Ka December 1914, ho phatloha ho makatsang hoa khotso, leha ho le joalo, ho etsahetse ha bongata ba 100,000 ba mabotho a milione, kapa liperesente tse leshome, ba eme ka nqa ea 500 mile West Front Ntoeng ea I ea Lefatše, ka boomo le ka boithatelo, ba emisitse ho loana bonyane Lihora tsa 24-36, la December 24-26. Litaba tse ikhethileng tsa lits'oaetso tsa lehae li etsahetse bonyane ho tloha ka December 11, mme tsa tsoela pele ka nako ho fihlela Letsatsi la Selemo se Secha le ho qala ka Pherekhong 1915. Bonyane likarolo tsa ntoa tsa 115 li ne li kentse letsoho har'a masole a Borithane, Majeremane, Mafora le Belgian. Leha ho na le litaelo tse akaretsang tse hanelang ka tieo mofuta ofe kapa ofe oa ho ikopanya le sera, lintlha tse ngata pela mahlo a lipaki tse pakiloeng ka mabone a bonesitsoeng, masole a tsoa literateng tsa bona tsa 30 feela ho ea 40 ka thoko ho tsukutlana ka matsoho, ho tsuba, ho ja le veine, le ho bina le e mong. Li-Troops tse tsoang mahlakoreng 'ohle li ile tsa sebelisa monyetla oa ho patela mofu oa bona ea robetseng hohle mabaleng a ntoa,' me ho bile le litlaleho tsa lits'ebeletso tsa lepato tse kopaneng. Maemong a mang liofisiri li ile tsa ikopanya le moferefere o atileng. Ho na le moo ho buuoang ka hona mona le papaling ea bolo ea maoto e bapalitsoeng pakeng tsa Majeremane le Borithane. (Bona SOURCES).
E le pontšo e tsotehang ea moea oa motho joalo ka ha e ne e se ketsahalo e ikhethang historing ea ntoa. Ebile, e ne e le ho khutla ha moetlo o neng o thehiloe khale. Likoluoa tse sa reroang le likabelo tse nyane tsa lehae le liketsahalo tsa setsoalle tse arolelanoang pakeng tsa lira li etsahetse nakong e telele ea ntoa ea sesole ka makholo a 'maloa a lilemo, mohlomong le ho feta.[1] Sena se kenyeletsa le ntoa ea Vietnam Nam.[2]
Setho se Buellang Lebotho Lt.Col Dave Grossman, moprofesa oa saense ea sesole, o pheha khang ea hore batho ba na le khanyetso e tebileng ea tlhaho ea ho bolaea e hlokang koetliso e khethehileng ho hlola.[3] Ke ne ke sa khone ho kenya "bayonet" ea ka dummy nakong ea thupelo ea ranger ea USAF mathoasong a 1969. Haeba nkabe ke ne ke le grunt ea sesole sebakeng sa ofisiri ea Sesole sa Lebotho, 'me ke le monyane lilemong tse' maloa, na ho ne ho tla ba bonolo ho bolaea joalo? Ho hlakile hore molaoli oa ka o ne a sa thaba ha ke hana ho sebelisa bayonet ea ka, hobane sesole se tseba hantle hore banna ba ka etsoa feela ka ho bolaea. Bohatelli bo hlokahalang ho etsa hore sesole se sebetse bo matla. E ea tseba hore e ke ke ea lumella lipuisano mabapi le thomo ea eona mme e tlameha ho potlakela ho hula mapetso ohle tsamaisong ea kutlo ea bofofu. Hang-hang ke ile ka beoa "Ofising ea Taolo ea Bolaoli" 'me ka tobana le litšeho tsa borena ka mor'a mamati a koaletsoeng moo ke ileng ka tšosoa ka tlolo ea molao ea sesole, ka lihlong nako le nako ka qosoa ka hore ke lekoala le lehlabaphio. Ke ile ka bolelloa hore ho hana ha ka ka mokhoa o ikhethileng ho nka karolo ho kenyeng sethibela sa bayonet, ho baka mathata a boitšoaro a neng a sokela ho sitisa thomo ea rona.
