NguPeter van den Dungen, World BEYOND War, UJanuwari 23, 2022
Uphononongo lwencwadi: Kutheni kukho imfazwe? nguChristopher Coker, London, Hurst, 2021, 256 pp., £20 (Hardback), ISBN 9781787383890
Impendulo emfutshane, ebukhali ethi Why War? ukuba abafundi basetyhini banokubeka phambili 'ngenxa yabantu!' Enye impendulo isenokuba 'ngenxa yeembono ezichazwe kwiincwadi ezinjengale!' UChristopher Coker ubhekisela 'kwimfihlelo yemfazwe' (4) kwaye uthi 'Abantu banobundlobongela obungenakuphepheka' (7); ‘Imfazwe isenza abantu’ (20); “Asinakuze siyibaleke imfazwe kuba kukho imida kwindlela esinokuyibeka ngayo emva imvelaphi yethu” (43). Nangona Kutheni Imfazwe? ngoko nangoko ukhumbuza ngembalelwano enesihloko esifanayo phakathi kuka-Albert Einstein noSigmund Freud,1 eyapapashwa ngowe-1933 yiInternational Institute of Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations, uCoker akabhekiseli kuyo. Akukhankanywa nokuba yi-CEM Joad's Why War? (1939). Imbono kaJoad (eyahlukileyo kuCoker) yachazwa ngenkalipho kwiphepha elingaphandle le-Penguin Special ye-1939: 'Ityala lam kukuba imfazwe ayikho into engenakuphepheka, kodwa isiphumo seemeko ezithile ezenziwe ngumntu; loo mntu unako ukuzibhangisa, njengoko wazibhangisayo iimeko ekwaphuphuma kuzo isibetho’. Ngokulinganayo ukudida ukungabikho kwereferensi yeklasikhi kwisifundo, Indoda kaKenneth N. Waltz, iState kunye neMfazwe ([1959] 2018). Le theory ibalaseleyo yobudlelwane bamazwe ngamazwe ijongane nombuzo ngokuchonga 'imifanekiso' emithathu ekhuphisanayo yemfazwe, ibeka ingxaki kwiimpawu ezibalulekileyo zomntu, urhulumente, kunye nenkqubo yezizwe ngezizwe, ngokulandelelanayo. UWaltz wagqiba, njengoRousseau ngaphambi kwakhe, ukuba iimfazwe phakathi kwamazwe ziyenzeka kuba akukho nto inokuzithintela (ngokuthelekisa uxolo oluphakathi kwezizwe-zizwe enkosi kurhulumente omkhulu, kunye nesiphithiphithi esikhoyo phakathi kwabo ngenxa yokungabikho kwenkqubo ulawulo lwehlabathi). Ukusukela ngenkulungwane ye-19, ukukhula kokuxhomekeka korhulumente kunye nokonakala okwandileyo kwemfazwe kuye kwaphumela kumalinge okunciphisa izehlo zemfazwe ngokumisela amacandelo olawulo lwehlabathi, ngokukodwa uManyano Lwezizwe emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi I neZizwe eziManyeneyo. Iintlanga emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II. EYurophu, amacebo enkulungwane endala okoyisa imfazwe ekugqibeleni afezekiswa (ubuncinci ngokuyinxalenye) kwinkqubo eyakhokelela kwi-European Union kwaye eye yaphefumlela ukuvela kweminye imibutho yengingqi. Kunokuba idideke unjingalwazi osandul' ukuthatha umhlala-phantsi wobudlelwane bamazwe ngamazwe kwi-LSE, inkcazo kaCoker yemfazwe ayiyihoyi indima karhulumente kunye nokusilela kulawulo lwamazwe ngamazwe kwaye iqwalasela kuphela umntu.
