nguJoseph Essertier, Okthobha 31, 2017
ukusuka IsiCwangciso soPhakamiso
“Akukho mntu okanye sisihlwele okanye isizwe esinokuthenjwa ukuba siziphathe kakuhle okanye sicinge nzulu phantsi kwempembelelo yoloyiko olukhulu.”
- UBertrand Russell, Izincoko ezingathandwayo (1950) [1]
Ingxaki yaseNyakatho Korea inikezela abantu ngasekhohlo kumboniso wenkululeko ngowona mceli mngeni mkhulu esakhe sajongana nawo. Ngoku, kunanini na ngaphambili, kufuneka silubeke ecaleni uloyiko lwethu lwendalo nokucalula okungqonge umbandela wezixhobo zenyukliya size sibuze imibuzo enzima efuna iimpendulo ezicacileyo. Lixesha lokuba sibuye umva sicinge ukuba ngubani na umxhaphazi kwi-Peninsula yaseKorea, obeka isoyikiso esibi kuxolo lwezizwe ngezizwe nasekusindeni kweentlobo zabantu. Sele kudlule ixesha lokuba sibe nengxoxo-mpikiswano ngengxaki yaseWashington eNorth Korea kunye nomatshini wayo wasemkhosini. Nantsi into yokutya okucinga ngayo kwimiba etshayelwayo phantsi kwekhaphethi ngokuphendula kwamadolo-ukusabela okungokwemvelo kwizizukulwana zaseMelika ezigcinwe ebumnyameni malunga neenyaniso ezisisiseko zembali. Iintatheli eziphambili kunye nabaninzi abangaphandle kwesiqhelo kwimithombo yeendaba ekhululekileyo nenenkqubela-phambili, baphindaphinda ubuqhetseba baseWashington, babeke amabala abantu baseNyakatho Korea, kwaye babonise imeko yethu yangoku njengomlo apho onke amaqela anetyala ngokulinganayo.
Okokuqala, kufuneka sijongane nenyaniso engathandekiyo yokuba thina maMelika, kunye norhulumente wethu ngaphezu kwayo yonke into, yeyona ngxaki iphambili. Njengabantu abaninzi abasuka eNtshona, andazi kwanto malunga nabemi baseNyakatho Korea, ngoko ndingatsho kuncinci kakhulu ngabo. Ekuphela kwento esinokuthetha ngayo nangaluphi na ukuzithemba lulawulo lukaKim Jong-un. Ukukhawulela ingxoxo kuloo nto, sinokuthi izoyikiso zakhe azikholeleki. Ngoba? Isizathu esinye esilula:
Ngenxa yokungafani kwamandla phakathi kwamandla omkhosi wase-US, kubandakanywa namahlakani ayo asemkhosini, kunye neNorth Korea. Umahluko mkhulu kangangokuba awufanelanga ngxoxo, kodwa nantsi imiba ephambili:
Iziseko zase-US: IWashington inobuncinci iziseko ze-15 zomkhosi ezisasazeke kulo lonke elaseMzantsi Korea, uninzi lwazo kufutshane nomda weNorth Korea. Kukwakho neziseko ezisasazeke kulo lonke elaseJapan, ukusuka e-Okinawa emazantsi kude ukuya emantla ukuya eMisawa Air Force Base.[2] Iziseko zaseMzantsi Korea zinezixhobo ezitshabalalisayo kunezixhobo zenyukliya ezagcinwa yiWashington eMzantsi Korea iminyaka engama-30 ukusuka kwi-1958 ukuya kwi-1991.[3] Iziseko zaseJapan zineenqwelomoya zeOsprey ezinokuthwala umthamo olinganayo weebhasi ezimbini zesixeko ezizele ngamajoni kunye nezixhobo ukuya eKorea kuhambo ngalunye.
Abathwali beenqwelomoya: Akukho ngaphantsi kwezintathu ezithwala inqwelomoya emanzini ajikeleze iPeninsula yaseKorea kunye neqela labo lokulwa labatshabalalisi.[4] Amazwe amaninzi akanalo nokuba mnye umthuthi wenqwelo-moya.
THAAD: Ngo-Epreli walo nyaka iWashington yathumela inkqubo ye-THAAD ("indawo ephakamileyo yokukhusela indawo ephakamileyo") ngaphandle kwenkcaso emandla evela kubemi baseMzantsi Korea.[5] Kufanele ukuba ithintele imijukujelwa yaseNorth Korea engenayo ezantsi, kodwa amagosa aseTshayina eBeijing anexhala lokuba eyona njongo ye-THAAD “kukulandela imijukujelwa eqaliswe eTshayina” kuba i-THAAD inamandla okubeka iliso.[6] Ke ngoko, i-THAAD isoyikisa iNorth Korea ngokungathanga ngqo, ngokoyikisa umhlobo wayo.
Umkhosi waseMzantsi Korea: Lo ngowona mkhosi mkhulu oxhobileyo oxhobileyo kwihlabathi, ugcwele umkhosi womoya ovuthuza ngokupheleleyo kunye nezixhobo eziqhelekileyo ngaphezu kokwaneleyo ukuhlangabezana nesoyikiso sohlaselo oluvela kuMntla Korea.[7] Umkhosi waseMzantsi Korea uqeqeshwe kakuhle kwaye udityaniswe kakuhle nomkhosi wase-US kuba uhlala usenza umthambo onje ngonyaka “wonyaka wokuzilolonga ulwandle, umhlaba kunye nomoya” obizwa ngokuba “yi-Ulchi Freedom Guardian” ebandakanya amashumi amawaka omkhosi.[8] Ukungachithi ithuba lokugrogrisa iPyongyang, ezi zenziwa ekupheleni kuka-Agasti 2017 naphezu kokunyuka koxinzelelo.
Umkhosi waseJapan: Amaqela abizwa ngokuba yi-“Self-Defence Forces” yaseJapan axhotyiswe ngezona zixhobo zomkhosi zikumgangatho ophezulu, ezikhubekisayo ehlabathini, njengeenqwelo-moya zeAWACS kunye neeOspreys.[9] Ngomgaqo-siseko woxolo waseJapan, ezi zixhobo “ziyakhubekisa” ngaphezu kwesinye intsingiselo yeli gama.
Iinkwili ezinemijukujelwa yenyukliya: I-US ineenkwili ezikufutshane ne-Peninsula yaseKorea ezinemijukujelwa yenyukliya "enobunzima bokubulala ekujoliswe kuyo" ngenxa yesixhobo esitsha "se-super-fuze" esisetyenziselwa ukuphucula iimfazwe zakudala ze-thermonuclear. Oku ngoku mhlawumbi kufakwe kuzo zonke iinqanawa ezijulwayo zase-US.[10] “Isakhono sokubulala ekujoliswe kuzo” sibhekisa ekukwazini kwabo ukutshabalalisa iithagethi eziqinileyo ezifana nezisele ze-ICBM zaseRashiya (oko kukuthi, imijukujelwa yenyukliya engaphantsi komhlaba). Ezi ngaphambili kwakunzima kakhulu ukuzitshabalalisa. Oku kusongela ngokungangqalanga iNorth Korea kuba iRussia lelinye lamazwe anokuthi ancede xa kuthe kwakho ugwayimbo lokuqala lwase-US.