Setsebi sa kelello sa bophelo ba Yale Univesithing ea Yale Stanley ho 1961, ke likhoeli tse tharo feela kamora ho qaleha ha nyeoe ea Adolph Eichmann Jerusalema bakeng sa karolo ea hae ea ho hokahanya Polao e Sehlōhō, o qalile letoto la liteko ho utloisisa sebopeho sa ho mamela bolaoli. Litholoana li ile tsa tšosa. Milgraph o ile a hlahlobisisa lithuto tsa hae ka hloko hore e be moemeli oa Maamerika a tloaelehileng a Amerika. Ha ba fuoa maikutlo ka bohlokoa ba litaelo tse latelang, barupeluoa ba ile ba laeloa ho hatisa lever eo ba neng ba lumela hore ke letoto la litšitiso, butle-butle ba ntse ba eketseha ka litekanyetso tse leshome le metso e mehlano, nako le nako ha Moithuti (motlalehi) a etsa phoso mosebetsing o amanang le mantsoe. . Ha Baithuti ba qala ho hoelehetsa ba le bohlokong, Setsebi (sebopeho sa bolaoli) o ile a tsitlella hore ka bohona liteko li tlameha ho tsoela pele. Liperesente tse 65 tse makatsang tsa Barupeluoa ba Milgram ba ile ba fana ka motlakase o phahameng ka ho fetisisa — jolt e bolaeang e ka beng e bolaile motho ea hlasetsoeng ke thohako. Liteko tse ling tse entsoeng ho theosa le lilemo liunivesithing tse ling United States, le linaheng tse ling tse robong tsa Europe, Afrika le Asia, kaofela li senotse litekanyetso tse phahameng tsa ho latela bolaoli. Phuputso ea 2008 e etselitsoeng ho pheta liteko tsa kutlo tsa Milgram ha u ntse u qoba lintlha tsa eona tse ngata tse hanyetsanang, e fumane litholoana tse tšoanang.[4]
Milgraph e phatlalalitse thuto ea bohlokoahali ea thuto:
Batho ba tloaelehileng, ba etsa mesebetsi ea bona feela, 'me ntle le bora bo itseng ka lehlakoreng la bona, ba ka fetoha baemeli ka ts'ebetso e mpe e senyang. . . Tokiso e tloaelehileng haholo ea monahano tabeng e mamelang ke hore eena (eena) a ipone a se na boikarabelo bakeng sa liketso tsa hae. . . Eena (eena) o ipona e se motho ea itšoarang ka tsela e nang le boikarabelo empa e le moemeli oa bolaoli ba ka ntle, "ea etsang mosebetsi oa hae" o ileng oa utluoa nako le nako lipolelong tsa tšireletso tsa ba qosoang Nuremberg. . . . Sechabeng se rarahaneng ho bonolo kelellong ho hlokomoloha boikarabelo ha motho e le feela sehokelo sa lipakeng letotong la liketso tse mpe empa a le hole le liphello tsa ho qetela. . . . Ka hona ho na le karohano ea ketso eohle ea motho; ha ho monna (mosali) a le mong ea nkang qeto ea ho etsa ketso e mpe 'me a tobana le liphello tsa eona.[5]
Milram o re hopotsitse hore tlhahlobo e tebileng ea nalane ea rona e senola "demokrasi" ea bolaoli bo kentsoeng ntle le khatello, e ntse e eketseha ka palo ea batho ba mamelang bareki ba se nang botsitso ba itšetlehileng ka tšabo ea ba bang, ba re ts'oaretso ea baahi ba pele ba Maindia, ho its'etleha bokhobeng ba limilione, ho kenella hare ho Maamerika a Majapane, le tšebeliso ea napalm khahlanong le baahi ba Vietnam.[6]
Joalokaha Milgraph e tlaleha, "bofokoli ba motho a le mong ha feela bo ka ba teng, ha bo na thuso. O tla nkeloa sebaka ke monna ea latelang moleng. Kotsi feela ea ho sebetsa sesole e lula e le hore lets'ollo le le leng le ka susumetsa ba bang. ”[7]
Ho 1961 rafilosofi oa boitšoaro le moetapele oa lipolotiki Hannah Arendt, Mojuda, o bone nyeoe ea Adolf Eichmann. O ile a makala ha a fumana hore "o ne a sa" sotheha, 'me ha a lihlong. "Ho fapana le moo, Eichmann le ba bang ba bangata joalo ka eena" ba ne ba ntse ba le maemong a tšabehang haholo. "[8] Arendt o hlalositse bokhoni ba batho ba tloaelehileng ba ho etsa bobe bo sa tloaelehang ka lebaka la khatello ea maemo a bophelo kapa sechabeng se itseng, e le "ho thibela bobe." Ho tsoa litekong tsa Milgram, rea tseba hore "bokhopo ba bobe" ha bo ikhethang ho Manazi.