Ufumanisa ukuba umsebenzi wesazi ngemfundo yaseDatshi, u-Niko Tinbergen ('ekungafane kwenzeke ukuba uve ngaye') - 'indoda eyayibukele amangabangaba' (Tinbergen [1953] 1989), eyayichukunyiswe bubundlongondlongo bawo - inika eyona ndlela yokubonelela ngempendulo kwi-Why War? (7). Kule ncwadi kukho iimbekiselo zokuziphatha kweentlobo ngeentlobo zezilwanyana. Nangona kunjalo, uCoker ubhala ukuba imfazwe ayaziwa kwihlabathi lezilwanyana kwaye, ecaphula uThucydides, imfazwe 'yinto yomntu'. Umbhali ulandela i-'The Tinbergen Method' (Tinbergen 1963) equka imibuzo emine malunga nokuziphatha: ithini imvelaphi yako? zeziphi iindlela ezivumela ukuba kuchume? yintoni i-ontogeny yayo (indaleko yembali)? kwaye yintoni umsebenzi wayo? (11). Isahluko sinikelwe kumgca ngamnye wophando onesahluko sokugqibela (esona sibangela umdla) esithetha ngophuhliso lwexesha elizayo. Bekuya kuba yinto efanelekileyo kwaye ibe neziqhamo ukuba uCoker wayethathele ingqalelo umsebenzi ka-Niko umntakwabo uJan (owabelana ngebhaso lokuqala likaNobel kwezoqoqosho kwi-1969; uNiko wabelane ngebhaso kwi-physiology okanye iyeza kwi-1973). Ukuba uCoker uvile ngenye yeengcali zezoqoqosho eziphambili zehlabathi owayengumcebisi kuManyano lweZizwe kwi-1930 kunye nommeli onamandla worhulumente wehlabathi, akukho nto ikhankanywe ngayo. Umsebenzi kaJan omde noqaqambileyo wazinikela ekuncedeni ukutshintsha uluntu, kuquka ukuthintela nokupheliswa kwemfazwe. Kwincwadi yakhe ayibhalileyo, Warfare and welfare (1987), uJan Tinbergen waxoxa ngokungohlulwa kwentlalontle kunye nokhuseleko. INethiwekhi yeeNzululwazi zoXolo lwaseYurophu ibize inkomfa yonyaka emva kwakhe (uhlelo lwe-20 kwi-2021). Kukwafanelekile ukuphawula ukuba umlingane kaNiko Tinbergen, i-ethologist eyaziwayo kunye ne-zoologist uRobert Hinde, owayekhonza kwi-RAF ngexesha leMfazwe Yehlabathi II, wayengumongameli we-British Pugwash Group kunye ne-Movement for the Abolition of War.
UCoker ubhala athi, 'Kukho isizathu esicacileyo sokuba ndibhale le ncwadi. Kwilizwe laseNtshona, abantwana bethu asibalungiseleli imfazwe' (24). Eli bango liyathandabuzeka, kwaye ngelixa abanye bevumelana kwaye bagwebe oku njengokusilela, abanye bangaphendula bathi, 'kwanjalo - kufuneka sifundisele uxolo, hayi imfazwe'. Utsalela ingqalelo kwiinkqubo zenkcubeko ezifak’ isandla ekuzinzeni kwemfazwe aze abuze, ‘Ngaba besizama ukubufihla ububi bemfazwe . . . kwaye asiyiyo enye yezinto eziyiqhubayo? Ngaba asisazihlambisi ukufa ngokusebenzisa amazwi anjengathi “Abawileyo”?' (104). Ewe kunjalo, kodwa ubonakala ethandabuza ukuvuma ukuba izinto ezinjalo aziguquki. UCoker ngokwakhe usenokungabi natyala ngokupheleleyo xa esithi, 'akukho nto ichasene nemfazwe. Akukho myalelo ufunyanwa ngokuchasene nayo kwiMithetho eliShumi' (73) - ethetha ukuba 'Uze ungabulali' akusebenzi ekubulaleni emfazweni. KuHarry Patch (1898–2009), ijoni lokugqibela laseBritane elasindayo kwiMfazwe yeHlabathi yokuQala, 'Imfazwe kukubulala okuhleliweyo, kwaye ayikho enye into'2; kuLeo Tolstoy, 'amajoni angababulali ngeyunifomu'. Kukho iimbekiselo ezininzi kwiMfazwe noXolo (uTolstoy 1869) kodwa akukho namnye kwimibhalo yakhe kamva, eyahluke kakhulu kulo mbandela (Tolstoy 1894, 1968).