Njengoko unobhala wezoKhuselo wase-US uJames Mattis wathi, imfazwe neNorth Korea iya kuba "yintlekele."[11] Yinyani leyo—intlekele ikakhulu kubantu baseKorea, emantla nakumazantsi, yaye kunokwenzeka nakwamanye amazwe akulo mmandla, kodwa kungekhona e-USA Kwaye kukwayinyaniso ukuba “kuxhaswe eludongeni,” iinjengele zaseMntla Korea “ziya kulwa,” njengoko. Unjingalwazi uBruce Cumings, umbhali-mbali obalaseleyo waseKorea kwiYunivesithi yaseChicago, uyagxininisa.[12] I-US "iya kutshabalalisa ngokupheleleyo" urhulumente kwikomkhulu laseNyakatho Korea iPyongyang, kwaye mhlawumbi nayo yonke iNorth Korea, njengoko uMongameli wase-US uTrump esongela.[13] INorth Korea, nayo, iya kwenza umonakalo omkhulu eSeoul, esinye sezona zixeko zixineneyo emhlabeni, zibangele izigidi zabantu abenzakeleyo eMzantsi Korea kunye namashumi amawaka eJapan. Njengoko umbhali-mbali uPaul Atwood ebhala, ekubeni sisazi ukuba "ulawulo lwasentla lunezixhobo zenyukliya eziya kuqaliswa kwiziseko zaseMelika [eSouth Korea] naseJapan, sifanele sikhale eluphahleni lokuba uhlaselo lwaseMelika luya kukhupha ezo nukes, macala onke, yaye ukuphanziswa okulandelayo kusenokuguquka ngokukhawuleza kube yimini eyothusayo yokubala lonke uhlobo lomntu.”[14]
Akukho lizwe kwihlabathi elinokusongela i-US. Ixesha. UDavid Stockman, owayesakuba yiCongressman wamaxesha amabini waseMichigan ubhala athi, “Nokuba uyisika njani na, akukho mazwe ahambele phambili kwezemveliso, nobuchwepheshe obuphezulu ehlabathini anokusongela ilizwe laseMelika okanye abe neyona njongo incinci yokwenza oko. .”[15] Ubuza ngokurhabaxa, "Ngaba ucinga ukuba [uPutin] angangxama okanye azibulale ngokwaneleyo ukuba agrogrise i-US ngezixhobo zenyukliya?" Lowo ngumntu one-1,500 "yeemfazwe zenyukliya ezinokubakho."
"USiegfried Hecker, umalathisi ophumayo kwiLebhu yeSizwe yaseLos Alamos kunye negosa lokugqibela elaziwayo lase-US ukuba lihlole amaziko enyukliya aseNorth Korea, ubale ubungakanani bezixhobo zenyukliya zaseNyakatho Korea kwiibhombu ezingama-20 ukuya kwezingama-25."[16] Ukuba bekuya kuzibulala ukuba uPutin aqale imfazwe ne-US, oko kuya kuba yinyani ngakumbi kuKim Jong-un waseNorth Korea, ilizwe elinesinye kwishumi labemi base-US kunye nobutyebi obuncinci.
Inqanaba lase-US lokulungela umkhosi lihamba ngaphezulu nangaphezulu koko kuyimfuneko ukukhusela uMzantsi Korea. Isongela ngokuthe ngqo iNorth Korea, iChina kunye neRashiya. Njengoko uMfundisi uMartin Luther King, Omnci. wakha wathi, iUnited States “yeyona nto ibangela ugonyamelo ehlabathini.” Oko kwakuyinyaniso ngexesha lakhe kwaye yonke into iyinyani ngoku.
Kwimeko yaseNyakatho Korea, ukubaluleka kogxininiso koorhulumente bayo kubundlobongela kuthathelwa ingqalelo igama elithi “ilizwe lomkhosi,”[17]indlela uCumings awahlula ngayo. Eli gama liyayivuma inyani engenakuphikiswa yokuba abantu baseNyakatho Korea bachitha ixesha labo elininzi belungiselela imfazwe. Akukho mntu ubiza iNorth Korea ngokuba "ngoyena nobangela wobundlobongela" nangona kunjalo.
Ngubani onomnwe wakhe kwiqhosha?
Ugqirha wengqondo ophambili waseMelika uRobert Jay Lifton kutsha nje ugxininise "ukutyhilwa okunokwenzeka kukaDonald Trump."[18] Uchaza ukuba uTrump "ubona umhlaba ngeemvakalelo zakhe, into ayifunayo kunye nendlela aziva ngayo. Kwaye wayengenakukwazi ukuba maxa wambi okanye asasazeke okanye abe yingozi.”
Ngexesha lokukhankasela kwakhe unyulo uTrump akazange athethe kuphela ngenyukliya yaseJapan kunye noMzantsi Korea, kodwa wabonisa umdla owoyikekayo wokusebenzisa izixhobo ezinjalo. Ukuba uDonald Trump, indoda ekucingelwa ukuba ayizinzanga ngokwasengqondweni, unezixhobo ezikwaziyo ukutshabalalisa umhlaba amaxesha amaninzi imela isoyikiso esoyikeka ngokwenene, okt, isoyikiso esikholelekayo.
Ngokwale mbono, oko kubizwa ngokuba "yingozi" yaseNyakatho Korea iza kujongeka njengesaqhwithi esikwi-teacup.
Ukuba uziva usoyika uKim Jong-un, cinga ukuba kumele ukuba boyike kangakanani abantu baseMntla Korea. Ithuba lokuba uTrump avumele i-genie yenyukliya engenakunqandeka ukuba iphume ebhotileni ngokuqinisekileyo ifanele ukuba ibe lubizo lokuvusa bonke abantu naphi na kumbono wezopolitiko ukuba bavuke benze ngaphambi kokuba kube kudala kakhulu.
Ukuba ukoyika kwethu uKim Jong-un ukusibetha kuqala akukho ngqiqweni, kwaye ukuba umbono wokuba “kwimishini yokuzibulala” ngoku awunasihlahla-kuba yena, iinjengele zakhe, kunye namagosa akhe karhulumente ngabaxhamli bobukhosi obunikezelayo. amandla abalulekileyo kunye namalungelo-ke yintoni imvelaphi yokungabi nangqiqo kwethu, oko kukuthi, ukungabi nangqiqo kwabantu base-US? Yintoni yonke le hype? Ndingathanda ukuphikisa ukuba umthombo omnye wolu hlobo lokucinga, uhlobo lokucinga esilubona ngalo lonke ixesha kwinqanaba lasekhaya, ngokwenene lubuhlanga. Olu hlobo localucalulo, njengolunye uhlobo lwepropaganda yobuninzi, lukhuthazwa ngenkuthalo ngurhulumente oxhasa umgaqo-nkqubo wangaphandle okhokelwa kukubawa kwe-1% kuneemfuno ze-99%.
