Kuvanzika, Sainzi, uye Nyika Inoti Chengetedzo State

naCliff Conner, Sayenzi Yevanhu, April 12, 2023

Izwi rekuti "nyika yekuchengetedza nyika" rave kuwedzera kujairana senzira yekuratidza chokwadi chezvematongerwo enyika cheUnited States nhasi. Zvinoreva kuti kudiwa kuchengeta ngozi chakavanzika chezivo chave basa rinokosha resimba rinotonga. Mazwi acho pachawo anogona kuita sechinhu chisina kujeka, asi hurongwa, hwepfungwa, uye hwemutemo hunoreva kukanganisa zvakanyanya hupenyu hwemunhu wese ari pasi. Zvichakadaro, kuyedza kuchengetedza zvakavanzika zvehurumende kubva kune veruzhinji kwafambirana nekupinda kwakarongeka kwekuvanzika kwemunhu kudzivirira mugari wekuchengeta zvakavanzika kubva kuhurumende.

Hatigone kunzwisisa mamiriro edu ezvematongerwo enyika anhasi tisingazive kwakabva uye nekuvandudzwa kwemidziyo yekuvanzika yehurumende yeUS. Chave - kazhinji - chave chitsauko chakadhindwa mumabhuku enhoroondo yeAmerica, kushomeka uko munyori wenhoroondo Alex Wellerstein akashinga uye nekugona kugadzirisa. Yakadzorwa Dhata: Iyo Nhoroondo yeNuclear Secrecy muUnited States.

Wellerstein's academic specialty inhoroondo yesainzi. Izvo zvakafanira nekuti ruzivo rwune njodzi rwakagadzirwa nenyanzvi dzenyukireya kuManhattan Project panguva yeHondo Yenyika Yechipiri yaifanirwa kurapwa pachivande kupfuura chero ruzivo rwekare.¹

Veruzhinji veAmerica vakatendera sei kukura kwekuvanzika kwemasangano kusvika kune akashata kudaro? Nhanho imwe panguva, uye danho rekutanga rakagadziridzwa sezvinodiwa kuchengetedza Nazi Germany kubva pakuburitsa chombo chenyukireya. Yakanga iri "kuvanzika kwesainzi kwakaonekwa kuti bhomba reatomu rinoda" izvo zvinoita kuti nhoroondo yekutanga yedziviriro yenyika ive nhoroondo yekuvanzika kwefizikisi yenyukireya (p. 3).

Mutsara wekuti "Restricted Data" raive izwi rekutanga kubata rezvakavanzika zvenyukireya. Vaifanira kuchengetwa zvakakwana pasi pekuputira zvekuti kunyangwe kuvepo kwavo kwaisafanirwa kubvumwa, izvo zvaireva kuti euphemism senge "Restricted Data" yaidiwa kuti vavhare zvirimo.

Hukama huripo pakati pesainzi nenzanga hunoburitswa nenhoroondo iyi hunoenderana uye hunosimbisana. Pamusoro pekuratidza kuti sainzi yakavanzika yakakanganisa sei kurongeka kwevanhu, inoratidzawo kuti nyika yekuchengetedza nyika yakaumba sei kusimukira kwesainzi muUnited States mumakore makumi masere apfuura. Ikoko kwave kusiri kukura kune utano; zvakakonzera kuzviisa pasi kwesayenzi yeAmerica kune chido chisingagutsikane chekutonga kwemauto pasi rose.

Zvinogoneka Sei Kunyora Yakavanzika Nhoroondo Yekuvanzika?

Kana pane zvakavanzika zvinofanira kuchengetwa, ndiani anobvumirwa kuva "mazviri"? Alex Wellerstein zvechokwadi akanga asiri. Izvi zvingaita segangaidzo rinogona kunyudza kubvunza kwake kubva pakutanga. Ko munyori wenhoroondo anorambidzwa kuona zvakavanzika zviri nyaya yekuferefetwa kwavo anogona here kutaura?