Xa epeyinta enye indlela yenkcubeko acinga ngayo uCoker, uthi: 'Inkoliso yamagcisa . . . zange ndilibone ibala ledabi, kwaye ke ngoko zange lipeyintwe ukusuka kumava okuqala . . . umsebenzi wabo wahlala ngokukhuselekileyo ngaphandle komsindo okanye umsindo, okanye kwanovelwano olusisiseko kumaxhoba emfazwe. Abafane bakhethe ukuthetha egameni labo bathe bahlala bengenalizwi ukutyhubela iminyaka' (107). Ngokwenene le yenye into enegalelo kwiphulo lokuya emfazweni leyo, nangona kunjalo, enokuthi itshintshe kwaye iziphumo zayo, kwakhona, akazihoyi. Ngaphezu koko, uyayihoya imisebenzi yabanye abapeyinti abakhulu bexesha langoku njengeRussia Vasily Vereshchagin. UWilliam T. Sherman, umphathi waseMelika wemikhosi yoManyano ngexesha leMfazwe yamakhaya yase-US, wambhengeza 'ngoyena mzobi mkhulu wezoyikiso zemfazwe zakha zaphila'. UVereshchagin waba lijoni ukuze azi imfazwe kumava akhe kwaye wafela kwinqanawa yokulwa ngexesha leMfazwe yaseRashiya-yaseJapan. Kumazwe amaninzi, amajoni ayenqatshelwe ukutyelela imiboniso yemifanekiso yakhe (echasene) nemfazwe. Incwadi yakhe ngephulo likaNapoleon lentlekele yaseRashiya (Verestchagin 1899) yathintelwa eFransi. Kufuneka kukhankanywe kwakhona u-Iri noToshi Maruki, abapeyinti baseJapan beephaneli zaseHiroshima. Ngaba kukho ukubonakaliswa okubuhlungu ngakumbi komsindo okanye ukucaphuka kunePicasso's Guernica? I-Coker ibhekisa kuyo kodwa ayikhankanyi ukuba inguqulelo ye-tapestry kude kube mva nje iboniswe kwisakhiwo se-UN eNew York yayi (e) igutyungelwe ngokudumileyo ngoFebruwari 2003, xa uNobhala welizwe lase-US uColin Powell waxoxa ngetyala lemfazwe ne-Iraq. 3
Nangona uCoker ebhala ukuba kwakungeMfazwe Yehlabathi I kuphela apho amagcisa apeyinta imifanekiso 'ebefanele ukuba idimaze nabani na oye wacinga ukujoyina imibala' (108), akathethi kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo ezisetyenziswa ngabasemagunyeni ukuthintela ukudimazeka okunjalo. Zibandakanya ukuvalwa, ukuvalwa kunye nokutshiswa kwemisebenzi enjalo - hayi kuphela, umzekelo, kwiNazi-eJamani kodwa nase-US nase-UK ukuza kuthi ga ngoku. Ubuxoki, ukucinezelwa, kunye nokuguqulwa kwenyaniso, phambi, ngexesha nasemva kwemfazwe kubhalwe kakuhle kwi-classical exposés ngu, umz. Arthur Ponsonby (1928) kunye noPhilip Knightly ([1975] 2004) kwaye, kutsha nje, kwiPentagon Papers ( Imfazwe yaseVietnam), i-4 I-Iraq Inquiry (Chilcot) Ingxelo, i-5 kunye ne-Craig Whitlock's Amaphepha ase-Afghanistan (Whitlock 2021). Ngokukwanjalo, kwasekuqaleni, izixhobo zenyukliya bezingqongwe kukufihlakala, ukuhlolisiswa nobuxoki, kuquka imiphumo yokuqhushumba kwebhombu eHiroshima naseNagasaki ngoAgasti 1945. Ubungqina bazo abuzange buboniswe