"Iumnyango ovulekileyo” iphupha
Undoqo womgaqo-nkqubo wethu wamazwe angaphandle unokushwankathelwa ngesilogeni esidabukisayo esisekhoyo esaziwa ngokuba yi "Open Door Policy," njengoko kucaciswe mva nje nguAtwood.[19] Ungakhumbula eli binzana lakudala elivela kwiklasi yembali yesikolo samabanga aphakamileyo. Uphando olufutshane luka-Atwood lwembali yoMgaqo-nkqubo we-Open Door lusibonisa ukuba kutheni inokuba yinto yokuvula amehlo okwenyani, inika isitshixo sokuqonda into eyenzekayo mva nje kunye nobudlelwane baseNorth Korea-Washington. U-Atwood ubhala athi “i-US kunye neJapan bezikwikhosi yongquzulwano ukusukela ngeminyaka yee-1920s nango-1940, phakathi koxinzelelo lwehlabathi, zazivalelwe kumzabalazo wokufa wokuba ngubani oza kuxhamla kakhulu kwiimarike nakwimithombo ye-Greater China kwaye EMpuma Asia.” Ukuba umntu kufuneka achaze ukuba yintoni imbangela yeMfazwe yePasifiki, eso sivakalisi siya kuhamba ixesha elide. U-Atwood uhlabela mgama esithi, “Esona sizathu sokwenyani sokuba i-US ichase amaJapan e-Asiya asizange sixoxwe kwaye sisifundo esalelweyo kumajelo eendaba njengoko zinjalo iinjongo zomgaqo-nkqubo wamazwe angaphandle waseMelika.
Ngamanye amaxesha kuxoxwa ukuba i-US ivalele ukufikelela kweJapan kwimithombo ye-East Asia, kodwa ingxaki iboniswa ngendlela ecala-nye, njengomnye wokunyoluka waseJapan kunye nokuthanda ukongamela ukubangela ungquzulwano kunokuba kube yiWashington.
U-Atwood ucacisa ngokufanelekileyo esithi, “ISigaba se-Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere yaseJapan sasivala ngokuthe ngcembe 'Ucango oluVulekileyo' lokungena kweMelika kunye nokufikelela kubutyebi obunengeniso base-Asiya ngexesha elinzima. Njengoko iJapan ithatha ulawulo lwe-East Asia i-US yafudusela iPacific Fleet eHawaii kumgama omangalisayo waseJapan, yabeka izohlwayo zezoqoqosho, intsimbi evaliweyo kunye ne-oyile kwaye ngo-Agasti 1941 yakhupha i-ultimatum ecacileyo yokuyeka iChina neVietnam 'okanye kungenjalo.' Ibona okokugqibela njengesisongelo, iJapan yathatha into eTokyo yayilugwayimbo lwangaphambili eHawaii. ” Yintoni abaninzi bethu abaye bakhokelwa ukuba bakholelwe, ukuba iJapan yasuka yahamba nje ngenxa yokuba yayilawulwa ngurhulumente ongenademokhrasi kunye nomkhosi womkhosi, eneneni yayilibali elidala lobundlobongela malunga nokuba ngubani ophethe izixhobo zehlabathi ezinokuphela.
Ewe, umbono kaCumings, ochithe ubomi bakhe bonke ephanda ngembali yaseKorea, ngakumbi njengoko inxulumene nobudlelwane base-US-Korea, ihambelana kakuhle ne-Atwood: Indawo yaseTshayina, eyona njongo iphambili yaseWashington ibisoloko ingenazithintelo kwingingqi yaseMpuma Asia; yayifuna oorhulumente bomthonyama bomelele ngokwaneleyo ukuze bahlale bekhululekile kodwa bengenamandla ngokwaneleyo okulahla impembelelo yaseNtshona.”[20] Inqaku elifutshane kodwa elinamandla lika-Atwood linika umntu umfanekiso omkhulu woMgaqo-nkqubo we-Open Door, ngelixa ngomsebenzi kaCumings, umntu unokufunda malunga neenkcukacha zendlela eyaphunyezwa ngayo eKorea ngexesha lokuhlala kwelizwe laseMelika emva kweMfazwe yePasifiki, ngokungeyomfuneko. -unyulo olukhululekileyo nolungafanelekanga lukazwilakhe wokuqala waseMzantsi Korea uSyngman Rhee (1875-1965), kunye nemfazwe yamakhaya eKorea eyalandelayo. “Ufikelelo olungathintelwanga kummandla we-East Asia” luthetha ukufikelela kwiimarike zodidi lwamashishini aphakamileyo aseMelika, ngolawulo oluyimpumelelo kwezo marike neyongezelelweyo.
Ingxaki yayikukuba oorhulumente ababechasene nobukoloniyali baba nolawulo eKorea, eVietnam naseTshayina. Aba rhulumente bebefuna ukusebenzisa izixhobo zabo kuphuhliso oluzimeleyo ukuze kuxhamle abemi belizwe labo, kodwa oko, kwaye kusenjalo, iflegi ebomvu “yenkunzi yenkomo” eyisakhiwo somkhosi waseMelika. Ngenxa yezo ntshukumo zokuzimela, iWashington yaya "kwindawo yesibini." "Abacwangcisi baseMelika benza ilizwe lesibini elilelona lizwe elahlula iAsia isizukulwana."[21] Omnye umququzeleli wentsebenziswano uPak Hung-sik wathi "abavukeli kunye nabalandeli besizwe" babeyingxaki, oko kukuthi, abantu abakholelwa ukuba ukukhula koqoqosho lwaseKorea kufuneka kuxhamle ikakhulu amaKorea, kwaye ababecinga ukuba iKorea kufuneka ibuyele ekubeni luhlobo oluthile lokudityaniswa (njengoko bekunjalo. ubuncinane iminyaka eyi-1,000).
"Ingozi etyheli" ubuhlanga
Ekubeni ukucinga okunzulu okunjengokuzimele geqe “kobuzwe” bekusoloko kufuneka kucinywe nangaliphi na ixabiso, kuya kufuneka utyalo-mali olukhulu kwiimfazwe ezinexabiso elikhulu. (Uluntu lungabatyali-mali namaqumrhu angabanini-zabelo!) Utyalo-mali olunjalo beluya kufuna intsebenziswano yezigidi zabantu baseMerika. Kulapho ke ideology ethi "Yellow Peril" yafika iluncedo. I-Yellow Peril yingqikelelo yepropaganda eguqukayo esebenze ngesandla kwi-Open Door Policy, nangaluphi na uhlobo ngoku ezibonakalisa ngayo.[22] Uqhagamshelo lubonakaliswe ngokucacileyo kwimveliso ekumgangatho ophezulu kakhulu yepropaganda yeYellow Peril evela malunga nexesha leMfazwe yokuqala yamaSino-yaseJapan (1894-95) edityaniswe nesincoko ngunjingalwazi wembali uPeter C. Perdue kunye noMlawuli oyiCreative we Ukujonga iinkcubeko uEllen Sebring kwiziko leTekhnoloji yaseMassachusetts.[23] Njengoko isincoko sabo sicacisa, “isizathu sokuba amazwe angaphandle athanda ukwanda ayenenjongo yokukrola iTshayina ibe kumanqanaba empembelelo, ngapha koko, yayiyingcamango yawo yokuba ingeniso engachazwanga yayiza kufumaneka koku. Le ngxowa imenyezelayo yegolide, eneneni, yayililinye icala ‘lengozi emthubi’.” Omnye umfanekiso wepropaganda ngumfanekiso obambekayo wendoda yaseTshayina, eneneni ehleli kwiingxowa zegolide kwelinye icala lolwandle.
