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Disemba 1. Ngaloo mini kumongameli we-1948 Costa Rica wachaza injongo yelizwe lokuphelisa umkhosi wayo. Umongameli uJoseph Figueres Ferrar ubhengeze lo moya mtsha wesizwe kwintetho ngaloo mini evela kwikomkhulu lesizwe lomkhosi, uCuartel Bellavista, eSan Jose. Ngomqondiso wokomfuziselo waqukumbela intetho yakhe ngokubetha umngxuma eludongeni nokunikezela izitshixo zesibonelelo kumphathiswa wezemfundo. Namhlanje eli ziko langaphambili lomkhosi liyimyuziyam yobugcisa yesizwe. UFerrar uthe, "lixesha lokuba iCosta Rica ibuyele kwisikhundla sayo sokuba nootitshala abaninzi kunamajoni." Imali ebichithwe emkhosini, ngoku ayisetyenziselwa imfundo kuphela, kodwa ukhathalelo lwempilo, iinzame zenkcubeko, iinkonzo zentlalo, imeko yendalo, kunye namapolisa abonelela ngokhuseleko lwasekhaya. Isiphumo kukuba abantu baseCosta Ricans banenqanaba lokufunda nokubhala elingama-96%, iminyaka elindelekileyo yobomi kwiminyaka engama-79.3- indawo ekumgangatho wehlabathi elingcono kunaleyo yase-United States- iipaka zikawonke-wonke kunye neendawo ezingcwele ezikhusela ikota yawo wonke umhlaba, isiseko samandla esisekwe ngokupheleleyo kwii-revwables, kwaye zibekwa kwinombolo 1 yi-Happy Planet Index xa kuthelekiswa nenqanaba le-108 yi-United States. Ngelixa uninzi lwamazwe ajikeleze iCosta Rica iqhubeka nokutyala imali kwizixhobo kwaye ibibandakanyeka kungquzulwano lwangaphakathi nolwangapha kwemida, iCosta Rica ayinayo. Umzekelo ophilayo wokuba enye yeendlela eziphambili zokuphepha imfazwe kukungazilungiseleli. Mhlawumbi abanye bethu kufuneka bajoyine "iSwitzerland yoMbindi Merika" kwaye babhengeze namhlanje njengoko benawo njengo "Mhla wokuPheliswa koMkhosi."
Disemba 2. Ngaloo mini kwi-1914 Karl Liebknecht yenze ivoti kuphela yokulwa nemfazwe ephalamende yaseJamani. ULebknecht wazalwa e1871 eLeipzig njengowesibini kubantwana abahlanu. Uyise wayeyilungu elisekayo leNtlalo yeDemocratic Democratic Party (okanye i-SPD). Xa ebhaptizwa, uKarl Marx noFriedrich Engels babhaptizwa ngabaxhasi bakhe. ULieebknecht watshata kabini, umfazi wesibini waseRussia, waza waba nabantwana abathathu. Kwi-1897, uLiebknecht wafunda umthetho kunye noqoqosho kwaye waphumelela magna cum laude eBerlin. Injongo yakhe yayikukhusela uMarxism. ULiebknecht yiyona nto ebangela ukuchasana neWWI. Kwi-1908, ngelixa evalelwe ngemibhalo yakhe yokulwa nempi, wakhethwa kwipalamente yasePrussia. Emva kokuvota kwimali mboleko yempi ukuxhasa ngemfazwe ngo-Agasti 1914 - isigqibo esisekelwe kukunyaniseka kwintlangano yakhe - uLiebknecht, ngoDisemba 2nd, yiyo kuphela ilungu leReichstag ukuvota ngokumalunga nemali-mboleko yemfazwe. Kwi-1916, waxoshwa kwi-SPD waza wasungulwa kunye noRosa Luxemburg nabanye Spartacus League ezazisasaza iincwadi zenguqu. Ukubanjwa ngexesha lokubonakaliswa kwempi, uLebebknecht ugwetyelwe ukugwetywa iminyaka emine entolongweni, apho wahlala khona waxolelwa ngo-Oktobha 1918. Kwi 9th kaNovemba wavakalisa Freie Sozialistische Republik (IRiphabliki yeNtlalo yeRajethi) ukusuka kwibhantshi yaseBerlin Stadtschloss. Emva kokuhlukunyezwa kukaSpartacus nokuxhatshazwa ngamakhulu amakhulu, ku-15th kaJanuwari u-Liebknecht kunye ne-Luxemburg babanjwa babulawa ngamalungu e-SPD. U-Liebknecht wayengomnye wabapolitiki abambalwa abagxeka ukuxhatshazwa kwamalungelo oluntu kubukhosi base-Ottoman.
Disemba 3. Ngaloo mini kwi-1997 umnqophiso wokuvalwa kwemigodi yomhlaba isayinwe. Lo ngumhla olungileyo apho ufuna ukuba amazwe ambalwa asele angayibhalisi kwaye ayayigunyazisa. I-Preamble to Ban ithi iinjongo zayo eziphambili: "Uzimisele ukuphelisa ukubandezeleka kunye nokubulawa kwabangelwa ngabasebenzi bemigodi echasene nabasebenzi ababulala okanye baxhamla abantu abaninzi ngeveki, abaninzi bengabantu abangenasici nabangenakukhusela kwaye ikakhulukazi abantwana ..." E-Ottawa , EKhanada, abameli belizwe le-125 badibana noMphathiswa we-Canada weLangaphandle uLloyd Axworthy, kunye noNdunankulu uJean Chretien ukuba basayine umnqophiso wokuvalwa kwezi zixhobo ezinomsebenzi wazo uCretien ochazwe ngokuba "ukutshatyalaliswa kokuhamba ngokukhawuleza." Imimandla evela kwimfazwe yangaphambili yahlala kumazwe akwa-69 kwi-1997 , ukuqhubeka neengxaki zokulwa. Iphulo lokuphelisa lo bhubhane laqala iminyaka eyisithandathu ngaphambili yiKomidi yamazwe ngamazwe e-Red Cross, kunye ne-American human rights leader Jody Williams owasekela iKhankaso yeZizwe ngeziMhlaba ukuVimbela umhlaba, kwaye waxhaswa ngu-Princess Diana waseWales. Amazwe aphantsi kwamazwe aquka iMelika kunye neRashiya ayenqaba ukusayina umnqophiso. Ngempendulo, uNgqongqoshe weeNgaphandle u-Axworthy wathi esinye isizathu sokususa iimigodi bekukuvelisa imveliso yezolimo kumazwe afana ne-Afghanistan. UDkt. Julius Toth weqela looncedo lwezonyango ngamazwe oogqirha ngaphandle kweeNgqungquthela bathi "Kubalulekile ukuba loo mazwe aphinde acinge ngeenjongo zabo zokungayinyi. Ukuba banokubangela ukuba abantwana bafanele ukuba ndijongane xa ndisebenza kumazwe anama-amputees kunye namaxhoba ala migodi ... kulungele ukuza nezizathu ezifanelekileyo zokungabikho kumgca. "
Disemba 4. Ngaloo mini kwi-1915, uHenry Ford wahamba waya eYurophu evela eHoboken, eNew Jersey kwi-liner yoler chart ebizwa ngokuba yi-Peace Ship. Ehamba kunye nabalandeli be63 uxolo kunye nabathengi be-54, injongo yakhe yayingekho ngaphantsi kokugqitywa kwezinto ezibonakala zingenangqiqo yeMfazwe Yehlabathi I. Njengoko iFord yabubona, imfazwe eminquba yamanzi yayingakhange iphela kodwa ukufa kwabafana kunye nokuncedisa abantu abadala . Ezimisele ukwenza okuthile malunga nalo, waceba ukuya e-Oslo, eNorway kwaye, ukusuka apho, waqalisa ukulungiselela inkomfa yeentlanga zaseYurophu ezingathathi hlangothi e-Hague eziya kwenza ukuba iinkokheli zeentlanga ezinobundlobongela zenze uxolo. Ngaphakathi kwinqanawa, nangona kunjalo, ukuhlangana ngokukhawuleza kwaphazamiseka. Iindaba zoMongameli uWilson wocingo lokwakhiwa kwabasebenzi kunye nezixhobo zombutho wase-United States onokuzithengisa ngokubhekiselele kumanyanzela amaninzi. Emva koko, xa iinqanawa zafika e-Oslo ngomhla kaDisemba 19, abavukeli bafumana abambalwa abaxhasayo ukuba bawamkele. NgoKhisimusi uEva, iFowone yabonakala ibhala phantsi kwodonga kwaye yawabulala ngokuqinisekileyo i-Peace Ship crusade. Ukugula kwesibango, waqhekeza uhambo oluhleliweyo oluya eStockholm waza wabuya ngomkhumbi kwiNorway. Ekugqibeleni, uhambo lwamaxolo lwalubiza iFord malunga nesiqingatha sezigidigidi zeedola kwaye akazange amthobe kodwa ahlekise. Nangona kunjalo, kunokucelwa ukuba abuze ukuba ubububudenge obunikwe kuye bubekwe ngokufanelekileyo. Ngaba wayelala kunye neFoeve, owazibonakalisa engaphumeleli kwimfazwe yobomi? Okanye nabaholi beYurophu abathumele amasosha ezigidi ze-11 ekufeni kwabo kwimfazwe kungekho nto ecacileyo okanye injongo?