kwisikhumbuzo sazo seminyaka engama-50 ngowe-1995 kumboniso omkhulu owathi wadubula. yayicwangcisiwe kwiSmithsonian eWashington DC; yarhoxiswa kwaye umlawuli wemyuziyam wagxothwa ngenyathelo elihle. Iifilimu zakwangoko zokutshatyalaliswa kwezi zixeko zibini zahluthwa kwaye zacinezelwa yi-US (bona, umz. uMitchell 2012; kwakhona bona uphononongo lukaLoretz [2020]) ngelixa iBBC yayivala umboniso kumabonakude woMdlalo weMfazwe, ifilimu eyayinayo. ugunyaziswe ngefuthe lokuwisa ibhombu yenyukliya eLondon. Igqibe ekubeni ingawusasazi lo mboniso bhanya-bhanya ngenxa yokoyika ukuba iya komeleza umbutho ochasene nezixhobo zenyukliya. Abenzi-mpempe abanenkalipho abanjengoDaniel Ellsberg, u-Edward Snowden kunye noJulian Assange baye batshutshiswa baza bohlwaywa ngenxa yokubhenca ubuqhetseba obusemthethweni, amatyala eemfazwe zobundlongondlongo, kunye nolwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe.
Njengomntwana, uCoker wayekuthanda ukudlala ngamajoni amathoyi kwaye njengoko wayekwishumi elivisayo wayethatha inxaxheba ngokuzimisela kwimidlalo yemfazwe. Wavolontiya kumkhosi we-cadet wesikolo kwaye wayekonwabela ukufunda ngeMfazwe yeTrojan kunye namagorha ayo kwaye wafudumala kwii-biographies zeenjengele ezinkulu ezinjengoAlexander noJulius Caesar. Owokugqibela 'wayengomnye wabaphangi bamakhoboka bakhulu kunabo bonke. Emva kwephulo lakhe kangangeminyaka esixhenxe wabuyela eRoma namabanjwa asisigidi awayethengiswa ebukhobokeni, ngaloo ndlela . . . ukumenza ibhiliyoni ngobusuku '(134). Ukutyhubela imbali, imfazwe kunye namagorha aye anxulunyaniswa nokuzonwabisa kunye nemincili, kunye nozuko nobugorha. Iimbono zamva kunye neenqobo ezisemgangathweni ngokwesiko ziye zagqithiswa ngurhulumente, isikolo kunye necawe. UCoker akakhankanyi ukuba imfuno yohlobo olwahlukileyo lwemfundo, yegorha kunye nembali yaxoxiswana sele ineminyaka engama-500 eyadlulayo (xa imfazwe nezixhobo zazisezamandulo xa kuthelekiswa nanamhlanje) ngabantu abakhokelayo (kunye nabagxeki bakarhulumente, isikolo kunye necawa) abafana noErasmus noVives ababekwangabaseki bezifundo zokufundisa zale mihla. UVives wancamathisela ukubaluleka okukhulu ekubhaleni nasekufundiseni imbali kwaye wayigxeka inkohlakalo yayo, esithi 'Kuya kuba yinyani ukubiza uHerodotus (lowo uCoker ubhekisela ngokuphindaphindiweyo njengomxeli olungileyo wamabali emfazwe) uyise wobuxoki kunembali'. UVives wakwala ukuncoma uJulius Caesar ngokuthumela amawaka amaninzi kangaka amadoda ekufeni ngogonyamelo emfazweni. UErasmus wayengumgxeki kabukhali kaPopu uJulius II (omnye umthandi kaKesare owathi, njengopopu, wamkela igama lakhe) ekuthiwa wachitha ixesha elingakumbi edabini kunaseVatican.
