EyoKwindla

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Matshi 1. Usuku lwe-Nuclear Free kunye ne-Independent Day, i-aka Bikini Usuku. Le mini ibonisa isiganeko sokukhunjulwa kwebhodi ye-thermo-nyukliya yombhobho ye-'Brovo 'kwiBikini Atoll eMicronesia kwi1954. Kwi-1946, igosa lezempi elimele urhulumente wase-US licele abantu baseBikini ukuba bazimisele ukushiya i-atoll yabo "okwethutyana" ukwenzela ukuba iUnited States iqale ukuvavanya amabhomu e-atomic "entle yoluntu kunye nokuphelisa zonke iimfazwe zehlabathi. "Abantu baye bavinjelwa ukuba babuyele ekhaya labo ukususela ngoxa kwinqanaba lokuhlambulula i-radioactive. Ukuqhuma kwe-1954 kwanyusa i-crater ngaphezu kweenyawo ze-200 eziziikubhite kunye nobude bemihilomitha, ukutyhawula amaninzi amakhorali ayenyuka emoyeni kunye nemininzi yamanzi olwandle. Amanqanaba omnxeba kwii-atolls ezimiweyo zaseRongerik, Ujelang, kunye neLikiep zenyuka ngokuphawulekayo. I-US Navy ayizange ithumele iinqanawa ukuba zikhuphe abantu baseRongelap no-Utirik de ibe malunga neentsuku ezintathu emva kokuqhuma. Abantu baseMarshall Islands kunye neendawo ezikufuphi kwiPacific babesetyenziswe ngokubanzi njengengqungquthela yabantu e-United States ukulandela izixhobo zamandla enyukliya. Usuku lweNyukliya kunye noLimo oluzimeleyo lwePasifiki ngumhla wokukhumbula ukuba i-brainsetist mindset eye yavumela, kwaye ngeendlela ezininzi zakhuthazwa, ukuxhatshazwa okukhankanywe ngasentla kusekhona nanamhlanje, njengoko iPacific ihlala ingenakho iikryukri okanye ayizimeleyo. Lo ngumhla omuhle wokuchasa izixhobo zenukliya.

Matshi 2. Ngaloo mini kwi-1955, iinyanga phambi kweRosa Parks, intombazana uClaudette Colvin wabanjwa eMontgomery, eAlabama, ngenxa yokwenqaba ukuhlawula ibhasi lakhe kumntu omhlophe. UColvin ungumvulindlela weMelika yoLungelo loLuntu. Ngo-Matshi 2^ndNgo-1955, uColvin wayekhwele ekhaya esiya esikolweni ngebhasi edolophini xa umqhubi webhasi emxelela ukuba anikezele ngesihlalo sakhe kumgibeli omhlophe. UColvin akavumanga ukwenza njalo, esithi, “Lilungelo lam ngokomgaqo-siseko ukuba ndihlale apha njengela nenekazi. Ndihlawule imali yokuhamba, lilungelo lam lomgaqo-siseko. ” Waziva enyanzelekile ukuba eme. "Ndaziva ngathi uMphambukeli iNyaniso wayetyhala ezantsi kwelinye icala kwaye uHarriet Tubman wayetyhala kwelinye-esithi," Hlala phantsi ntombazana! ' Ndincamathele esihlalweni sam, ”uxelele Newsweek. UColvin wabanjwa ngezityholo ezininzi, kubandakanya nokwaphula imithetho yokwahlula isixeko. Umbutho weSizwe woPhuculo lwaBantu abaBala ngokufutshane ujonge ukusebenzisa ityala likaColvin ukucela umngeni kwimithetho yocalucalulo, kodwa bagqiba kwelokuba bayichase ngenxa yobudala bakhe. Uninzi lokubhalwa kwimbali yamalungelo oluntu eMontgomery kugxile ekubanjweni kweRosa Parks, omnye umfazi owala ukushiya isihlalo sakhe ebhasini, kwiinyanga ezilithoba emva kukaColvin. Ngelixa iiPaki zivakalisiwe njengeqhawekazi lamalungelo oluntu, ibali likaClaudette Colvin alifumananga saziso. Ngelixa indima yakhe kumlo wokuphelisa ucalucalulo eMontgomery isenokungaziwa ngokubanzi, uColvin wanceda ukuqhubela phambili iinzame zamalungelo oluntu esixekweni.

Matshi 3. Ngaloo mini kwi-1863, umthetho wokuqala wokuqala we-US wabhaliswa. Iqulethe isigatshana esinikezela ukukhululwa komgaqo-mali xa kuthengiswa i-$ 300. Ngexesha leMfazwe Yomphakathi, i-US Congress yadlulisela isenzo sokubhalisa esakhangela yokuqala imfazwe yabemi base-US kwimbali yaseMelika. Isenzo sifuna ukubhaliswa kwabo bonke abesilisa phakathi kweminyaka eyi-20 kunye ne-45, kuquka 'abafokazi' abanenjongo yokuba ngabemi, ngo-Apreli 1st. Ukuxolelwa kwidrafti kungathengwa nge-$ 300 okanye ngokufumana umfaki-fakeli. Eli gatya likhokelela kwizibambano ezigaqambileyo eNew York City, apho abaqhankqalazi babethukuthele ukuba ukukhululwa kwabanikezelwa kuphela kwabemi bezona zizityebi kakhulu zase-US, kuba akukho mntu ohluphekileyo onokukwazi ukuthenga le mxolelo. Nangona iMfazwe Yombango yabona kuqala ukubhaliswa kwabemi base-US kwinkonzo yexesha lemfazwe, isenzo se-1792 yiCongress yafuna ukuba bonke abemi abanobunzima bathenge isibhamu baze bajoyine amaqela abo asekuhlaleni. Kwakungekho nhlawulo yokungahambisani nalo msebenzi. I-Congress nayo yadlulisela ukubhaliswa kweso sikhundla ngexesha leMfazwe ye-1812, kodwa imfazwe yaphela ngaphambi kokuba kwenziwe oko. Ngexesha leMfazwe yombango, urhulumente we-Confederate States of America naye wenza umthetho wokunyanzela umkhosi. I-US yamisela umkhosi wempi kwakhona ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi I, kwi-1940 ukwenza i-US ikulungele ukubandakanyeka kwayo kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II, nangemfazwe yaseKorea. Ulwahlulo lokugqibela lomkhosi wase-US lwenziwa ngexesha leMfazwe yaseVietnam.

Matshi 4. Ngaloo mini kwi-1969, i-Union of Concerns Scientists (okanye i-UCS) yasungulwa. I-UCS liqela elikhuthaza inzululwazi elingenzi nzuzo elasekwa ngoososayensi kunye nabafundi kwiZiko leMfundo laseTekhnoloji laseMassachusetts. Kwakuloo nyaka, Imfazwe yaseVietnam yayisekuphakameni kwayo kwaye nomlambo waseCuyahoga ongcolileyo kakhulu wawubambe umlilo. Emangalisiwe yindlela urhulumente wase-US awayeyisebenzisa gwenxa ngayo inzululwazi kokubini ngemfazwe nangenxa yokutshatyalaliswa kwendalo esingqongileyo, abasunguli be-UCS bayila ingxelo ebiza ukuba uphando lwezenzululwazi lususwe kude kubuchwephesha bezomkhosi nasekusombululeni iingxaki zoxinzelelo kwezendalo nezentlalo. Uxwebhu lokusekwa kwalo mbutho luthi lwenzelwe ukuba "luqalise uvavanyo olunzima kunye nokuqhubeka komgaqo-nkqubo karhulumente kwiindawo apho isayensi kunye netekhnoloji zibaluleke kakhulu okanye zinokubaluleka" kunye "nokwenza iindlela zokuguqula izicelo zophando kude kugxininiso lwangoku kubuchwephesha bezomkhosi isicombululo kwiingxaki zemozulu nezentlalo. ” Umbutho uqeshe oososayensi, uqoqosho, kunye neenjineli ezibandakanyeka kwimicimbi yezendalo nezokhuseleko, kunye nabasebenzi abaphezulu kunye nabaxhasayo. Ukongeza, i-UCS igxile kumandla acocekileyo kunye neendlela ezikhuselekileyo nezolimo zokusingqongileyo. Umbutho uzinikele ngamandla ekunciphiseni izixhobo zenyukliya. I-UCS yanceda ukutyhala iNdlu yeeNgwevu yase-US ukuba ivume iSivumelwano esiliCebo sokuNcitshiswa kweArms (INTSHA ENTSHA) yokunciphisa izixhobo zokugcina izixhobo zenyukliya zase-US naseRussia. Oku kuncitshiswa kunciphise zombini izixhobo zenyukliya. Imibutho emininzi iye yajoyina lo msebenzi, kwaye kuninzi kakhulu ekufuneka kwenziwe.