Disemba 5. Ngalo mhla kwi-1955 i-Montgomery Bus Boycott yaqala. Unobhala wesahluko sendawo soMbutho weSizwe woPhuculo lwaBantu abaBala (NAACP) eRosa Parks, ummi owaziwayo wesixeko esahlukaniswe kakhulu eAlabama, wenqabile ukunika isihlalo sakhe sebhasi kumgibeli omhlophe kwiintsuku ezine ezidlulileyo. Wabanjwa. Ubuncinane iipesenti ezingama-90 zabemi abamnyama baseMontgomery bahlala kwiibhasi, kwaye ukukhwabanisa kwenza iindaba zamazwe ngamazwe. Uqhankqalazo lwaluququzelelwa yiMontgomery Improvement Association kunye nomongameli wayo, uMartin Luther King Jr. Le yayiyimini yakhe yoSuku. Kwintlanganiso emva kokubanjwa kukaNkosk. Parks, u-King uthe, ngendlela eya kuba yindlela yakhe eqhelekileyo yokuthetha, ukuba "bazakusebenza ngokuzimisela nangokuzimisela ukufumana ubulungisa kwiibhasi," ukuba ukuba bebengalunganga, iNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye Umgaqo-siseko ubungachananga, kwaye "ukuba asilunganga, uThixo uSomandla uphosakele." Uqhanqalazo kunye nokukhaba kwahlala iintsuku ezingama-381. UKumkani wagwetywa ngecala lokuphazamisa ishishini elisemthethweni xa i-carpooling ihlelwe; ikhaya lakhe laqhushumiswa ngebhombu. Ukoyisa kugqibe ngesigwebo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-US sokuba ucalucalulo kwiibhasi zikawonkewonke aluhambelani nomgaqo-siseko. Uqhankqalazo lwaseMontgomery lubonise ukuba uqhankqalazo oluninzi olungenabundlobongela lunokujongana ngempumelelo nocalucalulo ngokobuhlanga kwaye lwalungumzekelo kwamanye amaphulo asezantsi alandelayo. UKing uthe, "U-Kristu usibonisile indlela, no-Gandhi wase-India ubonise ukuba ingasebenza." UKumkani uqhubeke nokunceda ukukhokelela ekusebenziseni okunempumelelo ngakumbi kokungaziphathi kakuhle. Ukoyisa ngumzekelo obalaseleyo wendlela isenzo esingenabundlobongela esinokuzisa utshintsho oluhlala luhleli apho ubundlobongela bungekhe.
Disemba 6. Kulo mhla ku-1904 uTheodore Roosevelt wongezwa kwi-Monroe Doctrine. I-Monroe Doctrine yayichazwe nguMongameli James Monroe kwi-1823, kwingxelo yakhe yonyaka kwiCongress. Ukukhathazeka ukuba iSpain ingathatha ama-coloni ayo ngaphambili eMzantsi Melika, kunye neFransi ijoyina, wazisa ukuba iNtshona Yehlabathi yayiya kukhuselwa yi-United States, kwaye nayiphi na inzame yaseYurophu yokulawula nayiphi na isizwe saseLatin America iya kuthathwa njengesenzo esibi ngokumeleneyo neUnited States. Nangona ekuqaleni kwakuyinkcazo encinci, le nto yaba yintloko yamacandelo aseMzantsi Afrika, ingakumbi xa uMongameli uTodore Roosevelt wongeza iRoosevelt Corollary ekuphenduleni ingxaki eVenezuela. Oku kuthetha ukuba iUnited States izongenelela kwimpikiswano phakathi kwamazwe aseYurophu kunye namazwe aseLatin American ukunyanzelisa izimangalo zaseYurophu, kunokuvumela abaseYurophu ukuba benze ngokuthe ngqo. URovelvelt wathi i-US yayilungele ukuba "ngamapolisa angamazwe ngamazwe" ekupheliseni ukuxabana. Ukususela ngoku, i-Monroe Doctrine iya kuqondwa njengento yokungqinelana nokungenelela kwe-US, kunokuba nje ithintele ukungenelela kwe-Europe eLatin America. Olu lungiso lusetyenziswe ngamaxesha amaninzi kwiminyaka elandelayo ye-20 kwi-Caribbean nase-Central America. Yayinqatshelwe kwi-1934 nguMongameli uFrank D. Roosevelt, kodwa ayizange ihambe. I-Monroe Doctrine iye yenziwa ngokuqhubekayo kwiminyaka emininzi, njengoko iUnited States ibulale, yahlaselwa, iququzelele iinqhomlo, kunye nezikolo zokufa eziqeqeshiwe. Imfundiso ye-Monroe icatshulwe nanamhlanje ngabaholi be-US abanenjongo yokuphanga okanye ukulawula oorhulumente bezantsi. Kwaye kuqondwa kwiLatin America njengengxelo yama-imperialist yokuphakama nokulawula.
Disemba 7. Ngaloo mini kwi-1941, amajoni aseJapan ahlasela ama-US ase-Philippines naseHawaii ePearl Harbor. Ukungena kwimfazwe kwakungeyona ingcinga entsha kwiRosevelt White House. I-FDR yayizame ukulala ebantwini base-US malunga neenqwelo zase-US kubandakanywa Greer kwaye i Kerny. URoosevelt ukwaxokile ukuba wayenemephu eyimfihlo yamaNazi yokuthimba uMzantsi Melika, kunye nesicwangciso esifihlakeleyo samaNazi sokutshintsha zonke iinkolo ngobuNazi. Kwaye okwangoku, abantu base-United States abayithenganga ingcinga yokuya kwenye imfazwe de kube yiPearl Harbour, ngelo xesha uRoosevelt wayesele emisele uyilo, wavula i-National Guard, wenza i-Navy enkulu kwiilwandle ezimbini, wathengisa ngabonakalisi abadala eNgilani ngokutshintshiselana ngokuqeshisa iziseko zayo kwiCaribbean naseBermuda, kwaye-kwiintsuku nje ezili-11 ngaphambi kohlaselo ekucingelwa ukuba lwalungalindelwanga, kwaye kwiintsuku ezintlanu ngaphambi kokuba i-FDR ikulindele- wayeyalele ngasese ukuba kwenziwe uluhlu lwazo zonke iJapan kunye neJapan- Umntu waseMelika eUnited States. Nge-18 ka-Agasti u-Churchill wayexelele ikhabinethi yakhe, "UMongameli wathi uzokulwa kodwa akazukuyibhengeza," kwaye "yonke into yayizakwenziwa ukunyanzelisa isehlo." Imali, iinqwelomoya, abaqeqeshi kunye nabaqhubi beenqwelomoya banikwa iChina. Ukuvalwa kwezoqoqosho kwamiselwa eJapan. Ubukho bemikhosi yase-US bandisiwe malunga nePasifiki. Nge-15 ka-Novemba, u-Chief of Staff u-George Marshall uxelele oonondaba, "Silungiselela umlo ohlaselayo ne-Japan."
Disemba 8. Ngaloo mini kwi-1941, i-Congresswoman uJeannette Rankin yenze ivoti elilodwa ngokumelene ne-US ukungena kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II. UJeanette Rankin wazalelwa eMontana ngo-1880, engoyena mdala kubantwana abasixhenxe. Wafunda umsebenzi wentlalo eNew York kwaye ngokukhawuleza waba ngumququzeleli wabasetyhini. Ukubuyela eMontana, waqhubeka esebenza nabasetyhini, kwaye wagijimela ukhetho njengeRiphabhlikhi eqhubekayo. Ngomnyaka we-1916 waba ngowokuqala kunye nomfazi kuphela kwiNdlu yabameli. Ivoti yakhe yokuqala kwiNdlu yayichasene nokungena kwe-US kwiMfazwe yeHlabathi yokuQala. Inyaniso yokuba wayengeyedwa ayengakhathalelwanga. Wayehlanjululwa ngenxa yokuba engenawo umgaqo-siseko wezopolitiko ngenxa yokuba ngumfazi. Ukoyiswa ngo-1918, wachitha iminyaka engamashumi amabini anesibini esebenza kwimibutho yoxolo kwaye wakhokela ubomi obulula, bokuzimela. Ngo-1940, eneminyaka engamashumi amathandathu, waphinda wanyula unyulo njengeRiphabhlikhi. Ukuvota kwakhe yedwa "ngokuchasene nokubhengeza imfazwe eJapan kweza kusuku olulandelayo emva kokuqhushumba kwePearl Harbour eyathi yajika abantu baseMelika ababezimele bodwa ukuba bangene emfazweni. Uye wabhala kamva ukuba ukumiselwa kwezohlwayo eJapan ngo-1940 kwakucaphukisa, kwenziwa ngethemba lokuhlaselwa, umbono owamkelekileyo ngoku. Uluntu lwamjikela. Kwiintsuku ezintathu kamva, wemka endaweni yokujongana nevoti yemfazwe eJamani nase-Itali. Akazange abaleke kwakhona kwiCongress kodwa waqhubeka nokuba ngumdlali we-pacifist, esiya e-India apho wayekholelwa ukuba uMahatma Gandhi wathembisa umfuziselo woxolo lwehlabathi. Wayekhusela uMfazwe waseVietnam. U-Rankin usweleke eneminyaka engamashumi alithoba anesithathu ngo-1973.