Wellerstein anobvuma “zvipingamupinyi zviri mukuedza kunyora nhoroondo ine chinyorwa chinowanzogadziridzwa zvakanyanya. Kunyanguvezvo, iye “haana kutongotsvaka kana kuti kushuva mvumo yehurumende yechengeteko.” Kuve nemvumo, anowedzera, kunonyanya kukosha, uye kunopa hurumende kodzero yekuongorora zvinoburitswa. “Kana ndisingakwanisi kuudza chero munhu zvandinoziva, zvine basa rei pakuzviziva?” (p.9). Kutaura zvazviri, nemashoko akawanda asina kurongwa anowanikwa, sezvinopupurirwa nemanyuko akawanda mubhuku rake, Wellerstein anobudirira kupa nhoroondo inoyemurika uye yakazara nezvekwakabva kuvanzika kwenyukireya.

Nguva nhatu dzeNuclear Secrecy History

Kutsanangura mabviro atakaita kubva kuUnited States uko kwakanga kusina midziyo yekuvanzika zviri pamutemo zvachose—pasina kuchengetedzwa zviri pamutemo “Chakavanzika,” “Chakavanzika,” kana “Chakavanzika Chepamusoro” mapoka ezivo—kune nyika yose yekuchengetedzwa kwenyika yanhasi, Wellerstein anotsanangura nguva nhatu. Yekutanga yaive kubva kuManhattan Project panguva yeHondo Yenyika Yechipiri kusvika pakusimuka kweCold War; yechipiri yakatambanudzwa nomuHondo Yemashoko yakakwira kusvika pakati pama1960; uye yechitatu yaive kubva kuHondo yeVietnam kusvika nhasi.

Nguva yekutanga yakaratidzwa nekusava nechokwadi, kukakavara, uye kuedza. Kunyange zvazvo nharo panguva iyoyo dzaiwanzova dzakajeka uye dzakaoma, kurwira kuvanzika kubva ipapo kunogona kutorwa sebipolar, nemaonero maviri anopikisana anotsanangurwa se.

maonero e "idealistic" ("anodiwa kune masayendisiti") kuti basa resainzi raida chinangwa chekudzidza nezvezvisikwa uye kuparadzira ruzivo pasina kurambidzwa, uye maonero e "mauto kana erudzi", ayo aiti hondo dzemangwana dzaisadzivisika uye kuti zvaive. basa reUnited States rekuchengetedza chinzvimbo chemauto chakasimba (p. 85).

Spoiler alert: Iyo "mauto kana nyika" mitemo yakazokunda, uye ndiyo nhoroondo yekuchengetedzwa kwenyika muchidimbu.

Hondo Yenyika Yechipiri isati yasvika, pfungwa yekuvanzika kwesainzi yakatemerwa nehurumende ingadai yakatengeswa zvakanyanya, kune vesainzi nekuruzhinji. Masayendisiti aitya kuti mukuwedzera kuvhiringidza kufambira mberi kwekutsvakurudza kwavo, kuisa pfungwa dzehurumende kupofumadza pasayenzi kwaizobudisa vavhoti vasina ruzivo nesayenzi uye hurukuro yavose inodzorwa nokufungidzira, kunetseka, uye kutya. Tsika dzegamuchidzanwa dzokubudirana pachena kwesayenzi nebatira pamwe, zvisinei, dzakakurirwa nokutya kukuru kwebhomba renyukireya reNazi.

Kukundwa kwemasimba eAxis muna 1945 kwakaunza shanduko ine chekuita nemuvengi wekutanga kwaizochengeterwa zvakavanzika zvenyukireya. Panzvimbo yeGermany, muvengi kubva ipapo aizove aimbova mubatsiri, Soviet Union. Izvo zvakagadzira iyo yakagadziriswa anticommunist mass paranoia yeCold War, uye mhedzisiro yaive yekumisikidzwa kwehurongwa hwakakura hwekuvanzika kwemasangano pakuita kwesainzi muUnited States.