Ucalucalulo lwaseNtshona kubantu baseMpuma kudala lubonakaliswa ngegama elibi lobuhlanga elithi “gook.” Ngethamsanqa, elo lizwi liphelile. Abantu baseKorea abazange bakuthande ukuphathwa ngobuhlanga obunje,[24] akukho ngaphezu Filipinos okanye Vietnamese.[25] (EVietnam kwakukho umgaqo ongekho semthethweni kodwa owawudla ngokusetyenziswa “umthetho nje wokugoba” okanye “i-MGR,” owawusithi iVietnam yayizizilwanyana ezinokuthi zibulawe okanye zixhatshazwe ngokuthanda kwakhe). Eli gama lalisetyenziselwa ukubhekisa kumaKorea, nawo, emantla nasezantsi. UCumings usixelela ukuba "umhleli womkhosi ohlonitshwayo" uHanson Baldwin ngexesha leMfazwe yaseKorea wathelekisa amaKorea neenkumbi, amabhari, kunye neqela likaGenghis Khan, kwaye wasebenzisa amagama ukuzichaza "njengezamandulo."[26]I-Washington's ally Japan nayo ivumela ubuhlanga ngokuchasene nabantu baseKorea ukuba baphumelele kwaye bagqithise umthetho wabo wokuqala ngokuchasene nentetho yentiyo ngo-2016.[27]Ngelishwa, ngumthetho ongenamazinyo kwaye linyathelo lokuqala kuphela.
Uloyiko olungenangqiqo lweenkolelo zokomoya ezingezizo ezobuKristu, iifilimu malunga ne-diabolical Fu Manchu,[28] kunye nokubonakaliswa kweendaba zocalucalulo kwisithuba senkulungwane yama-20 bonke badlala indima ekudaleni inkcubeko apho uGeorge W. Bush wayenokuthi, ngobuso obuthe tye, achonge iNorth Korea ibe yenye yamazwe amathathu “iAxis of Evil” emva kwe9/11.[29] Ayizizo iintatheli ezingakhathaliyo nezinempembelelo kuphela kwiFox News kodwa ezinye iinethiwekhi zeendaba kunye namaphepha aphinda ayiphinda le lebhile yekhathuni, eyisebenzisa "njengeshorthand" kumgaqo-nkqubo othile wase-US.[30] Igama elithi "umgca wentiyo" laphantse lasetyenziswa, ngaphambi kokuba lihlelwe liphuma kwintetho yokuqala. Kodwa isibakala sokuba la magama athatyathwe nzulu luphawu lwehlazo kwicala “lethu,” uphawu lobubi nentiyo kwibutho lethu.
Izimo zikaTrump zocalucalulo kubantu bemibala zicace gca kangangokuba akufuneki kubhalwe phantsi.
Ubudlelwane basemva kwemfazwe phakathi kweeKorea ezimbini neJapan
Ngenxa yolu calucalulo lusemva—olucalucalulo abantu basezibukweni laseMelika ngakubemi baseKorea—ayothusi into yokuba bambalwa abantu baseMelika abanyathele ngeenyawo bakhwaza besithi, “kwanele” malunga nokuphathwa kakubi kwabo yiWashington emva kwemfazwe. Enye yeendlela zokuqala kunye nezona zimbi apho iWashington yaphatha kakubi amaKorea emva kweMfazwe yePasifiki ngexesha leNkundla yoMkhosi yaMazwe ngaMazwe yeMpuma Ekude eyathi yahlangana ngo-1946: inkqubo yobukhoboka bezesondo yomkhosi waseJapan (ngokuqinisekileyo ibizwa ngokuba yinkqubo "yokuthuthuzela abafazi"). akazange atshutshiswe, nto leyo eyabangela ukuba ukuthengiswa kwezesondo kwasemva kwemfazwe kulo naliphi na ilizwe, kuquka ne-US, ukuba kwenzeke kwakhona. Njengoko uGay J. McDougall weZizwe Ezimanyeneyo wabhalayo ngo-1998, “…ubomi babafazi busaqhubeka nokungaxatyiswa. Okulusizi kukuba, olu kusilela ukujongana nolwaphulo-mthetho olungokwesini olwenziwe ngomlinganiselo omkhulu ebudeni beMfazwe Yehlabathi yesiBini yongeze inqanaba lokungohlwaywa okwenziwa ngalo ulwaphulo-mthetho olufanayo namhlanje.”[31] Ulwaphulo-mthetho lwezesondo olubhekiselele kwabasetyhini baseKorea ngamajoni ase-US kwixesha elidlulileyo kwaye namhlanje zidityaniswa nalawo ngamajoni aseJapan adlulileyo.[32] Ubomi babasetyhini ngokubanzi babungenaxabiso, kodwa ubomi be Korean ingakumbi amabhinqa ayejongelwa phantsi njengalawo “oogwegwe”—ubuhlanga kunye nobuhlanga.
Isimo sengqondo sokuyekelela somkhosi wase-US kubundlobongela obuphathelele kwezesondo sabonakala eJapan ngendlela iWashington eyavumela ngayo imikhosi yaseMelika ukuba ihenyuze nabasetyhini baseJapan, amaxhoba okurhweba ngesondo okuxhaswe ngurhulumente waseJapan, ebizwa ngokuba “nguMbutho woLonwabo kunye noLonwabo,” owathi wenziwa wafumaneka ubumnandi bayo yonke imikhosi emanyeneyo.[33] Kwimeko yaseKorea, kwafunyaniswa ngemibhalo yeengxoxo zepalamente yaseMzantsi Korea ukuba “kutshintshiselana ngo-1960, oomthetho ababini babongoza urhulumente ukuba aqeqeshe icandelo lamahenyukazi ukuze akwazi ukuhlangabezana noko wayekubiza ngokuba ‘ziimfuno zendalo’ zamajoni amanyeneyo. ukubathintela ekuchitheni iidola zabo eJapan endaweni yoMzantsi Korea. Usekela-mphathiswa wekhaya ngelo xesha, uLee Sung-woo, waphendula ngelithi urhulumente uye waphucula okuthile ‘ekuboneleleni ngoonongogo’ ‘nenkqubo yokuzonwabisa’ yemikhosi yaseMerika.”[34]
Akufunekanga ilityalwe ukuba amajoni ase-US adlwengule abasetyhini baseKorea ngaphandle kwezindlu zoonongogo. Abafazi baseJapan, njengabafazi baseKorea, baye bajoliswe kubundlobongela obuphathelele kwezesondo ngexesha lokuhlala kwe-US apho kwaye kufuphi neziseko zomkhosi zase-US-abasetyhini abathengiswa ngokwesondo kunye nabasetyhini abahambahamba nje esitratweni.[35] Amaxhoba kuwo omabini la mazwe asakhathazwa ngamanxeba asemzimbeni kunye ne-PTSD-zombini ziziphumo zokuhlala kunye neziseko zomkhosi. Kululwaphulo-mthetho kuluntu lwethu ukuba "amakhwenkwe aya kuba ngamakhwenkwe" isimo sengqondo senkcubeko yomkhosi wase-US siyaqhubeka. Bekufanele ukuba ikhutshwe kwiNkundla yoMkhosi yaMazwe ngaMazwe yeMpuma Ekude.