Matshi 5. Ngaloo mini kwi-1970, isivumelwano senyukliya esingenasisiphelo senziwa ukusebenza emva kweentlanga ze-43. Umnqophiso malunga nokungabikho kwandiswa kwezixhobo zenukliya, eyaziwa njenge-Non-Proliferation Treaty okanye i-NPT, sisivumelwano samazwe aphesheya ngenjongo yokuthintela ukusasazeka kwezixhobo zenyukliya kunye netekhnoloji yezixhobo, kunye nokukhuthaza intsebenziswano ekusetyenzisweni ngoxolo kwamandla enyukliya. Ukongeza, umnqophiso ujolise ekuqhubekekeni kweyona njongo iphambili yokufezekisa izixhobo zenyukliya kunye nokusetyenziswa ngokupheleleyo kwezixhobo. Esi siVumelwano saqala ukusebenza ngo-1970. Nge-11 kaMeyi ka-1995, isivumelwano sandiswa ngokungapheliyo. Amazwe amaninzi abambelele kwi-NPT kunaso nasiphi na esinye isivumelwano sokunciphisa izixhobo kunye nesixhobo, esingubungqina bokubaluleka kwesi sivumelwano. Ewonke ali-191 amazwe ajoyine isivumelwano. I-Indiya, i-Israel, iPakistan neSouth Sudan, amazwe amane angamalungu eZizwe eziManyeneyo, awazange ajoyine i-NPT. Isivumelwano samkela i-United States, i-Russia, i-UK, i-France ne-China njengezixhobo zenyukliya ezihlanu. Amanye amazwe amane ayaziwa ukuba anezixhobo zenyukliya: i-India, i-North Korea ne-Pakistan, ezivumileyo, kunye ne-Israel, engavumiyo ukuthetha ngayo. Amaqela enyukliya akwisivumelwano kufuneka alandele "uthethathethwano ngokuthembekileyo kumanyathelo asebenzayo okuphelisa ugqatso lwezixhobo zenyukliya kwangoko nangokupheliswa kwezixhobo zenyukliya." Ukusilela kwabo ukwenza njalo kukhokelele amazwe angengawo enyukliya ukuba alandele isivumelwano esitsha sokuthintela izixhobo zenyukliya. Umqobo ophakamileyo ukuba isivumelwano esitsha esisekweyo siya kucenga amazwe enyukliya ukuba avume.

Matshi 6. Ngaloo mini kwi-1967, u-Muhammad Ali wayalawulwe yiNkonzo yoKhetha ukunyulwa kwi-Military US. Wenqaba, echaza ukuba iinkolelo zakhe zonqulo zazimnqabela ukuba abulale. Emva kokuguqula kwi-Islam kwi-1964, uCassius Marcellus Clay, uJr. watshintsha igama lakhe ku-Muhammad Ali. Wayeya kuba ngumdlali wexesha eli-3 kwihlabathi. Ngexesha lemfazwe yase-US eVietnam e-1967, uAli wenqaba ukungena emkhosini. Ngenxa yokungavumi kwakhe, u-Muhammad Ali wayegwetywe ngokususa umgaqo-nkqubo kwaye wagwetywa iminyaka emihlanu entolongweni. Kwakhona wahlawuliswa needola ezili-10 zeedola kwaye wayevinjelwe kwibhokisi iminyaka emithathu. U-Ali wakwazi ukuphepha ixesha lokuhlala entolongweni, kodwa akazange abuyele kwindandatho yebhokisi kuze kube ngu-Oktobha ka-1970. Ngethuba lonke u-Ali wayevinjelwe ebhokisini, waqhubeka echasisa imfazwe yaseVietnam ngelixa elungiselela ukubuyela kwakhe kwimidlalo kwi-1970. Wayejamelene nokugxeka kakhulu emphakathini ngokuchasene nemfazwe ngokucacileyo, kodwa wahlala enyanisekileyo kwienkolelo zakhe ukuba kwakungalunganga ukuhlaselwa abantu baseVietnam xa ama-Afrika aseMelika ephasini lawo ayaphathwa kakubi kangangoko. Nangona uAli wayeyaziwa ngamandla akhe nangetalente ehlobene nokulwa emngxeni webhokisi, wayengengommeli ongenakucingayo onogonyamelo. Wathatha uxolo loxolo ngexesha apho kwakuyingozi kwaye bekhwankqiswa ukwenza njalo.

Matshi 7. Ngaloo mini kwi-1988, kwabikwa ukuba IAtlanta Division ye INkundla yeSithili saseMerika ugweba ukuba iqela loxolo kufuneka libe nokufikelela okufanayo kwabafundi kwiintsuku zokufunda ezikolweni eziphezulu njengabaqashi bezempi. Isibhengezo, esikhutshwe ngoMatshi i-4, i-1988, siphendule kwimeko evezwe yi-Atlanta Peace Alliance (APA) ngokubhekiselele ukuba iBhodi yeMfundo yase-Atlanta yaphula amalungelo okuQala okuQala kunye neSine-14 ngokukhanyela amalungu e-APA imvume yokunika ulwazi ngemfundo nakumsebenzi mathuba anxulumene nokuthula kubafundi kwizikolo zikarhulumente zase-Atlanta. I-APA yayifuna ithuba elifanayo njengabaqashi bezempi ukuhambisa uncwadi lwayo kwiibhodi zeengxelo zesikolweni, kwiiofisi zesikhokelo esikolweni, kunye nokuthatha inxaxheba kwiiNtsuku zeNtsuku kunye neNtshukumo yoLutsha. Ngomhla ka-Agasti 13, i-1986, iNkundla igweba ukuxhasa i-APA kwaye yalela iBhodi ukuba inike i-APA ngamathuba afanayo anikwe abaqashi beempi. Nangona kunjalo iBhodi yafaka isikhalazo, esanikwa ngo-Ephreli 17, 1987. Icala lalingwa ngo-Oktobha 1987. Inkundla yagqiba ukuba i-APA inelungelo lokufumana unyango olulinganayo kwaye yalela iBhodi yeMfundo ukuba inikeze ithuba elilinganayo lokubonisa abafundi kwizikolo zaseburhulumenteni eziphakamileyo zase-Atlanta ngolwazi malunga nabasebenzi ekusebenziseni uxolo kunye nakumkhosi wamapolisa ngokubeka iincwadi ezikwiibhodi zamaphepha kunye nasesikolweni ofisi zo khokelo. Kwakhona kugweba ukuba i-APA inelungelo lokuthatha inxaxheba kwiMisebenzi yeNtsuku kwaye imigaqo nemigaqo evimba ukugxekwa kwamanye amathuba emisebenzi kwaye angabandakanyi izithethi ezijoliswe ekugxininiseni ukuthatha inxaxheba kwintsimi ethile azikho nto ngenxa yokuba ziphula amalungelo okulungiswa okuQala.

Matshi 8. Ngaloo mini kwi-1965, eUnited States v. Ukubona, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States yandise isiseko sokukhululwa kwinkonzo yempi njengomntu onqaba ukuya kumkhosini. Eli tyala laliziswe ngabantu abathathu ababanga ukuba abavunyelwa ukuba bangayi emkhosini ngenxa yesazela kuba bengengabo abecawa elithile. Ukulahlwa bekusekwe kwimithetho efumaneka kuMthetho woQeqesho loMkhosi kunye neNkonzo yeNkonzo. Le mithetho ithi abantu banokuxolelwa kwinkonzo yasemkhosini ukuba "iinkolelo zabo okanye uqeqesho lwabo lubenza bachase ukuya emfazweni okanye ukuya emkhosini." Inkolelo yonqulo yayitolikwa njengekholelwa “KuMntu Ophakamileyo.” Ukutolikwa kweenkolelo zonqulo kuxhomekeke kwinkcazo "yoMntu oPhakamileyo." Endaweni yokutshintsha imigaqo, iNkundla ikhethe ukwandisa ibinzana elithi "Ophakamileyo." Inkundla yathi "uMntu oPhakamileyo" kufuneka atolikwe njengothetha “ingcamango yamandla okanye ubukho, okanye ukholo, ekuthi yonke into iphantsi kwayo okanye ixhomekeke kuyo yonke into.” Inkundla ke ngoko yagweba ngelithi “ukungavumi ukuya emkhosini ngenxa yesazela akunakubekelwa kuphela abo bathi bahambelana nemigaqo yokuziphatha yomntu ophakamileyo, kodwa kwanabo baneembono ngemfazwe ezivela kwinkolelo enentsingiselo nethembekileyo ehlala ebomini. inendawo yayo ehambelana naleyo izaliswe nguThixo wabo ”babesoloko bekhululwa. Inkcazo ebanzi yeli gama ikwasetyenziselwa ukwahlula iinkolelo zonqulo kwezopolitiko, ezentlalo okanye ezentanda-bulumko, ezingavumelekanga ukuba zisetyenziswe phantsi kwemithetho yesazela.