Nhasi, Wellerstein anoti, “anopfuura makumi manomwe emakore pashure pokupera kweHondo yeNyika II, uye anenge makumi matatu emakore chifo chokuwa kweSoviet Union,” tinowana kuti “zvombo zvenyukireya, kuvanza kwenyukireya, uye kutya kwenyukireya kunoratidzira chitarisiko chiri chose chokuva chigarire. chikamu chenyika yedu yanhasi, zvekuti kune vakawanda hazvigoneke kuzvifungira neimwe nzira” (p. 3). Asi sei izvi zvakaitika here? Nguva nhatu dzambotaurwa dzinopa hwaro hwenyaya.

Chinangwa chepakati chemidziyo yekuvanzika yemazuva ano ndeyekuvanza hukuru uye chiyero cheUS "hondo dzekusingaperi" uye mhosva dzakapokana nevanhu dzavanosanganisa.

Munguva yekutanga, kudiwa kwekuvanzika kwenyukireya "kwakatanga kuparadzirwa nemasayendisiti aifunga kuti zvakavanzika kune zvavanofarira." Kuedza kwekutanga kuzviongorora "kwakachinja, zvinoshamisa nekukurumidza, kuva hurongwa hwehurumende kutonga kubudiswa kwesainzi, uye kubva ipapo kupinda kutonga kwehurumende pamusoro peinoda zvose ruzivo rwune chekuita nekutsvaga kweatomu." Yakanga iri nyaya yekare yezvematongerwo enyika naïveté uye mhedzisiro isingatarisirwe. “Apo nyanzvi dzefizikisi dzenyukireya dzakatanga kudana kwavo kwekuvanzika, vakafunga kuti chaizova chechinguvana, uye chichidzorwa navo. Vakanga vasina kururama” (p. 15).

Mafungiro emauto etroglodyte aifunga kuti chengetedzo inogona kuwanikwa nekungoisa ruzivo rwenyukireya rwakanyorwa pasi pekiyi nekiyi uye nekutyisidzira zvirango zvechisimba kune chero munhu anoshinga kuzviburitsa, asi kusakwana kweiyo nzira kwakakurumidza kuoneka. Zvakanyanya kukosha, "chakavanzika" chakakosha chekugadzira bhomba reatomu yaive nyaya yemisimboti yedzidziso yefizikisi yaitozivikanwa pasi rose kana kuwanikwa zviri nyore.

There aiva chimwe chinhu chakakosha cheruzivo rusingazivikanwe-chaiyo "chakavanzika" 1945 isati yasvika: kana kwete fungidziro yekuputika kwesimba nenyukireya fission inogona kunyatsoitwa kushanda mukuita. Muedzo weatomu woUtatu waChikunguru 16, 1945 paLos Alamos, New Mexico, wakapa chakavanzika ichi kunyika, uye kupokana kupi nokupi kunopfuurira kwakadzimwa mavhiki matatu gare gare nokuparadzwa kweHiroshima neNagasaki. Kana mubvunzo iwoyo wagadziriswa, chiitiko chinotyisa chakaitika: Chero nyika yePasi inogona kugadzira bhomba reatomu rinokwanisa kuparadza chero guta rePasi nekurova kumwe chete.

Asi musimboti akanga asina kufanana nezviripo. Kuva nechakavanzika chekugadzira mabhomba eatomu kwakanga kusina kukwana. Kugadzira chaizvo bhomba remuviri raidiwa mbishi uranium uye maindasitiri nzira yekuchenesa matani mazhinji ayo kuita fissionable zvinhu. Saizvozvo, imwe mutsara wepfungwa yakabata kuti kiyi yechengetedzo yenyukireya yakanga isiri kuchengeta zivo yakavanzika, asi kuwana nekuchengetedza kudzora kwemuviri pamusoro pepasi rese uranium zviwanikwa. Nzira iyoyo kana kuedza kusina njodzi kudzvinyirira kupararira kweruzivo rwesainzi hazvina kubatsira kuchengetedza US nyukireya monopoly kwenguva refu.