Inkululeko kaMacArthur yasemva kwemfazwe yaseJapan yaquka amanyathelo akhokelela kwidemokhrasi afana nohlengahlengiso lomhlaba, amalungelo abasebenzi, kunye nokuvumela uthethwano oludibeneyo lwemibutho yabasebenzi; ukucocwa kwamagosa karhulumente anxaxhileyo; kunye nolawulo lweZaibatsu (oko kukuthi, iindibano zoshishino zexesha leMfazwe yePasifiki, ezafumana inzuzo ngemfazwe) kunye namaqumrhu olwaphulo-mthetho olulungelelanisiweyo; Okokugqibela kodwa okungakuncinananga, umgaqo-siseko woxolo owahlukileyo ehlabathini kunye neSiqendu 9 sawo esithi “Abantu baseJapan bayayilahla ngonaphakade imfazwe njengelungelo elongamileyo lesizwe nesisongelo okanye ukusetyenziswa kwamandla njengendlela yokucombulula iingxabano zamazwe ngamazwe.” Ngokucacileyo, okuninzi koku kuya kwamkeleka kubantu baseKorea, ngakumbi ngaphandle kwe-ultranationalists kumandla kunye nomgaqo-siseko woxolo.
Ngelishwa, iintshukumo ezinjalo azinakwamkeleka kumaqumrhu okanye kwimizi-mveliso yezomkhosi, ngoko ke ekuqaleni kowe-1947 kwagqitywa ekubeni ishishini laseJapan liphinde libe “yindibano yocweyo yaseMpuma nakuMzantsi-mpuma Asia,” nokuba iJapan neSouth Korea ziya kufumana inkxaso. Washington ukuze kuvuselelwe uqoqosho ngokwemigaqo ye-Marshall Plan eYurophu.[36] Esinye isivakalisi kwinqaku elisuka kuNobhala weLizwe uGeorge Marshall lisiya kuDean Acheson ngoJanuwari 1947 sishwankathela umgaqo-nkqubo wase-US ngeKorea owawuza kusebenza ukususela ngaloo nyaka ukuya kutsho ngowe-1965: “Lungisa urhulumente oqinisekileyo waseMzantsi Korea kwaye udibanise [sic] kuqoqosho lwaseJapan.” U-Acheson wangena ezihlangwini zikaMarshall njengoNobhala weLizwe ukususela ngo-1949 ukuya ku-1953. “Waba ngummeli ophambili wangaphakathi wokugcina iKorea esemazantsi kwindawo yempembelelo yaseMelika neyaseJapan, kwaye wabhala ngesandla esisodwa ukungenelela kweMelika kwiMfazwe yaseKorea,” ngamazwi kaCumings. .
Ngenxa yoko, abasebenzi baseJapan baphulukene namalungelo ahlukeneyo kwaye babenamandla amancinane okuxoxisana, kwasekwa i-“Self-Defense Forces” ebizwa ngokuba “nguMkhosi woKhuseleko”, kwaye abantu abangakholelwayo kwizinto ezifana noyisemkhulu ka-Abe u-Kishi Nobusuke (1896–1987) bavunyelwa ukuba babuyele kurhulumente. . Ukubuyiswa kweJapan kuyaqhubeka namhlanje, isoyikisa zombini iiKorea kunye neTshayina neRussia.
Umbhali-mbali owafumana iBhaso lePulitzer uJohn Dower uphawula isiphumo esibuhlungu esalandelayo kwizivumelwano ezibini zoxolo zaseJapan ezathi zaqalisa ukusebenza ngomhla iJapan yaphinda yafumana ulongamo lwayo nge-28 ka-Epreli 1952: “IJapan yathintelwa ekubeni ihambele ngokunempumelelo kuxolelwaniso nasekudityanisweni kwayo ngokutsha. abamelwane abakufutshane Asia. Ukudala uxolo kwalibaziseka.”[37] IWashington ithintele uxolo phakathi kweJapan kunye nabamelwane ababini abaphambili eyenze ikoloni, iKorea neTshayina, ngokumisela "uxolo olwahlukileyo" olungabandakanyi zombini iiKorea kunye neRiphabhlikhi yaseChina (PRC) kuyo yonke inkqubo. IWashington yajija ingalo yeJapan ukuze ifumane intsebenziswano ngokugrogrisa ngokuqhubeka nomsebenzi owawuqalwe nguNjengele Douglas MacArthur (Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964) Ukusukela oko iJapan noMzantsi Korea khange bubulungise ubudlelwane de kwangoJuni 1965, kunye nesivumelwano soxolo phakathi kweJapan neJapan. I-PRC ayizange isayinwe de kwangowe-1978, kwabakho ukulibaziseka ixesha elide, apho ngokutsho kukaDower, “Amanxeba kunye nelifa elibuhlungu le-impiriyalizim, uhlaselo, kunye nokuxhaphaza ashiywe ekhula-ingakhange ilungiswe kwaye ingathathelwa ngqalelo eJapan. yaqhubela ekubeni ijonge empuma ngaphaya kwePasifiki ukuya eMerika ukuze ikhuseleke yaye, eneneni, isaziwa njengesizwe.” Ngaloo ndlela iWashington yavula umda phakathi kwamaJapan kwelinye icala namaKorea namaTshayina kwelinye, iwakhanyela amaJapan ithuba. ukucinga ngezenzo zabo zexesha lemfazwe, bacele uxolo, baze bakhe ubuhlobo bobuhlobo kwakhona.Ucalucalulo lwaseJapan nxamnye namaKorea namaTshayina lwaziwa kakhulu, kodwa liqaqobana labantu abanolwazi oluqondayo ukuba iWashington nayo ibekek’ ityala.