Disemba 9. Ngomhla ku-1961 Nazi USolonel Colonel Adolf Eichmann watholakala enetyala lezophulo-mthetho kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi II. Ngo-1934 waye wachongwa ukuba asebenze kwiyunithi ejongene nemicimbi yamaJuda. Umsebenzi wakhe yayikukunceda ukubulala amaJuda kunye nezinye iithagethi, kwaye wayenoxanduva lokujongana nesisombululo "sokugqibela." Wayephethe ngokufanelekileyo ukuchonga, ukuhlanganisa, kunye nokuhambisa amaYuda ukuya kwiindawo zabo eAuschwitz nakwezinye iinkampu zokubulala. Ekuhambeni kwexesha wabizwa ngokuba "ngumyili wezinto zokubulawa kwabantu ngenkohlakalo." Nangona u-Eichmann wabanjwa ngamajoni ase-US ekupheleni kwemfazwe, wabaleka ngo-1946 kwaye wachitha iminyaka kwi-Middle East. Ngo-1958, yena kunye nosapho bakhe bahlala eArgentina. U-Israyeli wayexhalabile ngesizukulwane esakhulela kwelo lizwe litsha ngaphandle kolwazi olungqalileyo nge-Holocaust kwaye wayexhalabile ukubafundisa kunye nehlabathi liphela ngako. Abameli beenkonzo zangasese zase-Israel babamba u-Eichmann eArgentina ngokungekho mthethweni ngo-1960 bamsa kwa-Israyeli ukuze alingwe phambi kweejaji ezintathu ezizodwa. Ukubanjwa okunempikiswano kunye nokulingwa iinyanga ezine kukhokelele kwingxelo kaHannah Arendt ngento awayeyibiza ngokuba kukungabikho kobubi. U-Eichmann wakhanyela ukwenza naliphi na ityala, esithi i-ofisi yakhe yayijongene nezothutho kuphela, kwaye wayengu-bureaucrat nje olandela imiyalelo. U-Eichmann wagwetywa ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe kunye nolwaphulo mthetho ngokuchasene noluntu. Isibheno saliwe; wabulawa ngokuxhonywa ngomhla woku-1 kweyeSilimela ngo-1962. UAdolph Eichmann ngumzekelo welizwe lezenzo zenkohlakalo zobuhlanga kunye nemfazwe.
Disemba 10. Ngaloo mini kwi-1948, iZizwe eziManyeneyo zamkele iSizwi soMhlaba soLuntu. Oko kwenza lo Mhla wamaLungelo oLuntu. Isibhengezo sasiphendule kwiimfazwe zeMfazwe Yehlabathi II. IKhomishoni ye-UN yamalungelo oluntu, ekhokelwa ngu-Eleanor Roosevelt, yalungisa lo mbhalo ngaphezu kweminyaka emibini. Kwakuyimfuneko yokuqala yelizwe ukusetyenziswa kwegama elithi "amalungelo oluntu." Isibhengezo samaLungelo oluntu sinezihloko ze-30 ezibonisa uluhlu oluthile lwezopolitiko, ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho, ezentlalo, kunye neenkcubeko ezibonisa ixabiso lenkululeko, isithunzi kunye noxolo lweZizwe eziManyeneyo . Ngokomzekelo, ihlanganisa ilungelo lokuphila, kunye nokuthintelwa kobukhoboka nokuhlushwa, ilungelo lokukhulula ingcinga, uluvo, inkolo, isazela kunye noxolo. Kwagqitywa kungekho lizwe elichasene nalo, kodwa izibhengezo ezivela kwi-USSR, eCzechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, ePoland, eSaudi Arabia naseMzantsi Afrika. Amazwe asemthethweni aziva ukuba aphazamise ulawulo lwakhe, kwaye i-Soviet ideology yafaka i-premium kwiimfuno zentlalo kunye noluntu ngelixa i-capitalist West yayibaluleke ngakumbi kumalungelo oluntu kunye nezopolitiko. Ngokwamkela amalungelo oqoqosho, iSibhengezo sithi "Wonke umntu unelungelo lokuphila ngokufanelekileyo kwimpilo kunye nenhlalakahle yakhe kunye nentsapho yakhe." Ekugqibeleni, uxwebhu aluzange lubophe kwaye lukhangeleka , kungekhona njengomthetho, kodwa njengendlela yokuziphatha kunye nomgangatho oqhelekileyo wokuphumelela kuzo zonke izizwe kunye nazo zonke iintlanga. Amalungelo asetyenziswe kwizivumelwano, izivumelwano zezoqoqosho, imimiselo yamalungelo oluntu kunye nomgaqo-siseko kwihlabathi jikelele.
Disemba 11. Ngaloo mini kwi-1981, ukubulawa kobubi kunamhlanje kwimbali yaseLatin yaseMelika kwenzeka e-El Salvador. Ababulali babeqeqeshiwe kwaye baxhaswa ngurhulumente wase-United States, ochasene noo-leftist noorhulumente abazimeleyo phantsi kwesibhengezo sokugcina umhlaba kubukomanisi. E-El Salvador i-United States yanika urhulumente wengcinezelo ngezixhobo, imali kunye nenkxaso yezopolitiko ngexabiso lesigidi esinye seedola ngosuku. Ukusebenza kwindawo ekude i-El Mozote kwenziwa liqela eliphambili le-Atlacatl elaliqeqeshwe kwinto ebizwa ngokuba yi-anti-insurgency kwi-US Army School yaseMelika. Amaxhoba yayingabanqolobi kunye neenkampu ezazinolawulo olukhulu lwendawo esemaphandleni. Amajoni aseAtlacatl abuza imibuzo, ahlukumeza kwaye abulala amadoda, emva koko athatha abafazi, abadubula emva kokubadlwengula, ebetha izisu zabafazi abakhulelweyo. Babanqumla umqala wabantwana, babaxhoma emithini, baza batshisa izindlu. Abantu abasibhozo baxhelwa, uninzi lwabantwana. Amangqina ambalwa abaleka. Ngaphantsi kweeveki ezintandathu, iifoto zemizimba zapapashwa eNew York naseWashington. I-United States yazi kodwa ayenzi nto. Umthetho woxolelo e-El Salvador uphazamise uphando kule minyaka ilandelayo. Emva kweminyaka esixhenxe kukhutshwa izidumbu emngcwabeni, ngo-Okthobha u-2012, ngaphezulu kweminyaka engamashumi amathathu emva ko-El Mozote, iNkundla ye-UN yaseMelika ifumene u-El Salvador enetyala lokubulawa kwabantu, lokukugubungela, nokusilela ukuphanda emva koko. Imbuyekezo kwiintsapho ezisaphilayo ibincinci. Kwiminyaka elandelayo, i-El Salvador yayiyeyona nqanaba liphezulu lokubulala. Olu lusuku olulungileyo lokuchitha ixesha lokufunda kunye nokuqhankqalaza izinto ezoyikekayo zongenelelo lomkhosi okhoyo kwamanye amazwe.
Disemba 12. Ngaloo mini kwi-1982, abafazi be-30,000 badibanisa izandla ukuze bajikeleze ngokupheleleyo i-perimeter engama-9 e-US-based base-Greenham e-Berkshire, eNgilani. Injongo yabo yokuzibonakalisa eyona nto yayikuthi "bayamkele isiseko," ngaloo ndlela "balwisana nobudlova ngothando." Isiqhelo saseGreenham esiqhelekileyo, evuliwe kwi-1942, sasisetyenziswe yiBritish Royal Air Force kunye ne-US Army Air Force ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi yesiBini. . Ngexesha leMfazwe yeHlabathi elandelayo, yahlawulwa kwi-US ukuze isebenziswe yi-US Strategic Air Command. Kwi-1975, i-Soviet Union yasebenzisa imikhosi ye-ballistic intercontinental enezixhobo ezijoliswe ngokuzimeleyo kwintsimi yayo ukuba ukusebenzisana kwe-NATO kubonwa njengesongelo kwi-Western Europe. Ekuphenduleni, i-NATO yakha icebo lokuhambisa ngaphezu kwe-500 i-cruise nuclear cruise kunye neembalo ze-ballistic kwi-Yurophu yaseYurophu nge-1983, kubandakanywa iinqwelo ze-96 ze-cruham e-Greenham Common. Isalathiso sokuqala sabasetyhini malunga nesicwangciso se-NATO senzeka kwi-1981, xa abafazi be-36 beya eGreenham abaqhelekileyo baseCardiff, eWales. Xa benethemba lokuxubusha isicwangciso kunye namagosa ayenganyanzelwanga, abafazi babophelela kwi-fence kwisiseko somoya, bamisa i-Camp Camp apho, kwaye baqala ukuba yimbali ye-19-mbhikisho yokulwa nezixhobo zenukliya. Ekupheleni kweMfazwe yeCold, i-Greenham yesiSekelo soMkhosi yayivaliwe ngoSeptemba 1992. Sekunjalo, ukubonakaliswa okuqhubekayo okubangelwa ngamashumi amawaka amabhinqa kuhlala kuphawulekayo. Ngexesha lokuxhatshazwa kweenkliya, ukusikhumbuza ukuba ukuphikisana ngokubambisana kwabantu kubonelela ngeendlela ezinamandla zokubonisa iiprojekthi ezithintela ubomi zombutho / wamashishini.