Kutonga kwacho kwakatora makore mana chete, kutozosvikira muna August 1949, apo Soviet Union yakaputika bhomba rayo rokutanga reatomu. Varwi vemauto uye vabatsiri vavo veCongress vakapomera vasori - zvinosuruvarisa uye zvakashata, Julius naEthel Rosenberg - nekuba chakavanzika uye kuchipa kuUSSR. Kunyangwe iyo yaive rondedzero yemanyepo, zvinosuwisa kuti yakawana hutongi munhaurirano yenyika uye yakagadzira nzira yekukura kusingachinjike kwenyika yekuchengetedzwa kwenyika.²

Muchikamu chechipiri, rondedzero yakachinjika zvachose kudivi reCold Warriors, apo ruzhinji rweAmerica rwakakundwa neReds-Under-the-Bed obsessions yeMcCarthyism. Matanho akasimudzwa zvakapetwa kane mazana apo gakava rakashanduka kubva kufission kuenda pakusangana. NeSoviet Union yakakwanisa kugadzira mabhomba enyukireya, nyaya yakava yekuti United States yaifanira kutevera here chishuvo chesainzi che "superbomb" - zvinoreva bhomba rethermonuclear, kana hydrogen. Vazhinji venyanzvi dzefizikisi dzenyukireya, naJ. Robert Oppenheimer ari kutungamirira, vakapikisa zvakasimba pfungwa iyi, vachiti bhomba re<em>thermonuclear haringabatsiri sechombo chehondo uye rinongogona kuita zvinangwa zvekuparadza rudzi.

Zvakare, zvisinei, nharo dzevapi vemazano vesainzi vanopisa zvikuru, kusanganisira Edward Teller naErnest O. Lawrence, dzakakunda, uye Mutungamiri Truman akaraira kuti tsvakurudzo ye superbomb ienderere mberi. Zvinosuruvarisa, yakabudirira mune zvesayenzi. Muna November 1952, United States yakabudisa kuputika kwekubatana kwakapetwa kane mazana manomwe kune simba sekuya kwakaparadza Hiroshima, uye muna November 1955 Soviet Union yakaratidza kuti iyo, zvakare, yaigona kuita chimwe chinhu. Mujaho wezvombo zve thermonuclear wakanga wavapo.

Nguva yechitatu yenhoroondo iyi yakatanga muma1960, zvakanyanya nekuda kwekumuka kweruzhinji kushungurudzwa uye kushandiswa zvisizvo kweruzivo rwakarongwa munguva yehondo yeUS muSoutheast Asia. Iyi yaive nguva yekusundidzira veruzhinji vachipesana nekuvanzika kwekuvanzika. Yakabudisa dzimwe kukunda zvishoma, kusanganisira kubudiswa kwe The Pentagon Papers uye kupasiswa kwemutemo weRusununguko rweRuzivo.

Izvi zvibvumirano, zvisinei, zvakakundikana kugutsa vatsoropodzi vekuvanzika kwehurumende uye zvakatungamirira ku "chimiro chitsva chemuitiro wekudzivirira kuvanzika," umo vatsoropodzi vakabudisa nemaune ruzivo rwakanyanya se "chimiro chechiito chezvematongerwe enyika," uye vakakumbira First Amendment vimbiso. parusununguko rwenhau “sechombo chine simba chinorwisa masangano ekuvanzika kwemutemo” (pp. 336–337).

Vakashinga vanopesana nekuvanzika vakakunda kumwe kukunda, asi nekufamba kwenguva nyika yekuchengetedza nyika yakawedzera kupararira uye kusazvidavirira kupfuura nakare kose. Sokuchema kunoita Wellerstein, “kune mibvunzo yakadzama pamusoro pouchokwadi hwokuti hurumende inodzora mashoko muzita rechengeteko yenyika. . . . uye zvakadaro, kuvanzika kwakaramba kuchienderera mberi” (p. 399).

Kupfuura Wellerstein

Kunyangwe nhoroondo yaWellerstein yekuzvarwa kwenyika yekuchengetedzwa kwenyika yakazara, yakazara, uye ine hunyanzvi, zvinosuruvarisa inobuda munhoroondo yayo yekuti takasvika sei padambudziko redu razvino. Mushure mekuona kuti hutongi hwaObama, "zvikatyamadza vatsigiri vahwo vazhinji," anga ari "mumwe weane mhosva zvakanyanya kana zvasvika pakuchuchisa vanobuda nevanoridza muridzo," Wellerstein anonyora, "Ndinozeza kuyedza kuwedzera rondedzero iyi kupfuura. pfungwa iyi” (p. 394).