Ungavumeli ucango luvale eMpuma Asia
Ukubuyela kwindawo ka-Atwood malunga noMgaqo-nkqubo we-Open Door, uyichaza ngokucacileyo nangokuchanekileyo le mfundiso yama impiriyali ngolu hlobo: “Imali yaseMelika kunye namaqumrhu kufuneka abe nelungelo elinganyangekisiweyo lokungena kwiimarike zazo zonke iintlanga nemimandla kunye nokufikelela kwimithombo yazo kunye namandla aphantsi okusebenza. Amagama aseMelika, ngamanye amaxesha ngokwezopolitiko, ngokufuthi ngogonyamelo oluxhobileyo.”[38] Ucacisa indlela le mfundiso eyavela ngayo. Emva kweMfazwe yethu yamakhaya (1861-65), uMkhosi waManzi wase-US wagcina ubukho “kulo lonke uLwandlekazi lwePasifiki ngakumbi eJapan, eTshayina, eKorea naseVietnam apho uye wangenelela ngezixhobo ezininzi.” Injongo yoMkhosi waManzi “yayikukuqinisekisa umthetho nocwangco kunye nokuqinisekisa ukufikelela kwezoqoqosho…ngelixa kuthintelwa amagunya aseYurophu… ekufumaneni amalungelo anokungabandakanyi abantu baseMelika.”
Ukuqala ukuvakala uqhelekile?
Umgaqo-nkqubo we-Open Door ukhokelele kwiimfazwe zokungenelela, kodwa i-US ayizange iqalise ukuzama ukunqanda iintshukumo ze-anticolonial e-East Asia, ngokutsho kweCumings, de kwaba yingxelo yeBhunga leSizwe lezoKhuseleko ngo-1950 48/2, eyayiyiminyaka emibini ukwenza. Yayinesihloko esithi "Isikhundla se-United States ngentlonipho e-Asia" kwaye yaseka isicwangciso esitsha ngokupheleleyo "esingenakucingelwa kwaphela ekupheleni kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II: yayiza kulungiselela ukungenelela ngomkhosi ngokuchasene neentshukumo ze-anticolonial e-East Asia-okokuqala Korea, kwalandela iVietnam, eneMvukelo yaseTshayina njengeyona ndawo iphakamileyo.”[39] Le NSC 48/2 ivakalise inkcaso “kushishino ngokubanzi.” Ngamanye amazwi, kuya kulunga ukuba amazwe aseMpuma ye-Asiya abe neemarike ze-niche, kodwa asifuni ukuba baphuhlise ushishino olupheleleyo njengoko i-US yenza, kuba ngoko baya kukwazi ukukhuphisana nathi kwiindawo esinazo. "inzuzo yokuthelekisa."[40] Yiloo nto i-NSC 48/2 eyabiza ngokuba “liqhayiya lesizwe namabhongo,” nto leyo “eya kuthintela inqanaba elifunekayo lentsebenziswano yamazwe ngamazwe.”
Ukupheliswa komanyano lwaseKorea
Ngaphambi kokuba iJapan ithimbe iKorea ngowe-1910, uninzi lwabantu baseKorea “yayingabemi, inkoliso yabo ingabasebenzi abaqeshileyo besebenza imihlaba ephantsi kwezona zidwangube ziphakamileyo zehlabathi,” oko kukuthi, yangbanizihandiba.[41] Igama liqulunqwe ngabalinganiswa ababini baseTshayina, yang elithetha “ezimbini” kunye kuvalwa elithetha “iqela.” Udidi lwezidwangube lwalubunjwe ngamaqela amabini—abasebenzi bakarhulumente namagosa asemkhosini. Yaye ubukhoboka abuzange bupheliswe eKorea de kwangowe-1894.[42] Ukuhlala kwe-US kunye norhulumente omtsha, ongathandwayo waseMzantsi Korea wase-Syngman Rhee owasekwa ngo-Agasti 1948 walandela imigaqo-nkqubo yokwahlula kunye nokoyisa ukuba, emva kweminyaka eyi-1,000 yomanyano, yatyhalela i-Peninsula yaseKorea kwimfazwe epheleleyo, imfazwe yamakhaya kunye nokwahlukana kunye neklasi. imigca.
Luthini ke ulwaphulo-mthetho uninzi lwabantu baseKorea abasele beza kohlwaywa ngalo? Ulwaphulo-mthetho lwabo lokuqala kukuba bazalelwa kudidi oluxhatshaziweyo lwezoqoqosho kwilizwe eliphakathi kwamazwe amabini atyebileyo nanamandla, oko kukuthi, iTshayina neJapan. Emva kokubandezeleka okukhulu phantsi kobukoloniyali baseJapan ngaphezulu kweminyaka engama-30, banandipha imvakalelo emfutshane yenkululeko eyaqala ngehlobo le-1945, kodwa kungekudala i-US yathatha indawo apho uBukhosi baseJapan babuyeke khona. Ulwaphulo-mthetho lwabo lwesibini yayikukuchasa obu bukhoboka besibini phantsi kwe-Syngman Rhee exhaswa nguWashington, nto leyo eyabangela iMfazwe yaseKorea. Kwaye okwesithathu, abaninzi babo babenqwenela ukusasazwa ngokufanelekileyo kobutyebi belizwe labo. Ezi ntlobo zimbini zokugqibela zovukelo zibafake engxakini ngoBully Number One, othe njengoko kuphawuliwe ngasentla, wagqiba ngasese ukuba angavumeli "ushishino ngokubanzi" kwi-NSC 48/2 yayo, ngokuhambelana nendlela yayo ye-geopolitical ngokubanzi, ewohlwaya ngokuqatha amazwe anqwenela uku. ezizimeleyo uphuhliso lwezoqoqosho.
Mhlawumbi ngokuyinxenye ngenxa yobungqina bokuba i-UN entsha, ebuthathaka, kunye ne-US elawulwa yi-UN inike urhulumente ka-Syngman Rhee, iinkcubabuchopho ezimbalwa eNtshona ziye zajonga ubugwenxa obenziwe yi-US ngexesha lokuhlala kwayo eKorea, okanye nakwindawo ethile. inkohlakalo eyayikhapha ukusekwa korhulumente kaRhee. Phakathi kwe-100,000 kunye ne-200,000 yabantu baseKorea babulawa ngurhulumente waseMzantsi Korea kunye nemikhosi yase-US ngaphambi kukaJuni 1950, xa "imfazwe yesiqhelo" yaqala, ngokophando lukaCumings, kwaye "abantu abangama-300,000 babanjwa babulawa okanye banyamalala nje nguMzantsi Korea. urhulumente kwiinyanga ezimbalwa zokuqala emva koko eziqhelekileyo yaqala imfazwe.”[43] (Akekeleyo yam). Ke ngoko ukubeka phantsi inkcaso yaseKorea kumanqanaba ayo okuqala kubandakanya ukubulawa kwabantu abamalunga nesiqingatha sesigidi. Oku kukodwa bubungqina bokuba inani elikhulu lamaKorea asemazantsi, hayi kuphela uninzi lwamaKorea asemantla (izigidi zawo ezabulawa ngexesha leMfazwe yaseKorea), akabamkelanga ngezandla ezishushu oozwilakhe abatsha abaxhaswa yi-US.