Disemba 13. Ngaloo mini ku-1937 amajapani aseJapan adlwengulwa kwaye atyuntshisa ubuncinane i-20,000 amabhinqa namantombazana aseTshayina. Amajapani aseJapan amthabatha uNanjing, ngoko yintloko yeChina. Kwiiveki ezingaphezu kweeveki babulala abantu kunye namaqhawe kwaye baphanga imizi. Badlwengula phakathi kwe-20,000 kunye ne-80,000 nabasetyhini kunye nabantwana, banqume oomama abakhulelweyo, kunye nabasetyhini abaxhamliweyo abanezinkuni kunye nama-bayonethi. Inani lokufa aliqinisekanga, ukuya kwi-300,000. Uxwebhu lwachithwa, kwaye ulwaphulo-mthetho lusisona sizathu sokubambisana phakathi kweJapan neChina. Ukusetyenziswa kokudlwengulwa kunye nodlova ngokwesondo njengempahla yeemfazwe kuye kwabhalwa kwiimpikiswano ezininzi ezibandakanya iBangladesh, eCambodia, eCyprus, eHaiti, eLiberia, eSomalia, e-Uganda, eBosnia, eHerzegovina naseCroatia, kwakunye naseMzantsi Melika. Ngokuqhelekileyo kusetyenziswa ukuhlanjululwa kwabantu. ERwanda, intombazana ezithandwayo zentombazana zithatyathwa ziintsapho zabo kunye noluntu. Abanye bashiya zabo iintsana; abanye bazibulala. Ukudlwengula kuphazamisa uluntu lwendlela ngendlela ezimbalwa zixhobo, kwaye ukuphulwa kunye nentlungu kutyinjwa kwiintsapho zonke. Amantombazana kunye nabasetyhini ngamanye amaxesha baxhatshazwa ngokunyanzela kunye nokuthengiswa, okanye ukubonelela ngesondo ngokubuyisela izibonelelo, ngamanye amaxesha kunye nobunzima boorhulumente namagunya omkhosi. Ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, abafazi bavalelwa kwaye banyanzelekile ukuba banelise amandla. Amaninzi amaninzi aseAsia ayebandakanyeka ubuhenyu ngexesha leMfazwe yaseVietnam. Ukuhlaselwa ngokwesondo kubangela ingxaki enkulu kwiinkampu zababaleki kunye nabasemakhaya. Izilingo zaseNuremberg zigweba ukudlwengulwa njengoluphulo-mthetho olubhekiselele kuluntu; Oorhulumente kufuneka abizwe ukuba agxininise imithetho nemigaqo yokuziphatha nokubonelela ngeengcebiso kunye nezinye iinkonzo kumaxhoba.
Disemba 14. Kulo suku ku-1962, 1971, 1978, 1979, kunye ne-1980, ukuhlolwa kwebhomu kwenyukliya kwenziwa eMelika, e-China nase-USSR. Lo mhla ungumzekelo ongenangqununu okhethwe kwiimvavanyo zenyukliya ezaziwayo. Ukusuka kwi-1945 ukuya kwi-2017, kwakukho iimvavanyo zebhomu zenyukliya ze-2,624 emhlabeni jikelele. Iibhomu zenyukliya zokuqala zachithwa yi-United States kwiNagasaki naseHiroshima, eJapan, kwi-1945, kwizinto ezibonwa njengezixhobo zokuqala zenyukliya, kuba kwakungekho mntu wayesazi kakuhle indlela abaza kuba namandla ngayo. Iingxelo zokubulawa kunye nokulimala e-Hiroshima zi-150,000 kunye neNagasaki, i-75,000. Ixesha lokuqhuma kwenyukliya landelwa iMfazwe Yehlabathi II. Ngexesha leMfazwe yeCold, kwaye ukususela ngoko, iUnited States kunye neSoviet Union baye bafumana ubukhulu kwintambo yezixhobo zamandla enyukliya. I-US iqhube iimvavanyo zenyukliya ze-1,054, ilandelwa yi-USSR eyenze iimvavanyo ze-727 kunye neFransi nge-217. Iimvavanyo zenziwe nge-UK, Pakistan, North Korea, ne-Indiya. U-Israyeli uyaziwa ngokuba nezixhobo zenyukliya, nangona akakaze avume ngokusemthethweni, kwaye igosa lase-US ngokubanzi lihamba kunye naloo nto. Amandla kwezixhobo zenuzi enyukile ngokugqithiseleyo kwexesha, ukusuka kwiibhomu ze-athomu ukuya kwiibhomu ze-hydrogen ze-hydrogen, kunye nezixhobo zenyukliya. Namhlanje, iibhomu zenyukliya zizihlandlo ze-3,000 ezinamandla njengoko ibhomu yawela eHiroshima. Isinyanzelo esinamandla esinxamnye nenyukliya siye sabangela izivumelwano zokungabikho kwemida kunye nokunciphisa, kubandakanywa noMnqophiso weNuclear Nonproliferation we-1970 kunye neNuclear Ban Treaty eyaqala ukuqokelela ukulungiswa kwi-2017. Ngokudabukisayo, iintlanga zamandla enyukliya azange zisekele ukuvinjelwa, kwaye ingqalelo yabezindaba isuke ekuhambeni kwayo.
Disemba 15. Ngaloo mhla kwi-1791 iBhili yamaLungelo e-US yamkelwe. EUnited States le yiYilwayo yoLungelo lweSuku. Kwakukho ingxoxo enkulu malunga nokuqulunqwa nokulungiswa komGaqo-siseko, ochaza isikhokelo sikarhulumente, kodwa ekugqibeleni saqala ukusebenza kwi-1789, ngokuqonda ukuba iBill Bill of Rights izongezwa. UMgaqo-siseko unokulungiswa ngokuqinisekiswa yi-third-fourths ye-States. Izilungiso zokuqala ezilishumi kuMgaqo-siseko we-United States yiYilwayo yamaLungelo, ivunyiwe iminyaka emibini emva kokuba uMgaqo-siseko usungulwe. Olunye Uhlengahlengiso olwaziwayo lulokuqala, olukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, ucinezela, inhlangano kunye nenkolo. ISilungiso sesiBini siye savela ekubeni nelungelo lokufumana izibhamu, kodwa ekuqaleni lijongene nelilungelo lamazwe ukulungiselela amagosa. Izilungiso zokuqala zoLungiso lwesiBili zibandakanya ukuvinjelwa komkhosi wokuma wesizwe (kwakhona kufumaneka kwimida emibini emininzi emkhosini oqulethwe kwisiqendu esibalulekileyo somGaqo-siseko). Iingqungquthela zibandakanya ukulawulwa kwamandla emkhosini, kunye nelungelo lokunyanzela unembeza ukuba lijoyine umkhosi. Ukubaluleka kweempi kwakukho ezimbini: ukuba umhlaba kubantu baseMelika, nokunyanzelisa ubukhoboka. Isilungiso saguqulelwa ukubhekisela kumabutho aseburhulumenteni, kunokuba i-militia yasemagunyeni, kwinqanaba likazwelonke elivumela ubukhoboka, abameli babo babesaba bobabini abavukeli bekhoboka kunye nokukhululwa komkhosi ngenkonzo yemikhosi yempi. IsiTshintsho sesithathu sivimbela umntu ukuba ahlasele amasosha emakhaya abo, umkhuba owenziwe uphelelwe ngumsebenzi ngamakhulu eenqwelo zomkhosi ezisisigxina. I-Fourth ngoHlomelo lwesithandathu, njengoLokuQala, ukhusela abantu kwiindawo zokuxhaphazwa zikarhulumente, kodwa ziphulwa rhoqo.
Disemba 16. Ngaloo mhla kwi-1966 umnqophiso wamazwe ngamazwe ngamalungelo oluntu kunye nezopolitiko (ICCPR) yamkelwa yiNdibano Yomhlaba jikelele. Kwaqalisa ukusebenza kwi-1976. Ukususela ngoDisemba i-2018, amazwe e-172 aye avumile isivumelwano. ISivumelwano soMhlaba kwiNtlalo yeNtlalo kunye neNkcubeko, iMbhengezo yeSizwe yamaLungelo oluntu, kwaye i-ICCPR yaziwa ngokubanzi njengeBhili yamaLungelo eMhlaba. I-ICCPR isebenza kuwo onke amaqumrhu karhulumente kunye nabameli, kunye noorhulumente baseburhulumenteni basekhaya. Isiqendu 2 siqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo ahlonziwe kwi-ICCPR aya kufumaneka kuwo wonke umntu kulawo mazwe awamkele umnqophiso. Isiqendu 3 siqinisekisa amalungelo alinganayo kwamadoda nabasetyhini. Phakathi kwamalungelo akhuselwe yi-ICCPR yile: amalungelo okuphila, inkululeko ekuhlanjululeni, inkululeko ebukhosini, ekukhuleni kwintlalo, ukhuseleko lomntu, inkululeko yokuhamba, ukulingana phambi kweenkundla kunye nokulingwa okufanelekileyo. Iiprotokthi ezimbini zokuzikhethela zithetha ukuba nabani na unelungelo lokuvalelwa yiKomidi yamaLungelo oLuntu, nokuphelisa isigwebo sokufa. IKomidi yamaLungelo eLuntu ihlola iingxelo kwaye ijongana neengxaki kunye neengcebiso kwilizwe. Ikomiti iphinda ipapashe iiNgxelo eziqhelekileyo ngokutolika kwayo. I-American Civil Liberties Union yathumele uluhlu lwemicimbi ngoJanuwari 2019 kwiKomiti malunga nokuphulwa e-United States, njengoku: umkhosi we-US-Mexican umda, ukusetyenziswa kwamanye amazwe kumandla ekubulaweni okujoliswe kuwo, ukugcinwa kwee-Arhente yoKhuseleko lweSizwe, ukugcinwa kwedwa, kunye nesigwebo sokufa. Lo ngumhla olungileyo wokufunda okungakumbi malunga ne-ICCPR kwaye uzinze nokuzixhasa.