Matshi 9. Ngaloo mini kwi-1945, iUnited States yavutha umlilo eTokyo. Iibhomu ze-napalm babulawa i-100,000 yaseJapan abahlali, balimaza iigidi, bachitha imizi, babangela ukuba imifula ibuyele eBokyo. Oku kubonwa njengesihlaselo esibulalayo kwimbali yemfazwe. Ibhobho leTokyo lilandelwa ukuhlaselwa kwe-athomu kutshabalalisa i-Hiroshima ne-Nagasaki, kwaye yaqwalasela impindiselo ngenxa yokuhlaselwa eJapan kwinqanaba lempi ePearl Harbour. Iimbali-mlando zafumanisa kamva ukuba i-US ayifumanga kuphela malunga nokuhlaselwa kwePearl Harbour, kodwa yayicaphukisa. Emva kokuba ama-US athi iHawaii kwi-1893, isakhiwo se-US base-Pearl Harbor saqala. I-US yakha ezinye ubutyebi bayo ngokunikezela izixhobo kwiintlanga ezininzi ezilandelayo iWWI, kwaye ngokwakha iziseko nakwezinye zazo. Nge-1941, i-US yayiqeqesha i-China Air Force ngenkathi ibanikezela ngezixhobo, ukulwa kunye neebhomu zebhomu. Ukucima izixhobo zokulwa eJapan ngelixa kwakhiwa impi yaseChina yayiyinxalenye yesicwangciso esicaphukisa iJapan. Ingongoma yokungenelela kwe-US ePacific yaqina kwaze kwaba yilapho i-ambassador yase-United States eJapan ivile malunga nokuhlaselwa kwePearl Harbor, kwaye yaxelela urhulumente wakhe malunga neenyanga ezilishumi elinanye ngaphambi kokuhlaselwa kweJapan. I-Militarism yathandwa ngabantu base-US njengoko ikhula kwaye ihlinzeka ngemisebenzi yabaseMerika ngokufumana nokuxhasa iimfazwe. Ngaphezulu kwe-405,000 amabutho ase-US afa, kwaye ngaphezu kwe-607,000 yalimala ngexesha le-WWII, i-fraction ye-60 yezigidi okanye ukufa kwabangaphezulu. Nangona la manani, iSebe leMfa lakhula, laza labizwa ngokuba yiSebe lezoKhuseleko kwi-1948.

Matshi 10. On nanamhla kwi-1987 yeZizwe eziManyeneyo yabona ukuba unyanzelekile unembeza njengelungelo lomntu. Ukungayi emkhosini ngenxa yesazela kuchazwa njengokwala kwizizathu zokuziphatha okanye zonqulo zokuphatha izixhobo zomkhosi okanye ukuya emkhosini. Oku kwamkelwa kwamisela eli lungelo njengenxalenye yenkululeko yomntu yokucinga, isazela kunye nenkolo. IKhomishini ye-UN yamalungelo oluntu ikwacebisa amazwe anemigaqo-nkqubo yokubandakanyeka emkhosini ukuba "acinge ngokungenisa ezinye iindlela zokuya emkhosini ngenxa yesazela esivumelana nezizathu zokungavumi ukuya emkhosini, ekhumbula amava amanye amazwe malunga noku. , nokuba bayayeka ukubafaka entolongweni abo bantu. ” Ukwamkelwa kwesazela ngenxa yesazela, ithiyori, kuvumela abo babona ukuba imfazwe ayilunganga kwaye iziphethe kakubi ukuba bangavumi ukuthatha inxaxheba kuyo. Ukuqonda eli lungelo kuhlala kungumsebenzi oqhubekayo. E-United States ilungu lomkhosi eliye lala ukuya emkhosini ngenxa yesazela kufuneka licenge umkhosi ukuba uvume. Kwaye inkcaso emfazweni ayivumelekanga. umntu unokuphikisana nazo zonke iimfazwe. Kodwa ukuqonda nokwazisa ngokubaluleka kwelungelo kuyakhula, kunye namatye ezikhumbuzo kwihlabathi liphela awakhelwe ukuhlonipha abo bangafuniyo ukuya emkhosini ngenxa yeenkolelo zabo kunye neholide esekwe nge-15 kaMeyi. Umongameli wase-US uJohn F. Kennedy wagxininisa ukubaluleka koku xa wabhala la mazwi ebhalela umhlobo wakhe: "Imfazwe iya kubakho de kube lusuku olude apho umntu ongavumiyo ukuya emkhosini ngenxa yesazela esaziwa njengaye."

Matshi 11. Ngaloo mini kwi-2004, abantu be-191 babulawa yi-Al-Qaeda ibhomu eMadrid, eSpain. Ngomso ka Matshi 11^th, I-2004, iSpeyin yabona ugqirha obhubhile kakhulu okanye ukungabikho kwemfazwe kwimbali yayo yakutshanje. Abantu aba-191 babulawa kwaye abangaphezu kwe-1,800 balimala xa iibhomu ezili-10 zaqhuma kwizithuthi ezine zokuthutha kunye nakwizitishi ezintathu zezithuthi kwiMadrid. Ukuqhuma kubangelwa yimisebenzi eyenziwe ngesandla, izixhobo eziqhubekileyo eziqhubekileyo. Ekuqaleni, iibhomu zacatshangwa ukuba ngumsebenzi we-ETA, iqela laseBasque separatist elichazwe njengeqela lamaphekula li-United States kunye neYurophu Yomanyano. Eli qela lakhanyela ngokunyanisekileyo uxanduva lololiwe. Kwiintsuku ezimbalwa emva kokuqhuma, iqela leentshaba-ze-Al-Qaeda lixanduva lokuhlaselwa ngumyalezo wevidiyo. Abaninzi eSpeyin kunye namazwe amaninzi ehlabathini lonke babona ukuhlaselwa njengento yokubuyiselwa kweSpeyin ekuthatheni inxaxheba kwimfazwe e-Iraq. Ezi hlaselo zenzeke nje iintsuku ezimbini ngaphambi kokuba unyulo olukhulu lwaseSpeyin olwaluphikisana noluntu lwemfazwe, olukhokelwa nguNdunankulu uJoseph Rodriguez, lwaba namandla. U Rodriguez waqinisekisa ukuba onke amasosha aseSpain aya kususwa e-Iraq, kunye neyokugqibela kubo ehamba ngoMeyi we-2004. Ukuze sikhumbule amaxhoba okuhlaselwa ngokukrakra, ihlathi lokukhunjulwa lahlwayelwa kwi-El Retiro Park eMadrid, isitishi esithile esiseduze kwakukho ukuqhuma kokuqala. Lo ngumhla olungileyo apho uzama ukuphula umjikelo wobundlobongela.

Matshi 12. Ngaloo mini kwi-1930 Gandhi yaqalisa iSatyi ngoMatshi. Umthetho waseTrithani waseTrithani wawuthintela amaNdiya ukuba aqoke okanye athengise ityuwa, isityamente esasisisiseko sokutya kwazo zonke iintsuku. Abemi baseIndiya babefanele bathenge ityuwa ngqo ukusuka eBrithani abangagqithanga kuphela i-shishini yeryuwa kodwa bahlawulisa irhafu enzima. Inkokheli ye-Independence uMehandas Gandhi yabona ukuchasana nokunyaniseka kwetyuwa njengendlela yokuba amaNdiya aphule umthetho waseBrithani ngendlela engeyiyo enobudlova. Ngo-Matshi 12^th, UGandhi wasuka eSabarmati kunye nabalandeli baka-78 waza waya e dolophu yaseDandi eLwandle lwaseArabhiya, apho iqela liza kwenza ityuwa elwandle. Umkhonto wawungama-241 ngamamayela ubude, kwaye ngasendleleni uGandhi wathola amawaka abalandeli. Ukungathobeli komntu kwaqhamuka lonke elaseIndiya, kwaye kwabangelwa amaNdiya ase-60,000, kuquka uGandhi ngokwakhe ngoMeyi 21st. Ukungahambisani nokungahloneli koluntu kwaqhubeka. NgoJanuwari we-1931, uGandhi wakhululwa entolongweni. Wadibana noViceroy waseIndiya, iNkosi Irwin, kwaye wavuma ukukhupha izenzo ngokutshintshana indima yentetho kwingqungquthela yaseLondon kwixesha elizayo laseIndiya. Intlanganiso ayinayo imbangela yokuba uGandhi wayenethemba, kodwa iinkokeli zaseBrithani zaziqonda ithonya elinamandla kulo mntu elaliphakathi kwabantu baseNdiya kwaye akazange akwazi ukuphazamiseka lula. Enyanisweni ukunyanzela ukunyanzela ukukhupha indiya kwaqhubeka kwaze kwaba yilapho iBritani ivuma kwaye iNdiya ikhululiwe emsebenzini wayo kwi-1947.