Litsebi tsa thuto ea kelello le bo-rahistori ba setso li pheha khang ea hore li-archetypes tsa batho li simolohile ka hlompho, kutloelo-bohloko le tšebelisano e bile tsa bohlokoa molemong oa hore mefuta ea rona e fihle hole le lekala la rona la thuto ea ho iphetola ha lintho. Leha ho le joalo, lilemong tse fetileng tsa 5,500, ho pota 3,500 BCE, metsana e nyane ea Neolithic e ile ea qala ho fetoha "tsoelopele" ea litoropong. Ka "tsoelo-pele", ho ile ha hlaha mohopolo o mocha oa bo-rahistori oa setso Lewis Mumford o bitsang "megamachine," e ne e le motho " likarolo ”ba qobelloa ho sebetsa 'moho ho etsa mesebetsi ka tekanyo e kholo haholo eo ho seng mohla nkileng ka e nahana. Tsoelo-pele e bone ha ho theoa mesebetsi ea tsamaiso e tataisoang ke mochini oa matla (morena) o nang le bangoli le man messengersosa, o hlophisitseng metjeko ea basebetsi (bongata ba basebetsi) ho aha liphiramide, lits'ebetso tsa nosetso, le lits'ebeletso tse kholo tsa polokelo ea lijo-thollo har'a meaho e meng, kaofela qobelloa ke sesole. Likarolo tsa eona e ne e le bohare ba matla, karohano ea batho ka lihlopha, nako ea ho qobelloa ho qobelloa le ho ba makhoba, ho se lekane ka leruo le tokelo, le matla a sesole le ntoa.[9] Kamora nako, tsoelopele, eo re rutiloeng ho e nahana e le molemo joalo bakeng sa boemo ba motho, e ipakile e le tlokotsi e kholo bakeng sa mefuta ea rona, re sa bue ka mefuta e meng le tikoloho ea lefatše. Re le litho tsa sejoale-joale tsa mefuta ea rona (ntle le mekhatlo ea Maindia e atlehileng eo ka tsela e 'ngoe e ileng ea pholoha thohako) re ts'oaretse meloko e makholo a mararo ka mohlala o hlokang kutlo e kholo litsong tse kholo tsa motlakase.