Akukho kukhankanywa kwezinto ezininzi ezinomdla ezinxulumene, kunye nokuvuselela, imfazwe, okokuqala kunye nomsebenzi wezomkhosi, abavelisi bezixhobo kunye nabarhwebi bezixhobo (aka 'abarhwebi bokufa'). Ijoni laseMelika elidumileyo nelihlotshiswe kakhulu, uMninimandla Jikelele uSmedley D. Butler, wathi iMfazwe yiRacket (1935) apho abambalwa benza inzuzo kwaye abaninzi bahlawula iindleko. Kwintetho yakhe ethi ndlela-ntle kubantu baseMelika (ngo-1961), uMongameli uDwight Eisenhower, enye injengele yomkhosi wase-US eyayihonjiswe kakhulu, waprofeta walumkisa ngengozi yokukhula kwesakhiwo somkhosi kunye nemizi-mveliso. Indlela ebandakanyeka ngayo ekuthathweni kwezigqibo ezikhokelela kwimfazwe, kunye nokuziphatha kwayo kunye nokunika ingxelo, ibhalwe kakuhle (kubandakanywa neempapasho ezikhankanywe ngasentla). Kukho izifundo ezininzi eziqinisekisayo ezikhanyisa imvelaphi kunye nendalo yeemfazwe ezininzi zangoku kwaye zibonelela ngeempendulo ezicacileyo neziphazamisayo kumbuzo othi Kutheni iMfazwe? Ukuziphatha kwengabangaba kubonakala kuyinto engafanelekanga. Uphononongo olunjalo olusekelwe kubungqina aluyonxalenye yophando lukaCoker. Akakho ngokumangalisayo kwi-numericallly impressive bibliography ka-ca. Izihloko ezingama-350 luncwadi lwezifundo ngoxolo, ukusonjululwa kwempixano kunye nokuthintela imfazwe. Ngokwenene, igama elithi “uxolo” alikho kuluhlu lweencwadi; isalathiso esinqabileyo senzeka kwisihloko senoveli edumileyo kaTolstoy. Umfundi ke ngoko ushiywe engazi ngeziphumo zemfazwe ngenxa yophando loxolo kunye nezifundo zoxolo ezavela kwi-1950s ngenxa yenkxalabo yokuba imfazwe kwixesha lenyukliya yasongela ukuphila koluntu. Kwincwadi ye-Coker ye-idiosyncratic nedidayo, iimbekiselo kuluhlu olubanzi loncwadi kunye neefilimu zidibanisa iphepha; izinto ezahlukeneyo eziphoswa kumxube zenza imbonakalo yesiphithiphithi. Umzekelo, kwakamsinya nje yaziswa iClausewitz emva koko kuvela uTolkien (99–100); UHomer, uNietzsche, uShakespeare noVirginia Woolf (phakathi kwabanye) bayabizwa kumaphepha ambalwa alandelayo.