Matshi 13. Ngaloo mini kwi-1968, amafu emigodi yentsholongwane aphuma ngaphandle kwe-United States ye-Army's Dugway Proving Grounds e-Utah, enetyhefu yegusha le-6,400 kwi-Skull Valley. I-Dugway Proving Grounds yasekwa nge-1940s ukubonelela ngomkhosi kwindawo ekude ukuba iqhube uvavanyo lwezixhobo. Kwiintsuku ezininzi ngaphambi kwesehlo, Umkhosi wawubhabha ngenqwelomoya egcwele igesi yentsholongwane kwintlango yase-Utah. Injongo yenqwelomoya yayikukufafaza irhasi kwicandelo elikude leNtlango i-Utah, uvavanyo olwaluyinxalenye encinci yophando lweekhemikhali kunye nezixhobo zebhayiloji eDugway. Irhasi ye-nerve kuvavanywa yaziwa ngokuba yi-VX, into ephindwe kathathu njengenetyhefu njengoSarin. Ngapha koko, ithontsi elinye le-VX linokubulala umntu malunga nemizuzu eli-10. Ngomhla wovavanyo, umlomo owasetyenziselwa ukutshiza irhasi yovalo waphuka, ke xa indiza ishiya umlomo yaqhubeka nokukhupha i-VX. Imimoya enamandla yahambisa irhasi yaya eSkull Valley apho amawaka eegusha ayesidla emadlelweni. Amagosa karhulumente awavumelani ngenani ngqo leegusha ezifileyo, kodwa ziphakathi kwama-3,500 6,400 nama-XNUMX XNUMX. Emva kwesi siganeko, umkhosi waqinisekisa uluntu ukuba ukusweleka kweegusha ezininzi akunakubangelwa ngamachaphaza nje ambalwa e-VX afafazwe ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Esi siganeko sacaphukisa abantu abaninzi baseMelika ababedandathekiswe kakhulu ngumkhosi kunye nokusetyenziswa ngokungakhathali kwezixhobo zentshabalalo.

Matshi 14. Ngaloo mini ku-1879 Albert Einstein wazalwa. U-Einstein, enye yeengcinga ezidalwa kakhulu kwiimbali zabantu, wazalwa eWürttemberg, eJamani. Wagqiba ezininzi zemfundo yakhe eSwitzerland, apho waqeqeshwa njengotitshala kwi-physics nakwiimathematika. Xa efumene idiploma kwi-1901, akazange akwazi ukufumana indawo yokufundisa kwaye wamkela isikhundla njengomncedisi wezobuchwepheshe kwi-Ofisi yase-Swiss Patent. Wavelisa umsebenzi wakhe odumileyo ngexesha lakhe lokukhulula. Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, u-Einstein wadlala indima enkulu kuMbutho weHlabathi weHlabathi. Wanikwa uongameli weSizwe sakwaSirayeli, kodwa wajika loo nto. Imisebenzi yakhe ebaluleke kakhulu Iingcamango ezikhethekileyo zobudlelwane, ulwalamano, iNkcazo epheleleyo yobudlelwane, Yintoni eyenza iMfazwe ?, kwaye Ifilosofi. Nangona igalelo lezesayensi ze-Einstein lancedisa ezinye izazinzulu zenza ibhomu ye-athomu, yena ngokwakhe wayengenayo inxaxheba ekudalweni kweebhomu ze-atomiki eJapan, kwaye kamva wanciphisa ukusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zonke ze-athomu. Nangona kunjalo, naphezu kweenkolelo zakhe zokuphila, wazibhalela uMongameli uFranklin D. Roosevelt egameni leqela lezenzululwazi ezazikhathazekile ukungabikho kwamanyathelo eMerika kwindawo yokuphanda izixhobo ze-athomu, ukwesaba ukuthengwa kweJamani kweso sixhobo. Emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, u-Einstein wabiza ukuba kusetyenziswe urhulumente wehlabathi oza kulawula iteknoloji yenyukliya kunye nokukhusela impi ezayo. Kwakhona wakhuthaza ukuba ukwenyuka kwindalo yonke. Wafa ePrinceton, eNew Jersey kwi-1955.

Matshi 15. Ngaloo mini kwi-1970, ababhikishi be-78 babanjwe ngethuba lezentetho zabamhlophe baseMelika ukuba bahlale kwi-Fort Lawton, befuna ukuba isixeko sase-Seattle sinike umhlaba ongasetyenziselwa ukubuyela kumaMerika aseMelika. Le ntshukumo yaqalwa yiqela laseMerika lamaNdiya weeNkcubeko, ehlelwe nguBernie Whitebear. Ama-activist ahlasela i-Fort Lawton, i-1,100-acre post post kwi-Seattle's Magnolia, yakwenza oko ngokuphendula isimo sokunciphisa ukugcinwa kweMveli yaseMelika kunye neenkcaso kunye nemingeni eyayibhekene ne-Seattle ekhulayo "yabantu base-Indiya". Kwi-1950, urhulumente wase-US wayemise iinkqubo zokufudukela kwamanye amawaka amaNdiya kwiidolophu ezahlukahlukeneyo, ezithembisa amathuba omsebenzi kunye namathuba emfundo. Ngasekupheleni kweminyaka engama-60, isixeko saseSeattle sazi kakuhle "ingxaki" yamaNdiya asezidolophini, kodwa amaMerika aseMelika ayengabonakaliswa kakubi kwiipolitiki zaseSeattle kwaye zikhungathekile ukuba unqwenela ukuthetha. I-Whitebear, ephefumlelwe yiminyango enjenge-Black Power, yanquma ukuhlela ukuhlaselwa kwi-Fort Lawton. Apha abaphangi balwa ne-392^nd Inkampani yamaPolisa aseMpi ephethe izixhobo zokukhwabanisa. AmaNdiya ayenayo "ahlomile" ngezicathulo, iibhegi zokulala kunye nezinto zokupheka. Abantu baseMelika baseMelika bahlasela isiseko ukusuka macala onke, kodwa ukulwa okubalulekileyo kwenzeka ngasekupheleni kwesiseko apho i-platinon ye-40-soldier yafika kwindawo kwaye yaqala ukuhudula abantu baye ejele. Kwi-1973 umkhosi wanikela ubuninzi belizwe, kungengabantu baseMelika, kodwa kwisixeko ukuba sibe yi-Discovery Park.

Matshi 16. Ngaloo mini kwi-1921, i-War Resisters International yasungulwa. Le nhlangano i-antimilitarist kunye neqela le-pacifist elinempembelelo ephezulu kwihlabathi kunye namaqela angama-80 ahlangeneyo kumazwe akwa-40. Abasunguli abaninzi balo mbutho babandakanyeka ekuchaseni kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi yokuqala, njengobhala wencwadi yokuqala ye-WRI, uHerbert Brown, owayesebenza isigwebo senkundla yaseBrithani iminyaka engama-2 nangesiqingatha ngenxa yokwenqaba ukuya empini ngenxa kanembeza. Umbutho waziwa ngokuba yi-War Resis League League, okanye i-WRL, e-United States apho yayisiseko ngokusemthethweni kwi-1923. I-WRI, enekomkhulu layo eLondon, iyakholelwa ukuba imfazwe ngokwenene ilwaphulo mthetho ngokumelene noluntu kwaye ukuba zonke iimfazwe, kungakhathaliseki ukuba zinjani emva kwazo, zikhonza kuphela ezopolitiko kunye noqoqosho kwezoqoqosho. Ukongezelela, zonke iimfazwe zikhokelela ekubhujisweni kommandla wendalo, ukubandezeleka nokufa kwabantu, kwaye ekugqibeleni izakhiwo zamandla ezintsha zokulawula nokulawula. Iqela lizama ukuphelisa imfazwe, iqalise iiprogram ezingabonakaliyo ezibandakanya amaqela asekuhlaleni kunye nabantu ngabanye kwinkqubo yokuphela kwemfazwe. I-WRI iqhuba iinkqubo ezintathu eziphambili ukufezekisa iinjongo zayo: Inkqubo yokungabikho kobugwenxa, ekhuthaza iindlela ezifana nokuxhatshazwa ngokunyanisekileyo kunye nokungabambisene, ilungelo lokunqabela ukubulala iNkqubo, exhasa abantu abanokwenqaba ukuya empini kunye nokuvavanya inkonzo yezempi kunye nokuqashwa, ekugqibeleni, ukuPhikisana Inkqubo yoLutsha lweNkqubo yoLutsha, ozama ukuchonga kunye nokucebisa iindlela iindlela ulutsha lwehlabathi likhuthazwa ukuba lwamkele imilinganiselo yemikhosi kunye nokuziphatha njengento ezukileyo, ehloniphekileyo, eqhelekileyo, okanye engenakuphelelwa.