Disemba 17. Ngaloo mini kwi-2010, u-Mohamed Bouazizi ukuziphatheka kwakhe eTunisia waqalisa uMvulo waseArabhu. UBouazizi wazalelwa e1984 kusapho oluhlwempuzekileyo olunabantwana abasixhenxe kunye notata wesibini ogulayo. Usebenze ukusukela kwiminyaka elishumi njengomthengisi wasesitalatweni kwaye wayeka isikolo ukuxhasa usapho, efumana malunga ne- $ 140 ngenyanga ethengisa imveliso angene kuyo ematyaleni. Wayesaziwa, edumile, kwaye enesisa ngemveliso yasimahla yamahlwempu. Amapolisa ayemhlukumeza kwaye elindele ukunyoba. Iingxelo malunga nesenzo sakhe ziyaphikisana, kodwa usapho lwakhe luthi amapolisa afuna ukubona imvume yomthengisi wakhe, ebengayidingi ukuthengisa kwinqwelo. Igosa lomfazi lamqhwaba ebusweni, lamtshicela, lathatha izixhobo zakhe, lanyelisa utata wakhe oswelekileyo. Abancedisi bakhe bambetha. Umfazi owayemthuka wenza ukuba ahlazeke ngakumbi. Wazama ukubona irhuluneli, kodwa akavuma. Edikwe ngokupheleleyo, wazigalela ngepetroli, wazilungisa umlilo. Emva kweentsuku ezilishumi elinesibhozo wafa. Kunye noqhankqalazo olunomsindo esitratweni, abantu abangamawaka amahlanu baya emngcwabeni wakhe. Uphando luphelile ngegosa elingumfazi elalimthukile lalivalelwe. Amaqela anyanzelisa ukuba kususwe ulawulo lukamongameli owonakeleyo, uBen Ali, esemandleni ukusukela ngo-1987. Ukusetyenziswa kwamandla ukuthintela uqhankqalazo kwabangela ukugxekwa kwilizwe liphela, kwaye kwiintsuku ezilishumi emva kokubhubha kukaBouazizi, uBen Ali wanyanzeleka ukuba arhoxe kwaye ahambe nosapho lwakhe. Uqhanqalazo luqhubekile nolawulo olutsha. Uqhanqalazo olungenabundlobongela olubizwa ngokuba yiNtwasahlobo yaseArabhu lusasazeka ngaphesheya koMbindi Mpuma, nabantu abaninzi bematsha kunalo naliphi na ixesha kwimbali yayo. Olu lusuku olulungileyo lokuququzelela ukungachasani nokungabikho komthetho kokungabikho kokusesikweni.
Disemba 18. Ngaloo mini kwi-2011, i-United States kuthiwa iphelile imfazwe yayo e-Iraq, engazange iphele, kwaye eyayihlala yindlela enye okanye enye ukusuka ngonyaka we-1990. UMongameli waseMelika uGeorge W. Bush usayine isivumelwano sokuba ama-US asuswe e-Iraq nge-2011, kwaye sele eqale ukususa kwi-2008. Umceli wakhe njengomongameli, uBarack Obama, wayekhankasele ukuphelisa imfazwe yase-Iraq kunye nokunyuka kwe-Afghanistan. Wayegcina isigxina sesibini salelo thembiso, amabutho ase-US amathathu e-Afghanistan. U-Obama wazama ukugcina amawaka emikhosi e-Iraq ngaphaya komhla wokugqibela kodwa kuphela ukuba iPalamente yase-Iraq iya kubanika ukukhuselwa kwanoma luphi na ulwaphulo-mthetho olwenzayo. IPhalamende yakwala. U-Obama washiya amaninzi amabutho, kodwa emva kokubuyiswa kwakhe kwasithumela amawaka emikhosi, nangona esweleka ukuba lo mkhuhlane wezaphulo-mthetho. Okwangoku i-chaos eyenziwe yinqanaba leemfazwe eliqaliswe kwi-2003, imfazwe ye-2011 eLibiya, kwaye ukuxhaswa nokuxhaswa kwabakhohlisi kuwo wonke ummandla kunye nabavukeli eSiriya kwakhokelela ekrephweni olungakumbi kunye nokunyuka kweqela elithi ISIS elikhonza Isizathu sokunyuka kwezempi zase-US eSiriya nase-Iraq. Imfazwe ekhokelwa yi-US e-Iraq kwiminyaka emva kokuba i-2003 ibulale ngaphezu kwesigidi se-Iraqi, ngokwezo zifundo eziphambili ezenziwe, zonakalisa iziseko ezisisiseko, zenze izifo zesifo, iingxaki zokubalekela, ukubhujiswa kwendalo, kunye nokubulawa kwabantu. IUnited States yathululela ngaphezu kweedola ezigidi eziyi-trillion ukuya kwiindleko ezihambelanayo zempi ngamnye ngonyaka iminyaka emininzi emva kwe-2001, iphosa ngokwaso ngendlela i-Septhemba 11th eyayingayiphupha ngayo.
Disemba 19. Ngalo mhla kwi-1776 uThomas Paine wapapasha isincoko sakhe sokuqala esithi "Ingxaki yaseMelika". Iqala "Ngala maxesha azama imiphefumlo yamadoda" kwaye yayiyeyokuqala kwiincwadana zakhe ezili-16 phakathi kwe-1776 kunye ne-1783 ngexesha leNguquko yaseMelika. Wayefike ePennsylvania evela eNgilani ngo-1774, ubukhulu becala engafundanga, kwaye wabhala kwaye wathengisa izincoko ekhusela umbono weriphabliki. Walicaphukela igunya nangayiphi na indlela, wagxeka “ubuzwilakhe kulawulo lwaseBritane” kwaye waxhasa uguquko njengemfazwe enobulungisa nengcwele. Wacela ubusela kwiiLoyalists, wakhuthaza ukuba baxhonywe, wancoma ubundlobongela kumajoni aseBritane. U-Paine wazibonakalisa ngamagama alula kakhulu, esenza ukuba kusasazwe iindaba ezilungileyo ngexesha lemfazwe. Walahla ukuntsokotha, wathi, “kunqabile ukuba ndicaphule; isizathu kukuba, ndihlala ndicinga njalo. ” Abanye bakholelwa ukuba ukugwetywa kwakhe ngabanye abantu abacingayo kubonisa ukungabikho kwemfundo. Wabuyela eBrithani enkulu ngo-1787 kodwa ingcamango yakhe ayizange yamkelwe. Ukuxhasa kwakhe inkanuko yoQhushululu lwaseFrance kwakuthetha ukuba uhlawuliswe ngenkohliso kwaye wanyanzelwa ukuba abaleke eNgilani eFrance ngaphambi kokuba abanjwe kwaye abekwe ityala. IFransi yawela kwisiphithiphithi, uloyiko kunye nemfazwe, kwaye uPaine wavalelwa ngexesha lobugorha kodwa ekugqibeleni wanyulwa kwi-National Convention ngo-1792. Ngo-1802, uThomas Jefferson wamema uPaine ukuba abuyele e-United States. I-Paine ibambe umbono oqhubela phambili kurhulumente, ezabasebenzi, ezoqoqosho, kunye nenkolo-ezifumanela intshaba ezininzi. UPaine wasweleka kwisiXeko saseNew York ngo-1809 kwaye ngokubanzi kudweliswe phakathi kwabaSeki base-United States. Olu lusuku lokufunda ngengqondo egxekayo.
Disemba 20. Ngaloo mini kwi-1989 i-United States yahlasela iPanama. Ukuhlasela, phantsi koMongameli uGeorge HW Bush, wabizwa ngokuba yi-Operation Just Cause, kwafakwa amasosha e-26,000, kwaye yayiyimfazwe enkulu kunazo zonke e-US ukususela kwimfazwe yaseVietnam. Ezi njongo zijoliswe ukubuyisela ku-uongameli uGuillermo Endara, okhetho lwakhe lwaluxhaswe ngeedola ezili-10 zeedola ze-US, kwaye ngubani oye wafaka i-Manual Noriega, waza wabamba uNoriega kwiimbuyekezo zokurhweba iziyobisi. U-Noriega wayekhokhelwa i-CIA asethi iminyaka engamashumi amabini, kodwa ukuthobela kwakhe e-United States kwakunzima. Izizathu zokuhlasela zibandakanya ukulawulwa kwe-US yePanama Canal, ukugcina amaziko aseMelika, ukufumana inkxaso kubantu base-United States abakwiNicaragua nakwezinye izindawo, ukudweba uMongameli uBush njengenkokeli yezinto kunokusebenzisa i-wimp, ukuthengisa izixhobo, ebizwa ngokuba yiVietnam Syndrome, oku kuthetha ukuba abantu base-United States banqabile ukuxhasa imfazwe eyingozi. Ukufikelela kwi-4,000 yamaPanamani yafa kule "yinto eyomileyo" kwiMfazwe yaseGulf kamuva. I-Panama yavelisa uqoqosho oludityanisiweyo olususela ekukhenketho, kwicandelo leenkonzo, kwiPanama Canal, kwiindawo ezihlala phantsi zomhlalaphantsi, i-flagship registry, izibonelelo zerhafu kwiinkampani zonyango zangaphandle kunye nabarhwebi, ukubhankwa kwamanye amazwe, iindleko eziphantsi zokuphila kunye nexabiso elikhulayo lomhlaba. I-Panama yaziwa ngokutsha kwemali, urhwaphilizo lwezopolitiko kunye ne-cocaine transhipments. Kukho ukungabikho kwemisebenzi, kwaye ukwahlula phakathi kobutyebi kunye nobutyebi obubanzi, kunye ne-40% yabemi phantsi kobuhlwempu. Abantu bahlala kwiindawo ezingenamakhaya kwaye abanako ukufikelela kwinkathalo yonyango okanye ukutya okunomsoco. Lo ngumhla omuhle ukucinga ngoobani ozuza impango yemfazwe kwaye ojongene nemiphumo.