Ukuqala "kwemfazwe eqhelekileyo," ngendlela, ihlala iphawulwa njenge-25 Juni 1950, xa amaKorea asemantla "ahlasela" ilizwe lawo, kodwa imfazwe yaseKorea yayisele iqhubekile ekuqaleni kwe-1949, ngoko nangona kukho imfazwe. Ingcinga ebanjwe ngokubanzi yokuba iMfazwe yaqala ngo-1950, uCumings uyayikhaba loo ngcinga.[44] Ngokomzekelo, kwakukho imfazwe enkulu yabalimi kwiSiqithi saseCheju ngowe-1948-49 apho kwabulawa abahlali phakathi kwama-30,000 nama-80,000, phakathi kwabemi abangama-300,000, abanye babo babulawa ngokuthe ngqo ngamaMerika yaye uninzi lwabo ngokungangqalanga ngabantu baseMerika. Uluvo lokuba iWashington yancedisa kubundlobongela belizwe lukaSyngman Rhee.[45] Ngamanye amazwi, kuya kuba nzima ukugxeka iMfazwe yaseKorea kwiDemocratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), kodwa kulula ukuyigxeka eWashington naseSyngman Rhee.
Emva kwayo yonke imbandezelo ebangelwe yi-US, amaKorea, emantla nakumazantsi, akufuneki simangalise ukuba urhulumente waseNyakatho Korea uchasene nobukoloniyali kunye no-anti-American, kwaye amanye amaKorea aseNyakatho asebenzisana norhulumente kaKim Jong-un. ekuncedeni iNorth ukulungiselela imfazwe ne-US, naxa urhulumente engenademokhrasi. (Ubuncinane iziqeshana esiziboniswa ngokuphindaphindiweyo kumabonakude wesiqhelo, zamajoni ahambahambayo zibonisa inqanaba elithile lentsebenziswano). Ngamazwi kaCumings, "I-DPRK ayisiyondawo intle, kodwa yindawo eqondakalayo, ilizwe elichasene nekoloniyali kunye ne-anti-imperial elikhula liphuma kwisiqingatha senkulungwane yolawulo lobukoloniyali baseJapan kunye nesiqingatha senkulungwane yokujongana ngokuqhubekayo kunye ne-hegemonic. I-United States kunye noMzantsi Korea onamandla ngakumbi, onalo lonke ulwenzeko oluqikelelwayo (ilizwe lomkhosi, iipolitiki ezipheleleyo, ukuchasa ngokupheleleyo umntu wangaphandle) kunye nengqalelo egqithisileyo ekunyhashweni kwamalungelo ayo njengesizwe. ”[46]
Yintoni ngoku?
Xa uKim Jong-un ekhupha izoyikiso zomlomo, azifane zithembeke. Xa uMongameli waseMelika uTrump esongela iNorth Korea, iyoyikisa. Imfazwe yenyukliya yaqala kwiPeninsula yaseKorea "inokuphosa i-soot eyaneleyo kunye nenkunkuma ukusongela uluntu lwehlabathi,"[47] ngoko eneneni usongela ubomi boluntu.
Umntu kufuneka ajonge oko kubizwa ngokuba yi-“Doomsday Clock” ukubona ukuba kungxamiseke kangakanani na ukuba sithathe amanyathelo ngoku.[48] Abantu abaninzi abanolwazi baye banikezela, ngokubanzi, kwibali elifaka iidemon kuwo wonke umntu waseNyakatho Korea. Nokuba zithini iinkolelo zezopolitiko, kufuneka siphinde sicinge kwaye siyimise ngokutsha ingxoxo ekhoyo ngoku malunga noku US Ingxaki - ukunyuka kweWashington kwengcinezelo. Oku kuya kufuna ukubona into ezayo "engenakucingelwa," hayi njengesiganeko esizimeleyo kodwa njengesiphumo esingenakuthintelwa sokuhamba kobundlobongela bembali ye-impiriyali kunye ne-capitalism ekuhambeni kwexesha-kungekhona nje "ukubona," kodwa ukusebenza ngokubambisana ukuze sitshintshe kakhulu iintlobo zethu. ukuthanda ubundlobongela.
Amanqaku.
[1] Bertrand Russell, Izincoko ezingathandwayo (uSimon kunye noSchuster, ngo-1950)
[2] "Iziseko zoMkhosi zase-US kwiziseko zoMkhosi zaseJapan"
[3] Cumings, Indawo yaseKorea eLangeni: Imbali yanamhlanje (WW Norton, 1988) p. 477.
UAlex Ward,"UMzantsi Korea ufuna i-US iXhobise iZixhobo zeNyukliya kweli lizwe. Ngumbono ombi lowo. " face (I-5 kaSeptemba 2017).
[4] UAlex Lockie, "I-US ithumela inqwelomoya yesithathu kwiPasifiki njengoko i-armada enkulu isiya kufutshane neNorth Korea, "U I-Business Insider (5 ngoJuni 2017)
[5] UBridget Martin, "Inyanga kaJae-In's THAAD Conundrum: "UMongameli weKhandlela" waseMzantsi Korea ujongene nenkcaso eyomeleleyo yabemi kuKhuseleko lweMissile, "U Ijenali yeAsia Pacific: Ujoliso lwaseJapan 15:18:1 (15 Septemba 2017).
[6] UJane Perlez, "I-China, iNkqubo yoKhuseleko lweMissile eMzantsi Korea ichaza iNkundla engaphumelelanga," ENew York Times (8 Julayi 2016)
[7] UBruce Klingner, "UMzantsi Korea: Ukuthatha aManyathelo aLungileyo kuHlaziyo lwezoKhuselo,” iSiseko seLifa leMveli (19 October 2011)
[8] Oliver Holmes, "I-US kunye noMzantsi Korea ukwenza umthambo omkhulu womkhosi ngaphandle kwengxaki yaseNorth Korea, "U Guardian (11 Agasti 2017)
[9] "I-Japan-Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) Mission Computing Upgrade (MCU),” I-Arhente yeNtsebenziswano yoKhuselo kwezoKhuselo (26 Septemba 2013)
[10] Hans M. Kristensen, uMatthew McKinzie, kunye noTheodore A. Postol, “Indlela i-US Nuclear Force ye-Modernization ijongela phantsi uzinzo lweSicwangciso: I-Burst-Height iBuyekeza i-Super-Fuze, "U I-Bulletin ye-Atomic Scientists (Matshi 2017)
Enye i-submarine ihanjiswe kummandla ngo-Ephreli 2017. Jonga uBarbara Starr, uZachary Cohen noBrad Lendon, "US Navy Guided-umjukujelwa Sub Calls eMzantsi Korea,” CNN (25 April 2017).