Matshi 17. Ngaloo mini kwi-1968 kwindibano enkulu ye-Vietnam yokulwa nempi eBrithani ukuya kutsho, abantu be-25,000 bazama ukukhupha i-American Embassy e-Grosvenor Square eLondon. Isiganeko sase siqalile ngohlobo olunokuthula kunye nolungelelaniso, kunye nabantu abangama-80,000 badibanisa ukulwa nomkhosi waseMelika waseVietnam kunye nenkxaso yaseBrithani yokubandakanyeka kweMelika kwimfazwe. I-ambassy yaseUnited States ijikelezwe ngamakhulu amabutho amapolisa. Umdlali we-actress kunye nomchasi wemfazwe uVanessa Redgrave kunye nabaxhasi bakhe abathathu bavunyelwe ukungena kwi-ambassy ukuhambisa umbhikisho obhaliweyo. Ngaphandle, isihlwele sabanjwa ekungeneni kwi-embassy, ​​kodwa ke benqaba ukuma, ukuphonsa amatye, ukucima umlilo, nokutshaya iibhomu kwiindawo zamapolisa. Abanye ababonela ubungqina bamehlo bathi iibhenkethi zasebenzisa ubundlobongela emva kokuba "i-skinheads" iqale ukucula iingongoma zempi. Emva kweeyure ezine kamva, malunga nabantu abangama-300 babanjwe kwaye abantu be-75 babhedlele esibhedlele, kubandakanywa namapolisa ase-25. Umculi okhokelayo kunye nomqambi-mqokeleli weqela eliyingqungquthela I-Rolling Stones UMick Jagger wayengomnye wabangqina kwiGrosvenor Square namhlanje, kwaye abanye bakholelwa ukuba iziganeko zaphefumlela ukuba abhale iingoma Sitrato Ukulwa nomntu kwaye Imfesane kuMtyholi. Kwakukho imfazwe emininzi yaseVietnam ebhikisha kwiminyaka eyalandela, kodwa akukho eLondon yayinkulu njengaleyo eyenzeka ngoMatshi 17^th . Imibhikisho emikhulu elandelwayo e-United States, kwaye amajoni okugqibela ase-US ashiya iVietnam kwi-1973.

Matshi 18. Ngaloo mini kwi-1644, i-third-Anglo-Powhatan imfazwe yaqala. Ii-Anglo- Powhatan IiMfazwe zazingumxholo weemfazwe ezintathu ezilwa phakathi kwamaNdiya asePowhatan Confederacy kunye nabahlali baseNgilani baseVirginia. Kwiminyaka elishumi elinesibhozo emva kokupheliswa kwemfazwe yesibili, kwakukho ixesha loxolo phakathi kwabemi baseMerika kunye nabakholoni. Nangona kunjalo, ngo-Matshi 18^th I-1644, i-Powhatan ibutho lenza umgudu wokugqibela wokukrazula indawo yabo yabahlali baseNgesi kanye kunye. Abemi baseMerika baholwa yiNtloko ye-Opechancanough, inkokeli yabo kunye nomntakwabo omncinci ku-Chief Powhatan owacebisa iPowhatan Confederacy. Kwiikholonti ze-500 zabulawa ekuhlaselweni kokuqala, kodwa le nombolo yayincinane xa kuthelekiswa nokuhlaselwa kwe-1622 eyayiphathe malunga neyesithathu yabemi beenkoloni. Kwiinyanga emva kokuhlaselwa, isiNgesi sithatha i-Opechancanough, ephakathi kwe-90 kunye ne-100 iminyaka ubudala, kwaye yamzisa eJamestown. Lapha, wadutshulwa ngasemva yintolongo eyagqiba ekubeni ithathe izinto ezandleni zakhe. Intsebenzo kamva yenziwe phakathi kweNkotowance yesiNgesi kunye ne-Opechancanough. Ezi zivumelwano zinqande kakhulu intsimi yabantu basePowhatan, zibafake kwiindawo ezincinci kwiindawo ezikumntla weYork River. Izivumelwano zenzelwe kwaye zenze umzekelo wokususa amaMelika aseMelika ukuba ahlasele iikholoni zaseYurophu ukuze athathe umhlaba wawo aze awulungiselele ngaphambi kokunyusa nokufudumala kwakhona.

Matshi 19. Ngaloo mini kwi-2003, iUnited States, kunye nemikhosi yamanyeneyo yabetha i-Iraq. Kwintetho yakhe kumabonakude, umongameli wase-US u-George W. Bush uthe, le mfazwe "yayiza kuhlutha izixhobo e-Iraq, ikhulule abantu bayo, kwaye ikhusele umhlaba kwingozi enkulu." UBush kunye namahlakani akhe eRiphabhlikhi kunye neDemokhrasi bahlala bethethelela imfazwe e-Iraq ngokubanga ubuxoki bokuba i-Iraq ibinezixhobo zenyukliya, ezekhemikhali kunye nezixhobo zebhayoloji, kwaye i-Iraq yayihlangene ne-al Qaeda-ibango eliqinisekisa uninzi lwabantu base-US ukuba i-Iraq idibene. kulwaphulo-mthetho lwangoSeptemba 11, 2001. Ngawona manyathelo ahlonitshwayo ngokwenzululwazi, imfazwe yabulala i-1.4 yezigidi ze-Iraq, yabona i-4.2 yezigidi yenzakele, kwaye i-4.5 yezigidi zabantu baba ziimbacu. Izigidi eziyi-1.4 ezifileyo zazingama-5% abantu. Uhlaselo lubandakanya uqhankqalazo lomoya olungama-29,200, olulandelwa ngama-3,900 kule minyaka isibhozo izayo. Umkhosi wase-US ujolise ebantwini, iintatheli, izibhedlele kunye nee-ambulensi. Isebenzise iibhombu ezisebenzisanayo, i-phosphorus emhlophe, i-uranium ephelileyo, kunye nohlobo olutsha lwe-napalm kwiindawo ezisezidolophini. Iziphene zokuzalwa, amaqondo omhlaza, kunye nokufa kweentsana kwanda. Ukubonelelwa ngamanzi, amaziko okucoca ilindle, izibhedlele, iibhlorho kunye nezinto zombane zonakalisiwe, kwaye azalungiswa. Iminyaka, imikhosi ethabathayo yakhuthaza ukwahlukana ngokobuhlanga nangamahlelo kunye nobundlobongela, okukhokelela kwilizwe elahluliweyo kunye nengcinezelo yamalungelo ayenanditshwe ngama-Iraq naphantsi kwamapolisa ka-Saddam Hussein. Amaqela abanqolobi, kubandakanya elinye elathatha igama elithi ISIS, lavela lachuma. Olu lusuku oluhle lokukhuthaza ukubuyiselwa ebantwini base-Iraq.

Matshi 20. Ngaloo mini kwi-1983, abantu abangama-150,000, malunga ne-1% yabemi base-Australia, bathathe inxaxheba kwimibutho yamandla enyukliya. Ukunyuswa kweempahla zenyukliya kwathoma kwi-1980 e-Australia, kwaye yaveliswa ngokungalingani kulo lonke ilizwe. Umbutho wabantu Abantu beNuclear nyulelekile wasungulwa kwi-1981, kwaye ukwakheka kwawo kwandisa ubunkokheli bentlalo, ngakumbi kwiVictoria, apho iqela lasekwa khona. Eli qela lenziwe ngokubanzi ngamacandelo ezentlalo ezizimeleyo kunye nabafundi abakhulu abaqala ukuhamba ngenkqubo yezifundo zoxolo. Abantu kwiNuclear Waste Disarmament bafuna ukuvalwa kweziseko zase-Australia e-Australia, kwaye yamukelwa umgaqo-nkqubo wokuchasana nombutho wezempi wase-Australia kunye ne-United States. Enye imibutho yomhlaba kamva yavela ngezakhiwo ezifanayo kwi-PND. U-Australia unomlando omdala wokulwa nempi. Ngexesha leMfazwe yaseVietnam e-1970, malunga nabantu abangama-70,000 bahamba eMelbourne nase20,000 eSydney ngokuchasene nemfazwe. Kwi-80, ama-Australia azama ukuphelisa nayiphi na indima yesizwe kwi-US-war-war combat skills. Matshi 20^th I-1983, eyenziwa ngeCawa ngaphambi kwePasika, yaziwa ngokuba yi-"yokuqala yeCawa yePlani", kwaye yaphakamisa uxolo jikelele kunye neengxaki zokhuseleko lwezinto zenukliya abemi baseAustralia. Le mibuthano yeCawa yePlanga yePil Palm yaqhubeka e-Australia kuyo yonke i-1980s. Ngenxa yokuchasana ngokubanzi kwandisa yenyukliya eyayibonakala kule mi boniso, ukwandiswa kweprogram yenyukliya yase-Australia

Matshi 21. Ngaloo mini kwi-1966, Usuku lwaMazwe ngamazwe loKucinywa koLwaphulo loLuntu lukhethwe yiZizwe eziManyeneyo. Le mini ibonwa kulo lonke ihlabathi kunye neengqungquthela yeziganeko kunye nemisebenzi enenjongo yokwenza abantu baqwalaselwe kwimiphumo emibi kakhulu neyingozi yokucalulwa kwentlanga. Ukongezelela, umhla usebenza njengesikhumbuzo kubo bonke abantu abanembopheleleko yabo yokuzama ukulwa nokucwaswa ngokobuhlanga kuzo zonke iinkalo zobomi njengabemi belizwe elincomekileyo elinokuxhomekeka ekuxhaseni kunye nokwamkelwa kwezinye iintlanga ngokuqhubeka kwethu kusinda. Le mini ijoliswe ekuncediseni abantu abasehlabathini lonke ilizwi labo imibono kunye nokukhuthaza iindlela ezinokubambisana nokulwa nokucwasana phakathi kwabantu, njengoko i-UN iyayivuma ukuba ukuxhaswa kwezi zithethe zokunyamezela kunye nokwamkelwa kwintsholongwane yanamhlanje kungenye yenye iindlela ezixabisekileyo nezisebenzayo zokulwa nokungabikho komthetho kunye nokucalulwa kwelanga. Le mini yasungulwa iminyaka emithandathu emva kokuthiwa yi-Sharpville Massacre. Ngelo xesha, iipolisa zavula umlilo zaza zabulala abantu be-69 ngokubhikisha ngokubambisana nemithetho yobandlululo eMzantsi Afrika. I-UN icele uluntu lwamazwe ngamazwe ukuba luqinise isisombululo sayo sokuphelisa zonke iintlobo zolucalulo ngokobuhlanga xa zivakalisa namhlanje ukugcina ukubulawa kwabantu kwi-1966. I-UN iyaqhubeka isebenza ukulwa nazo zonke iintlobo zengxabano ngokobuhlanga kunye nobundlobongela bezopolitiko ezinxulumene nobuhlanga.