Mumford o hlakisa boikemisetso ba hae ba hore boipuso ka lihlopha tse nyane tse fapaneng ke setšoantšo sa batho seo hajoale se seng se ikhethile mabapi le ho mamela theknoloji le tsamaiso ea puso. Pōpo ea tsoelo-pele ea batho litoropong e tlisitse mekhoa ea pefo e hlophisehileng le ntoa e neng e sa tsejoe pele,[10] Seo Andrew Schmookler a se bitsang "sebe sa pele" sa tsoelo-pele,[11] le Mumford, "paranoia e kopaneng le bosholu ba morabe o mong."[12]
"Tsoelo-pele" e hloka sechaba se matla ho mamela ho nolofalletsa likarolo tsa balaoli ba emeng. Ebile ha e bue ka hore na matla a emmeng le a mang a phahameng a fumaneha joang, ebang ke ka ho latellana ha marena, bohatelli, kapa khetho ea demokrasi, e sebetsa ka mokhoa o sa fetoheng ka mekhoa e fapaneng ea khatello. Tokoloho e ikemetseng eo batho ba kileng ba e thabela ho lihlopha tsa pele ho tsoelo-pele ea sechaba e se e fetohela ho tumelo mehahong ea bolaoli le mehopolong ea bona e laoloang, e hlalositsoeng e le "khatello ea khatello" moo thepa ea poraefete le ho hatelloa hoa basali ho atileng, ka likhoka haeba ho hlokahala.[13]
Ho hlaha ha mebuso e emeng ka nqa tsohle, puso ea marena le bahlomphehi, ho amohile batho meketjana ea nalane ea ho phela ka lihlopha tse nyane tsa morabe. Hammoho le ho kheloha ka matla, ho arohana ha batho kamanong ea bona e haufi le lefatše ho hlahisitse tšireletseho e tebileng, tšabo le khatello ea kelello. Litsebi tsa thuto ea tlhaho ea lihlahisoa tsa tlhaho li bontša hore ho qepha hoo ho lebisitse ho tlhaho unhlokomela.[14]
Kahoo, batho ba hloka ka matla ho fumana mehlala le ho fepa mehlala ea ho se mamele litsamaiso tsa bopolotiki tse entseng hore ho be le lintoa tsa 14,600 ho tloha ha ho ne ho hlaha mehleng ea 5,500 lilemong tse fetileng. Lilemong tse fetileng tsa 3,500 ho bile le litumellano tse ka bang 8,500 tse saennoeng ka boiteko ba ho felisa ntoa, li sa fumanehe hobane meaho e emeng e lutse e tiile e hlokang kutlo ho bona boitekong ba bona ba ho holisa sebaka, matla kapa setsi sa lisebelisoa. Bokamoso ba mefuta, le bophelo ba mefuta e mengata, bo kotsing, ha re ntse re emetse hore batho ba fihle likelellong tse nepahetseng, ka bonngoe le ka bonngoe.
Pokello ea Keresemese ea 1914 ea lilemo tse lekholo tse fetileng e ne e le mohlala o makatsang oa hore na lintoa li ka tsoela pele joang haeba masole a lumela ho loana. E hloka ho hlomphuoa le ho ketekoa, leha ekaba nakoana feela ka nako. E emela bokhoni ba ho se mamele ha batho melaong e bohlanya. Joalokaha seroki sa Lejeremane le sebapali sa 'mino Bertolt Brecht se phatlalalitse, Ka kakaretso, tanka ea hau ke koloi e matla. E heletsa meru, 'me e thunya banna ba makholo. Empa e na le sekoli se le seng: e hloka mokhanni.[15] Haeba batho ba tloaelehileng ba ne ba hana ho tsamaisa tanka ea ntoa, baeta-pele ba ne ba tla tloheloa ho loana lintoa tsa bona. Ba ka ba bokhutšoanyane.
PUSELETSO
[1] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/197627.stm, leseli le nkiloeng ho Malcolm Brown le Shirley Seaton, Koloi ea Keresemese: Western Front, 1914 (New York: Libuka tsa Hippocrene, 1984.
[2] Richard Boyle, Palesa ea Joko: Ho Qaleha ha Sesole sa US se Vietnam (San Francisco: Ramparts Press, 1973), 235-236; Richard Moser, Masole a Macha a Mariha, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 132; Tom Wells, Ntoa E Kae (New York: Henry Holt le Co, 1994), 525-26.
[3] Dave Grossman, Ho bolaea: Tlhōlo ea Mahlale a ho Ithuta ho Bolaea Ntoeng le Mokhatlo (Boston: Bonyenyane, Bosootho, 1995).
[4] Lisa M. Krieger, "Kutloiso e Tšosang: Moprofesa oa Santa Clara Univesithi ea Tlhahlobo ea Tlhokahalo e Tummeng," San Jose Mercury News, December 20, 2008.