Kufuneka kubekho ubuncinane ezimbini kummandla nangona kunjalo. Bona "UTrump uxelela uDuterte ngee-subs ezimbini zenyukliya zase-US kumanzi aseKorea: NYT,” iReuters (24 May 2017)
[11] Dakshayani Shankar,”UMattis: Imfazwe neNorth Korea iya kuba 'yintlekele',” Iindaba ze-ABC (10 Aug 2017)
[12] UBruce Cumings, "UBukumkani bukaHermit Busithwaxa, "U LA Times (17 Julayi 1997)
[13] UDavid Nakamura kunye no-Anne Gearan, "Kwintetho ye-UN, uTrump usongela 'ukutshabalalisa ngokupheleleyo iNorth Korea' kwaye ubiza uKim Jong Un 'Rocket Man'., "U Washington Post (19 Septemba 2017)
[14] UPaul Atwood, "eKorea? Isoloko imalunga neTshayina!,” IsiCwangciso soPhakamiso (22 Septemba 2017)
[15] UDavid Stockman, "I-Deep State's Bogus 'Isongelo sase-Iranian', "U IAnigwar.com (14 Okthobha 2017)
[16] UJoby Warrick, uEllen Nakashima, kunye noAnna Fifield "INorth Korea ngoku yenza izixhobo zenyukliya ezilungele ukujulwa, utshilo abahlalutyi baseMelika, "U Washington Post (8 Agasti 2017)
[17] Bruce Cumings, North Korea: Elinye ilizwe (Ushicilelo olutsha, 2003) p. 1.
[18] Inkcazo yodliwano-ndlebe, "Ugqirha wengqondo uRobert Jay Lifton osemsebenzini wokulumkisa: 'Ubudlelwane bukaTrump kunye neNyaniso' buyingozi kuthi sonke.,” IdemokhrasiNgoku! (13 Okthobha 2017)
[19] Atwood, "eKorea? Isoloko Imalunga neTshayina!” IsiCwangciso soPhakamiso.
[20] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, icandelo elinomxholo othi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isiqendu sesi-7.
[21] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, icandelo elinomxholo othi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isiqendu sesi-7.
[22] UAaron David Miller kunye noRichard Sokolsky, "uT'Umgca wobubi' ubuyile,” CNN (26 April 2017) l
[23] "Imvukelo yeBoxer—I: Isitshingitshane Sokuhlanganisana kuMntla weTshayina (1860-1900),” MIT Visuaizing Cultures, iwebhusayithi yelayisensi yeCreative Commons:
[24] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko 4, isiqendu 3.
[25] U-Nick Turse ubalisa ngembali yocalucalulo olubi olunxulunyaniswa neli gama ku Bulala nantoni na ehambisa: Imfazwe yangempela yaseMelika eVietnam (Picador, 2013), iSahluko sesi-2.
[26] Kwinqaku lokuqala elinobundlobongela ngokomfuziselo, bona uHanson W. Baldwin, “Isifundo saseKorea: Isakhono seReds, uMnxeba waMandla wokuHlolwa kwakhona kweeMfuno zoKhuselo ngokuchasene nokuhlasela ngesiquphe,” ENew York Times (14 Julayi 1950)
[27] UTomohiro Osaki, "Ukutya kupasisa umthetho wokuqala waseJapan ukunqanda intetho yentiyo, "U Japan Times (24 Meyi 2016)
[28] UJulia Lovell, "Ingozi emthubi: UGqr Fu Manchu kunye nokuPhakamisa kwe-Chinaphobia nguChristopher Frayling-uphononongo, "U Guardian (30 Okthobha 2014)
[29] UChristine Hong, "Imfazwe ngezinye iindlela: Ubundlobongela bamalungelo abantu baseNorth Korea, "U Ijenali yeAsia Pacific: Ujoliso lwaseJapan 12:13:2 (30 Matshi 2014)
[30] ULucas Tomlinson kunye ne-Associated Press, ''I-Axis of Evil 'isaphila njengeNorth Korea, i-Iran iqalisa imijukujelwa, isohlwayo se-flout,” Fox News (29 July 2017)
UJaime Fuller, "Intetho yesi-4 egqwesileyo yeSimo soManyano: 'Umgca wobubi, ' Washington Post (25 Januwari 2014)
[31] UCaroline Norma, I-Comfort Comfort Women and Sexual Slavery ngexesha le-China ne-Pacific War (Bloomsbury, 2016), Isiphelo, umhlathi we-4.
[32] UTessa Morris-Suzuki, “Awufuni Ukwazi Ngamantombazana? 'Abafazi beNtuthuzelo', uMkhosi waseJapan kunye nemikhosi ehlangeneyo kwiMfazwe yaseAsia-Pacific, " Ijenali yeAsia Pacific: Ujoliso lwaseJapan 13:31:1 (3 Agasti 2015).
[33] UJohn W. Dower, UkuBuyisa ubuThoba: IJapan kwiMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi. (Norton, 1999)
[34] UKatharine HS Moon, "Ubuhenyu bomkhosi kunye noMkhosi wase-US eAsia," Ijenali yeAsia Pacific: Ujoliso lwaseJapan Umqulu 7:3:6 (12 January 2009)
[35] UNorma, I-Comfort Comfort Women and Sexual Slavery ngexesha le-China ne-Pacific War, iSahluko 6, isiqendu sokugqibela secandelo elinomxholo othi “Amaxhoba angoonongogo de kube sekupheleni.”
[36] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, iSahluko 5, isiqendu sesibini ukuya kwesokugqibela secandelo lokuqala ngaphambi “koMzantsi-ntshona weKorea ngexesha loRhulumente wasemkhosini.”
[37] UJohn W. Dower, “Inkqubo yaseSan Francisco: Edlulileyo, Ekhoyo, Ikamva kwi-US-Japan-China Relations, "U Ijenali yeAsia Pacific: Ujoliso lwaseJapan 12:8:2 (23 February 2014)
[38] Atwood, "eKorea? Ihlala imalunga neTshayina!" I-CounterPunch.
[39] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, icandelo elinomxholo othi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isiqendu sesi-6.
[40] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko 8, icandelo elinomxholo othi “A Military-Industrial Complex,” isiqendu sesi-9.
[41] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko 1, isiqendu 3.
[42] Ukuqokelela, INorth Korea: Elinye ilizwe, Isahluko 4, 2nd umhlathi.
[43] Cumings, "Imbali yokubulala yaseKorea," Ukubuyiselwa kweencwadi zeLondon 39:10 (18 May 2017).
[44] Ukuqokelela, Indawo yaseKorea elangeni: Imbali yamhlanje, iphe. 238.
[45] Ukuqokelela, Imfazwe yaseKorea, Isahluko sesi-5, “I-Cheju Insurgency.”
[46] Ukuqokelela, North Korea: Elinye ilizwe, Isahluko 2, icandelo elithi “American Nuclear Threats”, umhlathi wokugqibela.
[47] UBruce Cumings, "Imbali ebulalayo yaseKorea," Ukubuyiselwa kweencwadi zeLondon (18 May 2017). Eli lelona nqaku likaCumings lifutshane-kodwa-licokisekileyo, lifutshane ngembali yaseKorea njengoko lihambelana nengxaki yangoku.
[48] I-Bulletin ye-Atomic Scientists
~~~~~~~~~
UJoseph Essertier unjingalwazi ongumhlobo kwiNagoya Institute of Technology eJapan.