Matshi 22. Ngaloo mini kwi-1980, abantu be-30,000 bahamba eWashington, DC, malunga nokubhaliswa kokubhaliswa okufunekayo. Ngexesha loqhankqalazo, imiba ye Newsstand, yenziwe yiKomiti yoLwazi kaZwelonke, yasasazwa kubabonisi kunye nabathathi-nxaxheba. I-NRC yaqulunqwa kwi-1980 ukuchasa ukubhaliswa kwisiqulunqo, kwaye umbutho wawusebenza kwi-1990 yokuqala. Amaphephancwadi Newsstand zahlakazeka kwizihlwele ezichazwe kumgangatho we-NRC owawukuba inhlangano ivulekele kuzo zonke iifom zokumelana nokuqulunqa, nokuba ingqiqo yokuxhathisa yayisekelwe kwi-pacifism, inkolo, ingcamango, okanye naziphi na izizathu umntu ayenakho ngenxa yokuba engakholelwa ukuba kufuneka ukuba afake isicelo esibhaliweyo. Ubhaliso olubhaliweyo eUnited States lubuyiselwe phantsi koMongameli uCarter kwi-1980 njengenxalenye "yokulungiselela" ukuba i-US ingenelele e-Afghanistan. Ngexesha loqhankqalazo kulo lonke leli lizwe nakwi-1980, iimpawu ezinjengokuthi "Ukungafuni ukuBhalisa" okanye "Andiyi kubhalisa" zibonwa kuzo zonke izihlwele zabantu abaye bakholelwa ukuba lilungelo labo njengabantu ukuba benqabe ukubhaliswa kwebhalwe. Lo ngumhla omuhle wokunceda amafomu obhaliso obhaliso kwi-bin yokubuyisela kwaye ukuqonda ukuba ilungelo lokunqaba ukuthatha inxaxheba kwimpikiswano enobudlova kunye neyona nto ibangelwa ilungelo eliyisiseko kubo bonke abantu, kungabikho bani kufuneka banyanzeliswe ukuba babandakanyeke kwisiganeko esiyintlekele njengemfazwe.

Matshi 23. Ngaloo mini kwi-1980 UMbhishophu omkhulu u-Óscar Romero wase-El Salvador wahambisa intshumayelo yakhe yoxolo. Ubize amajoni aseSalvador kunye norhulumente wase-El Salvador ukuba bathobele umthetho ophakamileyo kaThixo, bayeke ukwaphula amalungelo oluntu kunye nokwenza ingcinezelo nokubulala. Ngomso olandelayo, uRomero wajoyina indibano yanyanga zonke yabefundisi ukubonisa ububingeleli. Ngobo busuku, wabhiyozela iMisa kwindlu encinci yesibhedlele sase-Divine Providence. Ukugqiba kwakhe intshumayelo yakhe, imoto ebomvu yamisa esitratweni esiphambi kwendlu yenkonzo. Waphuma umpu, waya kumnyango wendlu yecawe, wadubula. URomero wabethwa entliziyweni. Isithuthi sahamba ngokukhawuleza. Ngomhla wamashumi amathathu ku-Matshi ngaphezulu kwama-30 abazilileyo abavela kwihlabathi lonke beza emngcwabeni wakhe. Ngexesha lomsitho weebhombu zaqhuma ezitalatweni kufutshane necawa enkulu kunye nemipu yavela kwizakhiwo ezikufutshane. Phakathi kwabantu abangama-250,000 ukuya kwangama-30 babulawa ngemipu nakwinkampu eyalandelayo. AmaNgqina athi abezokhuselo bakarhulumente baphosa iziqhushumbisi kwisihlwele, kwaye oonogada bemikhosi, benxibe njengabantu nje, bagxothwa ebhalkhoni okanye eluphahleni lweNdlu yeSizwe. Njengoko umpu uqhubayo, umzimba kaRomero wangcwatyelwa kwigumbi elingaphantsi kwengcwele. I-United States, ngexesha likaJimmy Carter no-Ronald Reagan, babenegalelo kungquzulwano ngokubonelela ngezixhobo noqeqesho kwezomkhosi kurhulumente wase-El Salvador. Ngo-50, iNdibano yeZizwe eziManyeneyo ibhengeze umhla wama-2010 kuMatshi “njengoSuku lwaMazwe ngaMazwe lweLungelo leNyaniso malunga nokuNyhashwa kwamalungelo abantu kunye nesidima samaxhoba.”

Matshi 24. Ngaloo mini kwi-1999, iUnited States ne-NATO yaqalisa iintsuku ze-78 zokuqhubhisa iYugoslavia. I-United States yayikholelwa ukuba, ngokungafaniyo necala laseCrimea, iKosovo yayinelungelo lokuzibandakanya. Kodwa iUnited States yayingafuni ukuba yenziwe, njengeCrimea, ngaphandle kokubulawa kwabantu. Kwiphepha lesizwe likaJuni 14, 1999, uGeorge Kenney, owayesakuba ligosa leSebe likaRhulumente laseYugoslavia, wathi: “Umthombo weendaba ongafikelelekiyo ohamba rhoqo noNobhala welizwe uMadeleine Albright uxelele lo [mbhali] ukuba, efungela oonondaba nzulu- ukugcinwa okuyimfihlo kwiintetho zaseRambouillet, igosa eliphezulu leSebe likaRhulumente laqhayisa ngelithi i-United States 'yabeka ngabom umda ophakamileyo kunokuba amaSerbia ayenokwamkela' ”ngenjongo yokuphepha uxolo. IZizwe Ezimanyeneyo azizange ziyigunyazise iUnited States namahlakani ayo eNATO ukuba aqhushumbe iSerbia ngo-1999. I-US ibandakanyeke kwiphulo lokuqhushumisa ibhombu elabulala inani elikhulu labantu, lenzakalisa abanye abaninzi, latshabalalisa iziseko zophuhliso loluntu, izibhedlele, kunye namajelo eendaba, kwaye lenza ingxaki yeembacu. Le ntshabalalo yafezekiswa ngobuxoki, ubuqhetseba, kunye nokubaxwa malunga nobubi, emva koko walungelelanisa ngokwempendulo kubundlobongela obabuncedayo. Kunyaka ophambi kokuba kuqhushumbe abantu abangama-2,000 XNUMX babulawa, uninzi lwabo ngabanqolobi beKosovo Liberation Army abathi, ngenkxaso ye-CIA, bafuna ukukhuthaza impendulo yaseSerbia eyayinokubhenela amajoni aseNtshona. Iphulo lokusasaza iindaba ezinxulumene nokuba nezenzo zenkohlakalo kunye neziyinyani kwimbubhiso yamaNazi. Kwakukho ngenkohlakalo, kodwa uninzi lwazo lwenzeka emva kokuqhushumba, hayi ngaphambi kwayo. Uninzi lweengxelo zaseNtshona zilutshintshile olo hlobo lwamaxesha.