[5] Stanley Milram, "Lits'ireletso tsa Kutlo," Harper's December 1973, 62-66, 75-77; Sesebelisoa sa linaleli sa Stanley, Ho Mamela Bolaoli: Pono ea Tlhahlobo (1974; New York: Pelennial Classics, 2004), 6-8, 11.
[6] Liraka, 179.
[7] Liraka, 182.
[8] [Hannah Arendt, Eichmann o Jerusalema: Tlaleho e mabapi le ho Beha ha Bobe (1963; New York: Libuka tsa Penguin, 1994), 276].
[9] Lewis Mumford, Khopolo-taba ea mochine: Liteknoloji le Ntšetso-pele ea Batho (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1967), 186.
[10] Ashley Montagu, Mofuta oa liphapang tsa batho (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 43-53, 59-60; Ashley Montagu, ed., Ho Ithuta ho sa Tsebeliseng Khopolo: Boiphihlelo ba Mekhatlo e sa Ngoloeng (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978); Jean Guilaine le Jean Zammit, Tšimoloho ea Ntoa: Pefo ho Prehistory, trans Melanie Hersey (2001; Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005).
[11] E HLAHETSE KE: Andrew B. Schmookler, Ho Felloa ke Bofokoli: Ho Folisa Mabala a re Khannelang Ntoeng (New York: Libuka tsa Bantam, 1988), 303.
[12] Mumford, ea lilemo li 204.
[13] Etienne de la Boetie, Sepolotiki sa Kutlo: Moqoqo oa Boithaopo, trans Harry Kurz (ca. 1553; Montreal: Libuka tsa Black Rose, 1997), 46, 58-60; Riane Eisler, Chalice le Blade (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 45–58, 104–6.
[14] Theodore Roszak, Mary E. Gomes, le Allen D. Kanner, lih. Ecopsychology: Ho khutlisetsa Lefatše ho folisa kelello (San Francisco: Libuka tsa Sierra Club, 1995). Ecopsychology e phethela ka hore ha ho na pholiso ea motho ntle le ho folisa lefatše, le hore se sibolla kamano ea rona e halalelang le sona, ke ho re, kamano ea rona e haufi-ufi ea lefats'e, ke karolo ea bohlokoa bakeng sa pholiso ea botho le ea lefats'e le hlompho.
[15] "Kakaretso, Tanka ea Hau ke Koloi e Matla", e phatlalalitsoeng ho Ho tsoa ho Primer ea Ntoa ea Jeremane, Karolo ea Lithoko tsa Svendborg (1939); Joalokaha ho fetoletsoe ke Lee Baxandall ka Lithoko, 1913-1956, 289.
SOURCES 1914 Truck ea Keresemese
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/197627.stm.
Brown, David. "Ho hopola tlholo bakeng sa Botho ba Batho - Phallo ea Keresemese e makatsang ea WWI," The Washington Post, December 25, 2004.
Brown, Malcolm le Shirley Seaton. Koloi ea Keresemese: Western Front, 1914. New York: Hippocrene, ka 1984.
Cleaver, Alan le Lesley Park. "Truck ea Keresemese: Kakaretso," christmastruce.co.uk/article.html, e fihliloeng ka November 30, 2014.
Gilbert, Martin. Ntoa ea Pele ea Lefatše: Nalane e Felletseng. New York: Henry Holt le Co, 1994, 117-19.
Hochschild, Adama. Ho felisa Lintoa Tsohle: Pale ea Ho Tšepahala le Borabele, 1914-1918. New York: Libuka tsa Mariners, 2012, 130-32.
Vinciguerra, Thomase. "Pokello ea Keresemese, 1914", The New York Times, December 25, 2005.
Weintraub, Stanley. Bosiu bo Khutsitseng: Pale ea Ntoa ea I ea Lefatše ea Keresemese. New York: Press ea mahala, 2001.
----
S. Brian Willson, brianwillson.com, December 2, 2014, setho sa Veterans Bakeng sa Khaolo ea 72, Portland, Oregon
