyenziswe ngemvume evela “Ukuphela kweMfazwe,” Ngu-Eric Colville.

Umculo weaudio nokudibanisa NguSergio Diaz.

Imizobo ngu Parisa Saremi.

World BEYOND War yintshukumo yehlabathi engavisisaniyo yokuphelisa imfazwe kwaye iseke uxolo olunobulungisa nolizinzileyo. Injongo yethu kukudala ulwazi ngenkxaso eyaziwayo yokuphelisa imfazwe kunye nokuphuhlisa ngakumbi le nkxaso. Sisebenzela ukuqhubela phambili ngombono wokungathinteli nje nayiphi na imfazwe ethile kodwa ukutshabalalisa iziko lonke. Silwela ukubuyisela inkcubeko yethu kwimfazwe apho uxolo lungendawo apho iindlela zokungqubana kwengxabano zithathe indawo yegazi.