Disemba 21. Ngaloo mini kwi-1940, ukucwangciswa kwe-firebombing yaseTokyo nge-United States kwavunyelwana neChina. Iiveki ezimbini zineentloni zonyaka ngaphambi kohlaselo lwaseJapan ePearl Harbour, Umphathiswa Wezemali e-China u-TV Soong kunye no-Colonel Claire Chennault, owayethathe umhlala-phantsi e-US Army, badibana kwigumbi lokudlela lika-Nondyebo wase-US u-Henry Morgenthau ukuze bacwangcise ukuqhushumbisa ikomkhulu lase Japan. UColonel, owayesebenzela amaTshayina, wayebakhuthaza ukuba basebenzise abaqhubi beenqwelo moya baseMelika ukuqhushumisa iTokyo ukusukela ngo-1937. UMorgenthau wathi angabakhulula abantu emsebenzini kwi-US Army Air Corps ukuba amaTshayina angabhatala i-1,000 9 leedola ngenyanga . USoong wavuma. I-US ibonelele i-China ngeenqwelomoya kunye nabaqeqeshi, emva koko yabaqhubi beenqwelo moya. Kodwa ukuqhushumbisa umlilo eTokyo akwenzekanga kwada kwasebusuku bango-Matshi 10-1945, 16. Iibhombu ezitshisayo zisetyenzisiwe, kwaye isaqhwithi somlilo esatshabalalisa i-100,000 yeekhilomitha zesixeko, sabulala abantu abaqikelelwa kwi-XNUMX, kwaye sashiya isigidi sabantu bengenamakhaya. . Yayiyeyona bhombu itshabalalisayo kwimbali yoluntu, yonakalise ngakumbi kuneDresden, okanye iibhombu zeatom ezisetyenziswa eJapan kamva kuloo nyaka. Apho ukuqhushumba kweHiroshima kunye neNagasaki kufumene ingqalelo enkulu kunye nokugwetywa, ukutshatyalaliswa kwe-US ngaphezulu kweedolophu ezingamashumi amathandathu zaseJapan ngaphambi kokuba kuqhushumbe. Izixeko zebhombu bezingumbindi wemfazwe yase-US ukusukela oko. Isiphumo sokwenzakala ngakumbi kodwa amaxhoba ambalwa e-US. Olu lusuku olulungileyo lokujonga ixabiso lokungabikho kwabantu base-US.
Disemba 22. Ngalo mhla ngo-1847, u-Congressman u-Abraham Lincoln wacela umngeni ku-Mongameli uJames K. Polk malunga nemfazwe eyayise Mexico. UPolk wayenyanzelisile ukuba iMexico yayiqale imfazwe “ngokuchitha igazi laseMelika kumhlaba waseMelika.” ULincoln wayefuna ukuboniswa apho kwenzeke khona umlo kwaye wathi amajoni ase-US ahlasele indawo ekuphikiswana ngayo eyayiseMexico ngokusemthethweni. Uye wagxeka uPolk "ngenkohliso yenkohliso" malunga nemvelaphi yemfazwe kunye nokuzama ukongeza kumhlaba wase-US. ULincoln uvote ngokuchasene nesisombululo esithi imfazwe ilungile, kwaye emva konyaka waxhasa enye eyadlula kancinci, evakalisa ukuba imfazwe ayihambisani nomgaqo-siseko. Kunyaka olandelayo imfazwe yagqitywa ngeSivumelwano saseGuadalupe-Hidalgo. Isivumelwano sanyanzela urhulumente waseMexico ukuba avume ukuthatha iAlta California kunye neSanta Fe de Nuevo Mexico yi-United States. Oku kongeze i-525,000 yeekhilomitha kumhlaba wase-US, kubandakanya umhlaba owenza yonke into okanye iinxalenye zeArizona, California, Colado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah kunye ne Wyoming. I-United States ihlawule i-15 yezigidi zeembuyekezo kwaye irhoxise ityala le-3.5 yezigidi. IMexico iyavuma ukulahleka kweTexas kwaye yamkela iRio Grande njengomda wayo osemantla. Ukwanda okukhulu komhlaba e-United States kwenzeka nge-Polk's annexation yaseTexas ngo-1845, uthethathethwano lweSivumelwano sase-Oregon ne-Great Britain ngo-1846, kunye nokupheliswa kweMfazwe yaseMexico naseMelika. Imfazwe yajongwa e-US njengoloyiso, kodwa yagxekwa ngenxa yokwenzakala kwabantu, indleko zemali kunye nobunzima. Inkcaso kaLincoln emfazweni yayingengomqobo ekungeneni kwakhe kwiNdlu yeWhite House, apho, njengabongameli abaninzi, wayishiya khona.
Disemba 23. Ngaloo mini kumongameli we-1947 uTruman waxolela i-1,523 ye-15,805 ye-World War II. Iimpazamo zazihlala zizilungelo lookumkani kunye nabalawuli. E-United States kwi-1787, kwiNgqungquthela yomGaqo-siseko, amandla okuxolela anikwe umongameli wase-US. Kwi-1940, uMthetho woQeqesho noCwangciso lweeNkonzo waphunyezwa. Bonke abantu phakathi kweminyaka eyi-21 kunye ne-45 kwafuneka babhalise kwiqulunqo. Emva kwemfazwe, inani lamadoda eboshiweyo ngenxa yokwenqaba ukuchithwa, ukungabhalisi, okanye ukungaphumeleli ukuvavanya ukuvavanywa kwesazela ngenxa yenembeza kubalwa i-6,086. Inani lezintshisekelo zazingabonakali, kodwa kwi-1944, i-Army ibhale izinga lokufunwa kwe-63 kuwo onke amadoda akwa-1,000 emsebenzini osebenzayo. UTruman wenqaba ukunika uxolo oluya kuxolela wonke umntu, kwaye esikhundleni salolu hlobo lwalandela umyalelo weNkqala YeMfazwe Yehlabathi: ukuxolelwa ngokukhethekileyo. Impembelelo yokuxolelwa yayiza kubakho ukubuyisela ngokupheleleyo amalungelo asemanyeneyo kunye nezopolitiki. Kwi-1946, iTuruman ibize ibhodi elungu lamalungu amathathu ukuba lihlolisise iimeko zomntu onqaba ukuya empini ngenxa kanembeza. Ibhodi ikhuthaze ukuxolela kuphela iincwadi ze-1,523 zokurhoxisa. Ibhodi yaxela ukuba akukho zixokelelo ezilungele ukuba "ziziphakamise njengobulumko kwaye zikwazi ngakumbi ukwedlula uluntu ukuba zenze umsebenzi wazo wokuza kuzikhusela isizwe." Ku-1948, u-Eleanor Roosevelt wancenga uTruman ukuba ahlolisise onke amacala, kodwa uTruman wenqaba, ethi amadoda abandakanyekayo "ayengamaqhinga nje okanye ama-shirkers." Kodwa e-1952, uTruman waxolela abo babesebenza kwiArmed time ngexesha lokuthula, kunye nabo bonke abahlaseli bexesha loxolo bevela emkhosini.
Disemba 24. Ngaloo mini kwi-1924 Costa Rica inikezela isaziso sokurhoxisa kwi-League of Nations ukuba ibhikishe iMfundiso ye-Monroe. ISivumelwano soMbutho weZizwe, esamkelwe ekubunjweni kwayo kwi-1920, sasibhekiselele kwiimfundiso ezifana neendlela zokuqinisekisa "ukugcinwa koxolo" nangona amazwe amaninzi aseLatin waseMelika ayengayiboni iMfundiso yeMonroe njengokwenza kunjalo. I-Monroe Doctrine, eyenziwe kwi-1823, isichazwe ukuba ibe yisixhobo sokukhusela iimfuno zaseMerika kwiiMerika nangona ukuba kuthetha ukukhanyela iintlanga ezizilungelo ilungelo lokuzimisela. Esinye seziganeko ezibalulekileyo ezisemthethweni sichaza kwakhona i-Monroe Doctrine yayinguRoosevelt Corollary ye-1904, eyayivulela ngokusemthethweni impiriyali yase-US eMerika. I-Roosevelt Corollary yatshintsha ngokucacileyo i-Monroe Doctrine ukusuka kwenye engekho ukungenelelo ngamagunya aseYurophu eMerika ukuya kwelinye lamanyathelo angenelelo eMelika. Abanye abaxhasi balo mgaqo-nkqubo bakholelwa ukuba kwakuyingxenye yomthwalo womntu "omhlophe" ukuba enze ngokubhekiselele ekuphakameni kobuhlanga, inkcubeko kunye nenkolo. URovelvelt wathi "ukuphosakeka okungapheliyo, okanye ukungabi namandla okubangela ukukhululeka ngokubanzi kwezibophelelo zomphakathi ophucukileyo" wanika i-US ilungelo lokuba asebenzise "amandla angamapolisa ngamazwe ngamazwe" ngokubhekiselele ekuchazeni kwakhe i-Monroe Doctrine. Le ngcamango yokucinga ngokobuhlanga, kunye neenjongo zezoqoqosho zase-US, sele iqalile indlela yokwenza i-incursions eHawaii, eCuba, ePanama, kwiRiphabliki yaseDominican, eHonduras naseNicaragua ngexesha laseCosta Rica lenze isigqibo sayo esiganeko kwi-1924.