Matshi 25. Lusuku Lwehlabathi Lonke Lokukhunjulwa Kwamaxhoba Okhoboka kunye neTransatlantic Slave Trade. Ngaloo mini, sithatha ixesha lokukhumbula i-15 yezigidi, amadoda nabasetyhini kunye nabantwana ababengamaxhoba e-transatlantic khoboka lekhoboka kwi-400 iminyaka. Olu lwaphulo-mthetho olubuhlungu luyakuthi lucatshungulwe njengenye yeemeko ezingabonakaliyo kumlando wabantu. Urhwebo lwe-transatlantic khoboka lugqithiso olukhulu lokunyanzeliswa kwimbali, njengoko izigidi zabantu base-Afrika zaseMelika zikhutshwe emakhaya abo eAfrika zaza zafudukela kwezinye iindawo zehlabathi, zafika kwiinqanawa zekhoboka ezincinci kwiichweba eMzantsi Melika naseCaribbean Islands. Ukususela kwi-1501-1830, abantu abane baseAfrika bawela iAtlantiki kuyo yonke iYurophu. Le migudu ibonakala nanamhlanje, kunye nabantu abaninzi belizwe laseAfrika abahlala kulo lonke elaseMerika. Siyabahlonela kwaye siyakhumbula namhlanje abo babandezelekayo kunye nabo bafa ngenxa yenkqubo yobukhohlakali neyobukhoboka. Ubukhoboka bususwe ngokusemthethweni eUnited States ngoFebhuwari ka-1865, kodwa ubugqwetha be-defacto kunye nokwahlukana kobuhlanga bezobuhlanga beqhubeka kuzo zonke iinjongo ezilandelayo, ngoxa i-defacto ukuhlukana nokucwasana kwabantu kusekhona nanamhlanje. Iziganeko ezahlukahlukeneyo zenziwa kwihlabathi ngeli xesha kubandakanywa iinkonzo zesikhumbuzo kunye nemigudu yabasweleyo. Nanamhlanje lixesha elihle lokufundisa uluntu, ngakumbi abantu abaselula, malunga nempembelelo yobuhlanga, ubukhoboka kunye ne-transatlantic yorhwebo khoboka. Imicimbi yezifundo iqhutyelwe kuzo zonke izikolo, iikholeji kunye neeyunivesithi. Kwi-2015, isikhumbuzo samiselwa kwiKomkhulu leZizwe eziManyeneyo kwiSixeko saseNew York.

Matshi 26. Ngaloo mini kwi-1979, iSivumelwano soxolo saseYiputa-saseYiputa sisayinwe.  Ngomkhosi owawubanjwe kwiNdlu ye-White House, uMongameli waseYiputa u-Anwar Sadat kunye noNdunankulu wase-Israel uMenachem Begin wasayina i-Israel-IYiputa yesiTyano soThuseleko eyayiyintlangano yokuqala yoxolo phakathi kwamaSirayeli kunye nelizwe lama-Arab. Ngethuba lo mthendeleko, iinkokheli zombini kunye noMongameli we-US uJimmy Carter bathandazela ukuba lo mnqophiso uza kuzisa uxolo loqobo kuMbindi Mpuma kunye nokuphelisa ubundlobongela nokulwa okuqhubekayo ukususela emva kwe-1940s. I-Israel ne-Yiputa babebandakanyekile kwimpikiswano ukusuka kwiMfazwe yama-Arab-Israel, eyaqala ngokuthe ngqo emva kukaSirayeli. Umnqophiso woxolo phakathi kweSirayeli kunye neYiputa yayiyimiphumo yeengxoxo ezinzima. Ngaphantsi kwesi sivumelwano, zombini iintlanga zavuma ukuphelisa ubundlobongela nokuxabana kunye nokuseka ubudlelwane bezobudlelwane. IYiputa yavuma ukuqaphela amaSirayeli njengelizwe kwaye amaSirayeli avuma ukuhamba kwiPeninula yaseSinayi eyathatha eYiputa ngexesha lemfazwe yeminyaka emithandathu e-1967. Ngenxa yokuphumelela kwabo ngokusayina le mvumelwano, uSadat kunye noQeqesho babanikezelwa ngokubambisana kwi-1978 Nobel Peace Prize. Abaninzi kwilizwe lama-Arabhu basabela ngokukrakra kwintlambo yoxolo njengoko babona njengokungcatshiswa, kwaye uEygpt unqunyanyisiwe kwi-Arab League. Ngo-Oktobha we-1981, amaSulumane abulala amaSadat. Imizamo yoxolo phakathi kweentlanga zaqhubeka ngaphandle kweSadat, kodwa naphezu kwesivumelwano, ukuxhatshazwa kuseqhubekile phakathi kwala mazwe amabini aseMpuma-mpuma.

Matshi 27. Ngaloo mini kwi-1958, uNicita Sergeyevich Khrushchev waba nguNkulumbuso weSoviet Union. Kusuku olungaphambi konyulo, Khrushchev wacebisa umgaqo-nkqubo wezangaphandle. Ingcebiso yakhe yokuba amandla enyukliya athathela ingqalelo ukungabikho kwezixhobo kwaye ayeke ukuvelisa izixhobo zenyukliya amkelwe kakuhle. Ukulandela le ntetho, Umphathiswa Wezangaphandle u-Andrei A. Gromyko uvumile ukuba "ukuvalwa kovavanyo lwezixhobo zenyukliya kunye nezixhobo zenyukliya" bekuyinxalenye ye-ajenda yaseSoviet. UMarshal Voroshilov, ongusihlalo we-Presidium ye-Supreme Soviet, waphinda wathi urhulumente omtsha "ubambe eli nyathelo," kwaye abantu behlabathi bebemazi uMnu. Khrushchev "njengeqhawe elomeleleyo nelingapheliyo loxolo." Ngelixa becebisa ubudlelwane obunoxolo kunye namazwe ongxowankulu, u-Khrushchev wayehlala ekholelwa ngokuqinileyo kubukomanisi. Kwaye ke, iMfazwe ebandayo yaqhubeka phantsi kolawulo lwakhe njengoko uqhankqalazo lwaseHungary lwacinezelwa ngogonyamelo, kwakhiwa udonga lwaseBerlin, kwaza kwahlaselwa nenqwelomoya eyayihlola iRashiya yaza yathatha umqhubi wayo. I-US emva koko yafumanisa imijukujelwa yenyukliya kwiziko laseRussia eCuba. U-Khrushchev wavuma ekugqibeleni ukususa imijukujelwa xa uMongameli wase-US uJohn F. Kennedy wathembisa ukuba i-US ayizukuyihlasela i-Cuba, kwaye, ngasese, izakususa zonke izixhobo zenyukliya kwiziko lase-US eTurkey. U-Khrushchev wothuse umhlaba amaxesha amaninzi ngokusungula isathelayithi yokuqala, kunye ne-astronaut yokuqala emajukujukwini. Ukusilela kwakhe ukweyisela inkokheli yobukomanisi, Mao Zedong wase China, ukuba athathele ingqalelo ukungabikho kwezixhobo kukhokelele ekusweleni kwakhe inkxaso eSoviet Union. Ngo-1964, u-Khrushchev wanyanzelwa ukuba arhoxe, kodwa hayi ngaphambi kokuthetha-thethana ngovavanyo oluthile lwenyukliya kunye ne-US kunye ne-United Kingdom.

Matshi 28. Ngaloo mini kwi-1979, ingozi yamandla enyukliya yenzeke kwi-Three Mile Island ePennsylvania. Inxalenye yesiseko siyanyibilika kwisityalo sesibini sombane. Kwiinyanga ezilandela ingozi, uluntu lwase-US lwenza imiboniso emininzi yokulwa nenyukliya kwilizwe liphela. Uluntu lwase-US luxelelwe ubuxoki obuninzi, obubhalwe liqela elalichasene nenyukliya uHarvey Wasserman. Okokuqala, uluntu luqinisekisiwe ukuba akukho kukhutshwa kwemitha. Oko kwangqineka kububuxoki ngokukhawuleza. Uluntu luye lwaxelelwa ukuba ukukhutshwa kulawulwa kwaye kwenziwa ngenjongo yokunciphisa uxinzelelo kumbindi. Omabini la mabango ayebubuxoki. Uluntu luxelelwe ukuba ukukhutshwa "akubalulekanga" Kodwa abagcini be-stack babegcwele kwaye bengenakusebenziseka, kwaye iKhomishini yoLawulo lweNyukliya kamva yaxelela iCongress ukuba ayazi ukuba ingakanani imitha ekhutshwe kwi-Three Mile Island, okanye apho iya khona. Uqikelelo lwaseburhulumenteni luthi idosi efanayo kubo bonke abantu bommandla yayilingana ne-x-ray yesifuba esinye. Kodwa abasetyhini abakhulelweyo abasekho x-ray ngenxa yokuba kudala kwaziwa ukuba idosi enye inokwenza umonakalo omkhulu kumbungu okanye kwimveku esibelekweni. Uluntu luxelelwe ukuba akukho sidingo sokukhupha nabani na kule ndawo. Kodwa iRhuluneli yasePennsylvania uRichard Thornburgh emva koko wakhupha abasetyhini abakhulelweyo kunye nabantwana abancinci. Ngelishwa, uninzi lwathunyelwa kufutshane neHershey, neyayifafazwe kukuwa. Inani lokufa kweentsana liphindwe kathathu eHarrisburg. Uphando ngendlu ngendlu kwingingqi lufumene ukonyuka okukhulu komhlaza, i-leukemia, iziphene zokuzalwa, iingxaki zokuphefumla, ukulahleka kweenwele, irhashalala, izilonda nokunye.