UCoker akacingi ukuba sinokuba neemfazwe ngenxa yokuba 'ihlabathi lixhobe kakhulu kwaye uxolo aluxhaswa ngemali' (uNobhala-Jikelele we-UN uBan Ki-moon). Okanye ngenxa yokuba sisakhokelwa yi-dictum yakudala (kwaye ingavunyelwanga), Si vis pacem, para bellum (Ukuba ufuna uxolo, lungiselela imfazwe). Ngaba kungenxa yokuba ulwimi esilusebenzisayo lufihla ubunyani bemfazwe kwaye lugutyungelwe ngamazwi: i-ministries yemfazwe iye yaba ngabaphathiswa bezokhuselo, kwaye ngoku ukhuseleko. I-Coker ayithethi (okanye ngokudlula kuphela) ukujongana nale miba, yonke into enokuthi ithathwe njengegalelo ekuqhubekeni kwemfazwe. Yimfazwe kunye namaqhawe alawula iincwadi zembali, izikhumbuzo, iimyuziyam, amagama ezitrato kunye nezikwere. Uphuhliso lwakutsha nje kunye neentshukumo zokuphelisa ubukoloniyali kwikharityhulamu nakwibala likawonke-wonke, kunye nobulungisa bobuhlanga nesini kunye nokulingana, nazo kufuneka zondiselwe ekuyekisweni koluntu. Ngale ndlela, inkcubeko yoxolo kunye nokungabikho kobundlobongela inokuthatha indawo yenkcubeko yemfazwe kunye nobundlobongela.
Xa exoxa nge-HG Wells kunye nezinye 'izinto ezingeyonyani zekamva', uCoker ubhala athi, 'Ukucinga ngekamva, ngokuqinisekileyo akuthethi ukuyidala' (195–7). Nangona kunjalo, UKUBA uClarke (1966) uye waxela ukuba ngamanye amaxesha amabali emfazwe yexesha elizayo aphakamisa ukulindela okuqinisekisa ukuba, xa imfazwe ifika, kuya kuba nobundlobongela kunokuba ngenye indlela bekuya kuba njalo. Kwakhona, ukucinga ngelizwe elingenamfazwe kubalulekile (nangona kunganelanga) ukuba lenze. Ukubaluleka kwalo mfanekiso ekubumbeni ikamva kuxoxiwe ngokuqinisekisayo, umz., nguE. Boulding no-K. Boulding (1994), oovulindlela ababini bophando loxolo omnye wabo umsebenzi wabo waphefumlelwa nguFred L. Polak's Umfanekiso wekamva. (1961). Umfanekiso onyantisa igazi kwiqweqwe elithi Why War? utsho konke. UCoker ubhala athi, ‘Ukufunda ngokwenene kusenza abantu abahlukileyo; sityekele ekubujongeni ngendlela eyakhayo ubomi . . . ukufunda inoveli yemfazwe ekhuthazayo kwenza kube lula ukuba sibambelele kumbono wokulunga komntu' (186). Oku kubonakala kuyindlela engaqhelekanga yokukhuthaza ukulunga komntu.
amaNqaku
- Kutheni kukho imfazwe? Einstein ukuya kuFreud, ngo-1932, https://en.unesco.org/courier/may-1985/ why-war-letter-albert-einstein-sigmund-freud Freud ku-Einstein, ngo-1932, https:// en.unesco.org /courier/marzo-1993/why-war-letter-freud-einstein
- Patch noVan Emden (2008); I-audiobook, i-ISBN-13: 9781405504683.
- Ukuveliswa kwemisebenzi yabapeyinti abakhankanyiweyo, jonga iMfazwe kunye neMizobo ehlelwe nguJoanna Bourke kwaye ihlaziywe kweli phephancwadi, Vol 37, No.
- Amaphepha ePentagon: https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers
- Uphando lwase-Iraq (Chilcot): https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20171123122743/http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/the-report/
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Tolstoy, L. 1968. Iincwadi zikaTolstoy zokungathobeli koLuntu kunye noBundlobongela. London: Peter Owen. Verestchagin, V. 1899. “1812” uNapoleon I eRashiya; ngeNtshayelelo kaR. Whiteing. 2016 iyafumaneka njengeProject Gutenberg e-book. London: UWilliam Heinemann.
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UPeter van den Dungen
Bertha Von Suttner Peace Institute, eHague
petervandendungen1@gmail.com
Eli nqaku liphinde lapapashwa kunye notshintsho oluncinci. Olu tshintsho alunampembelelo kumxholo wezemfundo wenqaku.
© 2021 Peter van den Dungen
https://doi.org/10.1080/13623699.2021.1982037