Disemba 25. Ngaloo mini kwi-1914, kwiindawo eziliqela kwi-Western Front kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi I, amajoni aseBrithani kunye namaJamani abeka izandla zawo aze aphakame kwiintonga zawo ukuze atshintshe iindwendwe zeholide kunye nokuthabatha intshaba. Nangona oorhulumente bamazwe aphikisanayo babengazange bamnqule uPapa Benedict XV ukubiza umnqweno weKrisimesi kwangaphambi kweeveki ezimbini, amajoni ngokwawo avakalisa ingqungquthela engafanelekanga. Yintoni eyabangela ukuba bayenze? Kungenzeka ukuba, emva kokulungelelanisa kwingozi kunye nemingcipheko yemfazwe yamanzi enyakatho yeFransi, beye baqala ukufumanisa inkcitho yabo enzima kunye neyaloo majoni etshaba eminqubeni engekude. Isimo sengqondo esithi "phila kwaye sivumeleke" sasivele sichaza "ekutshintsheni nasekutshintsheni" intshaba ngexesha "lokuthula" phakathi kweemfazwe. Ngokuqinisekileyo, amagosa empi emacaleni omabini ayesenyamekela ukubeka umngcipheko wokutshutshisa intshaba, ukukhokela iBritani ngoJanuwari 1915 ukwenza ezinye iinkcukacha ezingaqhelekanga phantsi kwesohlwayo esinzima. Ngenxa yesi sizathu, i-Christmas Truce ye-1914 yayikude icinga ukuba iyisigidi esisodwa. Nangona kunjalo, ubungqina obungabonakaliyo kwi-2010 ngumdumi-mlando waseJamani uTomas Weber ucebisa ukuba ezinye iikhamesi zeKrisimesi zendawo zibonwa kwakhona kwi-1915 ne-1916. Isizathu, ukholelwa ukuba, emva kokulwa, amajoni ahlala esoloko evakalelwa kukuba baxhaswa ukuba bancedise amajoni amanzakele ngaphesheya. Amajoni aqhubeka nokugcina ingqungquthela yeKrisimesi apho babekwazi khona, ngenxa yokuba izilwanyana zabo zintlanzi, zingcwatywe ngubunzima bemfazwe, zahlala ziphendulela kumathuba amakhulu othando noxolo.
Disemba 26. Ngaloo mini ku-1872 Norman Angell wazalwa. Uthando lokufunda lukhokelela ekutholeni kwakhe iMill Umxholo woKhuseleko ngexesha le12. Wafunda eNgilani, eFransi naseSwitzerland ngaphambi kokufudukela eCalifornia kwi-17. Waqala ukusebenza eSt. Louis Globe-Democratkunye neSan Francisco Chronicle. Njengombhalwano, wathuthela e-Paris waza waba ngumhleli we- Daily Messenger, ke umxhasi wabasebenzi Éclair. Ukubika kwakhe kwiMfazwe yaseSpain-Amerika, into yaseDreyfus, kunye neBoer War yaholela uAngell kwincwadi yakhe yokuqala, Ukuthandwa kobuzwe obuphantsi kweeflegi ezintathu: Isizathu sokungqinelana kwezopolitiko (1903). Ngethuba ulungiso lwephephandaba leParis leNkosi Northcliffe Mail Daily, U-Angell wapapasha enye incwadi I-Europe Optical Illusion, owandise kwi-1910 kwaye wabizwa kwakhona The Great Illusion. Ingcamango ka-Angell yemfazwe ichazwe kumsebenzi wayo kukuba amandla omkhosi kunye nezopolitiko ayemi ngendlela yokubonelela ngokukhusela, kwaye kungenakwenzeka ukuba uhlanga olulodwa lube nolunye. Omkhulu Uluhlu yahlaziywa kuyo yonke imisebenzi yakhe, kuthengisa iikopi ze-2 zee-million, kwaye yaguqulelwa kwiilwimi ze-25. Wasebenza njengeLungu loMsebenzi wePalamente, kunye neKomiti yeHlabathi yeMfazwe kunye neFascism, kwiKomidi eliLawulayo iNyanano yeZizwe zeZizwe, kunye noMongameli we-Abyssinia Association, ngelixa eshicilela iincwadi ezingamashumi amane nesinye, kuquka Umdlalo weMali (1928) Abangabonakaliyo (1932) Ingozi kwiNkxaso yethu yoZwelonke (1934) Uxolo kunye noDictators? (1938) kunye Emveni kwakho konke (1951) ngentsebenziswano njengesiseko senkcubeko. U-Angell waxutywa kwi-1931, waza wafumana iNdel Peace Peace e-1933.
Disemba 27. Ngaloo mini kwi-1993 eBelgrade Abafazi baseNtsundu babenomdla wokuNyaka omtsha. AmaKomanisi iYugoslavia ayenziwe ziiriphabliki zaseSlovenia, eCroatia, eSerbia, eBosnia, eMontenegro naseMacedonia. Emva kokusweleka kwe-Nkulumbuso uTito ngo-1980, kwavela iyantlukwano kwaye yakhuthazwa phakathi kwamaqela ezizwe kunye nobuzwe. ISlovenia neCroatia zabhengeza inkululeko ngo-1989, zabangela ungquzulwano nomkhosi waseYugoslavia. Ngowe-1992 kwaqhambuka imfazwe phakathi kwamaSilamsi aseBosnia namaCroats. Ukurhangqwa kwekomkhulu, iSarajevo, kwathatha iinyanga ezingama-44. Kwafa abantu abangama-10,000 20,000 kwaye abafazi abangama-1998 XNUMX badlwengulwa ekucoceni ubuhlanga. Imikhosi yamaSerbia yaseBosnia yathatha iSrebrenica yaza yabulala amaSilamsi. I-NATO ibhombise izikhundla zeSerbia zaseBosnia. Imfazwe yaqala ngo-XNUMX eKosovo phakathi kwabavukeli baseAlbania neSerbia, kwaye kwakhona i-NATO yaqalisa ukuqhuma ibhomu, yongeza ekufeni nasekutshatyalalisweni ngelixa ibanga ukuba kulwelwa oko kubizwa ngokuba yimfazwe yoluntu. Abasetyhini abaMnyama babunjwe ngexesha lezi mfazwe zinzima nezonakalisayo. Ukulwa nomkhosi ligunya labo, "imeko yokomoya kunye nokukhetha kwabo kwezopolitiko." Ngokwenkolelo yokuba abantu basetyhini bahlala bewakhusela amakhaya abo ngokukhulisa abantwana, bexhasa abo bangenamandla, kwaye besebenza bengahlawulwa ekhaya, bathi "Siyawalahla amandla omkhosi… ukuveliswa kwezixhobo zokubulala abantu ... ulawulo lwesini esinye, ilizwe , okanye bhala kwelinye. ” Baququzelela amakhulu oqhankqalazo ngexesha nasemva kwemfazwe yaseBalkan, kwaye bayasebenza kwihlabathi liphela ngoomasifundisane neenkomfa, kunye noqhankqalazo. Benza amaqela oxolo abasetyhini kwaye bafumene uninzi lwe-UN kunye namanye amabhinqa namabhaso oxolo kunye nokutyunjwa. Olu lusuku oluhle lokujonga emva kwiimfazwe kwaye ubuze into enokwenziwa ngokwahlukileyo.
Disemba 28. Ngaloo mini kwi-1991, urhulumente wasePhilippines wayala iUnited States ukuba ihoxise kwisiseko sayo sobugcisa eSicic Bay. Amagosa aseMerika nasePhilippines aye afumane isivumelwano sokuthintela ihlobo eledlulileyo kwisivumelwano esiya kuwandisa ukuqeshiswa kwesiseko esinye iminyaka elishumi ngokutshintshela i-$ 203 yezigidi ngonyaka woncedo. Kodwa umnqophiso walahlwa yiPhilippines Senate, eyayihlasela ubukhosi baseMelika kweli lizwe njengendawo yokuhlala koloniyaliyali kunye nokuxhatshazwa kolawulo lwasePhilippine. Urhulumente wasePhilippine waguqulela i-Subic Bay kwi-Subic Zone ye-Freeport Zone, eyadala imisebenzi emitsha ye-70,000 kwiminyaka yayo yokuqala yokuqala. Kwi-2014, nangona kunjalo, i-US ivuselele ubukho bempi yayo kweli lizwe phantsi kweSivumelwano seNtsebenziswano soKhuselo oluPhuculo. Iqhinga livumela i-US ukuba yakhiwe kwaye isebenzise izixhobo kwiziseko zasePhilippines zokusetyenziswa ngamazwe amabini ekuphuculeni ikhono lelizwe lasekhaya lokuzikhusela ngokumelene nosongelo lwangaphandle. Isidingo esinjalo sinokungabaza, nangona kunjalo. Iiphilippines ibhekene nengozi ebonakalayo yokuhlasela, ukuhlaselwa, okanye umsebenzi ukusuka naphina-kuquka iChina, esebenza kunye nePhilippines ukuphuhlisa izixhobo kwiLwandle lwaseChina ephantsi kwesivumelwano esivimba ukungenelela kwe-US. Okubanzi ngokubanzi, inokungabazwa ukuba ngaba i-US inokuthi ikwazi ukugcina ubukho bempi kumazwe angama-80 kunye nemimandla ehlabathini lonke. Nangona iisongelo ezithintekayo ezichazwe ngabapolitiki kunye neepundits, i-US iyindawo yokuhlala kwaye isetyenziswe kakuhle kwizinto ezikhoyo zangaphandle kwaye ayinalo ilungelo lokuvuselela iingozi ezinje kwenye indawo njengepolisa elizimeleyo lehlabathi.