Matshi 29. Ngaloo mini kwi-1987 eNicaragua, iiVeterans zaseVietnam zoxolo zavela eJinotega naseWicuili. Amagqala abandakanyeka kulomngcelele ayekade ejonge iinzame zaseMelika zokuphazamisa ilizwe laseNicaragua ngokubonelela ngonqolobi kwiContras. Umbutho weVeterans for Peace wasekwa ngo-1985 ngamagqala alishumi e-US ukuphendula ugqatso lweengalo zenyukliya kunye nongenelelo lomkhosi wase-US kumazwe aMbindi Merika. Umbutho ukhule waba ngaphezulu kwamalungu angama-8,000 ngexesha i-United States ihlasela i-Iraq ngo-2003. Xa amaQela oXolo ayeqala ukusekwa, yayiqulathe ikakhulu ama-US Military Veterans awayesebenza kwiMfazwe yesibini (II) yeHlabathi, iMfazwe yaseKorea, imfazwe yaseVietnam, kunye neMfazwe yaseGulf. Kwaye kwenziwa ngamagqala exesha loxolo kunye nabangengawo amagqala, kodwa ikhule phesheya kolwandle kule minyaka idlulileyo kwaye inamalungu amaninzi asebenzayo e-United Kingdom. Umbutho waMagqala oXolo usebenza nzima ukukhuthaza ezinye iindlela ngaphandle kwemfazwe nobundlobongela. Umbutho uchasile kwaye uyaqhubeka nokuchasa uninzi lwemigaqo-nkqubo yezomkhosi yase-US, i-NATO, kunye ne-Israel, kubandakanya nezomkhosi kunye nezisongelo e-Russia, e-Iran, e-Iraq, e-Libya, e-Syria, njlnjl. Namhlanje, amalungu alo mbutho ahlala esebenza Imikhankaso yokunceda ukuzisa ukuqonda kweendleko ezoyikekayo zemfazwe, kwaye uninzi lomsebenzi wabo wangoku ugxile kwimfazwe ebonakala ngathi ingapheliyo. Umbutho uyila iiprojekthi zokuxhasa amagqala abuyayo, aphikise imfazwe yedrone, kunye nemizamo yokulwa umkhosi emkhosini ezikolweni.

Matshi 30. Ngaloo mini kwi-2003, abantu be-100,000 bahamba ngeJakarta, inkulu-dolophu yase-Indonesia, ukubonisa ngokumalunga nemfazwe e-Iraq, eyaqala ngokusemthethweni ngo-Matshi 19, 2003. Yayiyeyona rally inkulu yokulwa imfazwe eyakhe yenzeka kwilizwe lamaSilamsi. Ngolu suku kukwabonwe umboniso wokuqala wokulwa imfazwe e-China. Iqela labafundi bamanye amazwe abangama-200 bavunyelwe ukuba bamashe badlule kwindlu yozakuzo yase-US eBeijing bekhwaza izilogeni zokulwa imfazwe. E-Jamani abantu abangama-40,000 benza ikhonkco lomntu elide phakathi kweedolophu zaseMunster nase-Osnabrueck. E-Berlin i-35 yathatha inxaxheba kwirali eTiergarten Park. Uqhanqalazo kunye neindibano zenzeka eSantiago, kwisiXeko saseMexico, eMontevideo, eBuenos Aires, eCaracas, eParis, eMoscow, eBudapest, eWarsaw naseDublin, eIndiya nasePakistan. Ngokutsho kwesifundiswa saseFrance u-Dominique Reynié, phakathi kwe-23,000 kaJanuwari ne-3 ka-Epreli 12, abantu abazizigidi ezingama-2003 kwihlabathi liphela bathathe inxaxheba kuqhankqalazo lwama-36 3,000 ngokuchasene nemfazwe yase-Iraq. Olona qhankqalazo lukhulu ngeli xesha lwaluseYurophu. IRoma idweliswe kwiGuinness Book of Records njengeyona ibambe eyona rali inkulu yakudala yokulwa imfazwe: zizigidi ezithathu zabantu. Ezinye iindibano ezinkulu zenzeke eLondon (abaququzeleli babeka inani kwizigidi ezi-2); IsiXeko saseNew York (375,000); kunye needolophu ezingama-60 kwizixeko ngaphesheya kweFrance (300,000). Uvoto luka-Matshi 2003 lweGallup olwenziwe kwiintsuku zokuqala zemfazwe lubonise ukuba i-5% yabantu baseMelika bathathe inxaxheba kwimiboniso echasene nemfazwe okanye ngezinye iindlela babonisa inkcaso emfazweni. Umbhali we New York Times uPatrick Tyler ubambe ukuba ezi ndibano zinkulu "zabonisa ukuba babini abasemagunyeni emhlabeni, iMelika kunye noluntu jikelele uluvo".

Matshi 31. Ngaloo mini I-1972, isihlwele sasihlangene nezixhobo zenukliya eLatfalgar Square yaseLondon. Abantu abangaphezu kwe-500 badibana kwisikwere ngaloo mini ukuvakalisa iimvakalelo zokwesaba nokukhungatheka ekuqhubekeni kovavanyo lwenyukliya kunye ne-atomics eqhutywa nguRhulumente waseBrithani. Ibhanki yasekuqaleni emnyama esetyenziswe yiNkampu yeNcedo lweNyukliya e-1958 yaziswa kwisikwere ngaphambi kokuba iqalise umgama wePasika we-56 ukusuka eLondon ukuya eAldermaston, eBerkshire. Ukuhamba kwemini emine, ngokutsho kukaDick Nettleton, unobhala weCamphu, kwacetywa ukukwazisa abantu abaye bakhokelwa ukuba bakholelwe ukuba i-unit yophando ye-athomu ivalwe phantsi ukuba isetyenziselwa ukuba ku-Aldermaston. Ukuhambela kubangelwa ukuhanjiswa ngokusemthethweni kwezixhobo zezixhobo zophando ukusuka kwiKhomishoni yamandla e-Atomic ukuya kwiSebe lezoKhuseleko. U-Nettleton wachaze ukuba i-81% yomsebenzi weKomishoni yayibandakanye ukuphuculwa kwezixhobo zombane kunye neBhomu yaseBrithani. Kwakhona wongezelela ukuba izazinzulu zazise kuye ukuba zixhalabele ngeemeko zabo zokusebenza njengoko iqhutyelwa uphando nophuhliso lwezi zixhobo ziqhubekile. Abaqhankqalazi baqalisa ukuhamba beya kwidolophu yaseChiswick, benethemba lokufumana inkxaso evela kubamelwane endleleni njengoko beqhubeka kwiziko le nyukliya. Babelindele ukuphazamiseka ngamapolisa ngelixa befika e-Aldermaston, kodwa bafumana abaxhasayo abayizinkulungwane ezintathu. Bebonke, bafaka amakhofi amnyama angamashumi amabini anesixhenxe emasangweni, omnye unyaka ngamnye ukususela kwiimibhobho zaseJapan zaseJapan. Bashiye i-Campaign ye-Nuclear Disarmament uphawu ehlotshiswe ngama-daffodils, uphawu lwethemba.

Olu xolo Almanac lukwazisa amanyathelo abalulekileyo, inkqubela phambili, kunye nothintelo kwintshukumo yoxolo oluye lwenzeka ngosuku ngalunye lonyaka.

Thenga ushicilelo olushicilelweyo, okanye PDF.

Yiya kwiifayile zomsindo.

Yiya kwisicatshulwa.

Yiya kwimizobo.

Olu xolo Almanac kufuneka luhlale lulungile unyaka nonyaka de yonke imfazwe ipheliswe kwaye kubekho uxolo oluzinzileyo. Inzuzo evela kwintengiso yoshicilelo kunye neenguqulelo zePDF zixhasa umsebenzi World BEYOND War.

Isicatshulwa sivelisiwe kwaye sihlelwe ngu UDavid Swanson.

Umsindo orekhodiweyo I-Tim Pluta.

Izinto ezibhalwe ngu URobert Anschuetz, uDavid Swanson, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, u-Erin McElfresh, uAlexander Shaia, uJohn Wilkinson, uWilliam Geimer, uPeter Goldsmith, uGar Smith, uThierry Blanc, noTom Schott.

Iingcamango zezihloko ezingeniswe yi UDavid Swanson, uRobert Anschuetz, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, uDarlene Coffman, uDavid McReynolds, uRichard Kane, uPil Runkel, uJill Greer, uJim Gould, uBob Stuart, uAlaina Huxtable, uT Thierry Blanc.

umculo isetyenziswe ngemvume evela “Ukuphela kweMfazwe,” Ngu-Eric Colville.

Umculo weaudio nokudibanisa NguSergio Diaz.

Imizobo ngu Parisa Saremi.

World BEYOND War yintshukumo yehlabathi engavisisaniyo yokuphelisa imfazwe kwaye iseke uxolo olunobulungisa nolizinzileyo. Injongo yethu kukudala ulwazi ngenkxaso eyaziwayo yokuphelisa imfazwe kunye nokuphuhlisa ngakumbi le nkxaso. Sisebenzela ukuqhubela phambili ngombono wokungathinteli nje nayiphi na imfazwe ethile kodwa ukutshabalalisa iziko lonke. Silwela ukubuyisela inkcubeko yethu kwimfazwe apho uxolo lungendawo apho iindlela zokungqubana kwengxabano zithathe indawo yegazi.