Disemba 29. Ngaloo mini kwi-1890, umkhosi wase-US wabulala amadoda angama-130-300 Sioux, abafazi kunye nabantwana kwi-Massaged Kills. Lo ngowomnye wokugqibela kweengxabano ezininzi phakathi koorhulumente wase-US kunye neentlanga zaseMelika ngexesha le-19th Ikhulu lokunyuselwa kwintshona ye-United States. Umkhosi wenkolo owaziwa ngokuba yi-Ghost Dance wawunokumelana nokunyamezela, kwaye uboniswa yi-US njengongongelo olukhulu. I-US yayisanda kubulala i-Lakota eyiNtloko yaseSitting Bull inzame yokummisa nokuphelisa umdaniso. Abanye baseLota bakholelwa ukuba umdaniso wawuya kubuyiselwa kwihlabathi labo elidala kwaye ukugqoka okuthiwa "imiphefumlo yomoya" bekuya kubakhusela ukuba batshaywe. I-Lakota, yahlulwa kwaye yalambile, yayibhekele ukugcinwa kwePine Ridge. Zayimiswa yi-US 7th Cavalry, ethatyathwa kwi-Wounded Knee Creek, kwaye yajikelezwa yimipu enkulu yomlilo. Ibali kukuba ukudubula kwaxothwa, nokuba ngaba yiLota okanye isosha lase-US lingaziwa. Ukubulawa okubuhlungu nokukhuselekayo okulandelayo. Inani leLatota elifileyo liphikisana, kodwa kucacile ukuba ubuncinane isiqingatha salaba babulawa ngabafazi nabantwana. Le yimbambano yokugqibela phakathi kwemikhosi yama-federal kunye ne-Sioux kwaze kwaba yi-1973, xa amalungu e-American Indian Movement ahlala kwiindawo ezixhatshaziweyo ze-71 iintsuku zokubhikisha kwi-reservation. Ku-1977, uLeonard Peltier wafunyanwa enecala lokubulala ababini abameli be-FBI apho. I-Congress yase-US idlulisele isigqibo sokuzisola ngenxa yokubulawa kwe-1890 kwiminyaka eyikhulu kamva, kodwa iUnited States ngokuyininzi iyayigxeka imvelaphi yayo kwimigaqo-nkqubo yobuhlanga yemfazwe nokuhlanjululwa kweentlanga.
Disemba 30. Ngaloo mini kwi-1952 Tuskegee Institute ibike ukuba i-1952 yayinyaka wokuqala kwiminyaka eyi-71 yokugcinwa kwerekhodi ukuba akukho mntu wayenqabile kwi-US-ukuqonda okungaxhamliyo okungeke kume ukuvavanya kwexesha. (I-lynching yokugqibela e-US yenzeke ngenkulungwane yama-21.) Inani elibandayo alinakubonakalisa ukoyikeka kwesiganeko sehlabathi sokubulawa kwabantu ngokungenamthetho. Ngokuqhelekileyo kwenziwa ngamahlokondiba ahluthayo, i-lynching inika umzekelo ocacileyo woluntu phantse lokungathembani nokoyika "omnye," "ohlukileyo." I-Lynching imele ukuba ngumzekeliso omncinci kwimimandla engaphantsi kwayo yonke imfazwe kwimbali yoluntu, ebisoloko ibonisa ukungqubana phakathi kwabantu beentlanga ezahlukeneyo, iinkolo, ubuhlanga, iinkqubo zezopolitiko, okanye iifilosofi. Nangona kwakungaziwa kwenye indawo emhlabeni, i-lyn e-United States, eyaphumelela ukusuka kwiminyaka yasemva kweMfazwe yamakhaya ukuya kwinkulungwane ye-20, yayilulwaphulo-mthetho olwalukhuthaza ugqatso. Ngaphezulu kweepesenti ezingama-73 zamaxhoba angama-4,800 e-lynching e-US ayengama-Afrika-aseMelika. I-Lynchings ubukhulu becala-nangona yayingeyiyo kuphela-imeko yaseMzantsi. Ewe kunjalo, amazwe ali-12 akumazantsi abalwa malunga ne-4,075 ye-lynchings yabantu base-Afrika baseMelika ukusukela ngo-1877 ukuya ku-1950. Amashumi alithoba anesithoba eepesenti abantu abenza olu lwaphulo-mthetho zange bohlwaywe ngurhulumente okanye ngabaphathi bendawo. Akukho nto inokubonisa ukungabikho komntu ukusebenzisana ekuthinteleni iintlekele zehlabathi, ezinje ngokutshatyalaliswa kwendalo esingqongileyo okanye imfazwe yehlabathi yenyukliya kunaleyo yokuba i-United States Congress isilele ukuwisa umthetho obhengeza ulwaphulo-mthetho lwaseburhulumenteni kude kube nguDisemba, 2018, emva kweminyaka eli-100 yokuzama.
Disemba 31. Kulo mhla, abaninzi abantu behlabathi bebhiyozela ukuphela konyaka kunye nokuqala komtsha. Ngokuqhelekileyo, abantu benza izigqibo okanye izibophelelo zokuhlangabezana neenjongo ezithile ngonyaka oqala nje. World BEYOND War wenze Isibhengezo soXolo esikholelwa ukuba sisebenza njengesisombululo sonyaka omtsha. Esi sibhengezo soxolo okanye isithembiso soxolo sifumaneka kwi-intanethi ku- worldbeyondwar.org kwaye sityikitywe ngamawakawaka abantu kunye nemibutho phantse kuzo zonke iimbombo zehlabathi. Isibhengezo siqulathe izivakalisi ezibini kuphela, kwaye sifundwa sisonke: “Ndiyaqonda ukuba iimfazwe kunye nemikhosi zisenza singakhuseleki kunokuba zisikhusele, ukuba ziyabulala, zenzakalise kwaye zenzakalise abantu abadala, abantwana neentsana, zonakalisa kabuhlungu indalo esingqongileyo, zikhukuliseka inkululeko yoluntu, kwaye siphelise uqoqosho lwethu, sithatha izibonelelo kwimisebenzi yokuqinisekisa ubomi. Ndizimisele ukubandakanyeka kwaye ndixhase iinzame ezingenabundlobongela zokuphelisa yonke imfazwe kunye namalungiselelo emfazwe kunye nokudala uxolo oluzinzileyo nolungileyo. ” Nabani na onokungabaza malunga naziphi na iinxalenye zesibhengezo- Ngaba kuyinyani ukuba iimfazwe zisibeka engozini? Ngaba impi iyayonakalisa indalo? Ngaba imfazwe ayinakuphepheka okanye iyimfuneko okanye iluncedo? - World BEYOND War wenze iwebhusayithi yonke ukuphendula imibuzo enjalo. Kwihlabathibeyondwar.org luluhlu kunye neenkcazo zeentsomi ezikholelwa malunga nemfazwe kunye nezizathu zokuba kutheni kufuneka siphelise imfazwe, kunye namaphulo umntu anokuzibandakanya ekuqhubeleni phambili loo njongo. Musa ukusayina isibambiso soxolo ngaphandle kokuba uyinyanisile. Kodwa nceda uthethe oko! Jonga umhlababeyondwar.org Happy Year New!
Olu xolo Almanac lukwazisa amanyathelo abalulekileyo, inkqubela phambili, kunye nothintelo kwintshukumo yoxolo oluye lwenzeka ngosuku ngalunye lonyaka.
Thenga ushicilelo olushicilelweyo, okanye PDF.
Olu xolo Almanac kufuneka luhlale lulungile unyaka nonyaka de yonke imfazwe ipheliswe kwaye kubekho uxolo oluzinzileyo. Inzuzo evela kwintengiso yoshicilelo kunye neenguqulelo zePDF zixhasa umsebenzi World BEYOND War.
Isicatshulwa sivelisiwe kwaye sihlelwe ngu UDavid Swanson.
Umsindo orekhodiweyo I-Tim Pluta.
Izinto ezibhalwe ngu URobert Anschuetz, uDavid Swanson, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, u-Erin McElfresh, uAlexander Shaia, uJohn Wilkinson, uWilliam Geimer, uPeter Goldsmith, uGar Smith, uThierry Blanc, noTom Schott.
Iingcamango zezihloko ezingeniswe yi UDavid Swanson, uRobert Anschuetz, uAlan Knight, uMarilyn Olenick, uEleanor Millard, uDarlene Coffman, uDavid McReynolds, uRichard Kane, uPil Runkel, uJill Greer, uJim Gould, uBob Stuart, uAlaina Huxtable, uT Thierry Blanc.
umculo isetyenziswe ngemvume evela “Ukuphela kweMfazwe,” Ngu-Eric Colville.
Umculo weaudio nokudibanisa NguSergio Diaz.
Imizobo ngu Parisa Saremi.
World BEYOND War yintshukumo yehlabathi engavisisaniyo yokuphelisa imfazwe kwaye iseke uxolo olunobulungisa nolizinzileyo. Injongo yethu kukudala ulwazi ngenkxaso eyaziwayo yokuphelisa imfazwe kunye nokuphuhlisa ngakumbi le nkxaso. Sisebenzela ukuqhubela phambili ngombono wokungathinteli nje nayiphi na imfazwe ethile kodwa ukutshabalalisa iziko lonke. Silwela ukubuyisela inkcubeko yethu kwimfazwe apho uxolo lungendawo apho iindlela zokungqubana kwengxabano zithathe indawo yegazi.