Kupfuura papfundo iroro kwaizomuendesa kunze kwezvinotenderwa muhurukuro yavose yakawanda. Ongororo yazvino yatopinda munzvimbo iyi nekushoropodza kusagutsikana kweUnited States yekutonga kwemauto pasi rose. Kusundira kuferefeta mberi kunoda kuongororwa kwakadzama kwezvinhu zvekuvanzika zviri pamutemo izvo Wellerstein anotaura chete mukupfuura, zvinoti zvakazarurwa naEdward Snowden maererano neNational Security Agency (NSA), uye pamusoro pezvose, WikiLeaks uye nyaya yaJulian Assange.

Mazwi achipikisana neMabasa

Nhanho huru kupfuura yeWellerstein munhoroondo yezvakavanzika zvepamutemo inoda kuziva musiyano mukuru pakati pe“kuvanzika kweshoko” ne“kuvanzika kwechiito.” Nekutarisisa magwaro akasarudzika, Wellerstein anopa mukana kune rakanyorwa uye anoregeredza huzhinji hwechokwadi chinotyisa chenyika inoziva yese yechengetedzo yenyika iyo yakawedzera kuseri kwechidzitiro chekuvanzika kwehurumende.

Kusundidzira veruzhinji kupokana nekuvanzika kwepamutemo kunotsanangurwa naWellerstein kwave kurwa kwedivi rimwe chete remashoko achipokana nezviito. Pese pakaitika zvakazarurwa zvekutyorwa kukuru kweruvimbo rweveruzhinji - kubva kuchirongwa cheFBI COINTELPRO kusvika pakufumurwa kwaSnowden kweNSA - masangano ane mhosva akapa ruzhinji. mea culpa uye pakarepo vakadzokera kune yavo yakashata yakavanzika bhizinesi-semazuva ese.

Zvichakadaro, "kuvanzika kwechiito" chenyika yekuchengetedzwa kwenyika kwakaenderera mberi nekusachena chaiko. Hondo yemuchadenga yeUS paLaos kubva muna 1964 kusvika 1973 - umo matani emamiriyoni maviri nehafu ezvinoputika akadonhedzwa panyika diki, ine urombo - yainzi "hondo yakavanzika" uye "chiito chikuru chakavanda munhoroondo yeAmerica," nekuti haina kuitiswa neUS Air Force, asi neCentral Intelligence Agency (CIA).³ Ndiro raive danho rekutanga rakakura kungwara kwechiuto, iyo zvino inogara ichiita mabasa epachivande emauto uye kurohwa nedrone munzvimbo zhinji dzepasi.

United States yakabhomba zvinangwa zvevanhuwo zvavo; akaita denho umo vana vaisungwa maoko ndokupfurwa mumusoro, ndokudaidza kurwisa kwemuchadenga kuvanza chiito; akapfura vanhuwo zvavo nevatori venhau; akaisa "vatema" zvikamu zvemauto akasarudzika kuti atore uye kuuraya zvisiri pamutemo.

Zvizhinji, chinangwa chepakati chemidziyo yemazuva ano yekuvanzika ndeye kuvanza hukuru uye chiyero cheUS "nekusingaperi hondo" uye mhosva dzakapokana nevanhu dzavanosanganisa. Maererano ne New York Times muna Gumiguru 2017, anopfuura 240,000 mauto eUS akamiswa mune kanenge 172 nyika nenzvimbo pasi rese. Zvizhinji zvezvavakaita, kusanganisira kurwa, zvaive zvakavanzika zvepamutemo. Mauto eAmerica akanga "achishingaira" kwete muAfghanistan, Iraq, Yemen, neSyria chete, asiwo muNiger, Somalia, Jordan, Thailand, nekumwewo. “Mamwe mauto 37,813 anoshanda munzvimbo dzinofungidzirwa dzepachivande munzvimbo dzakarongwa se'dzisingazivikanwe.' Pentagon haina kupa imwe tsananguro. "⁴

Kana masangano ekuvanzika kwehurumende aive pakuzvidzivirira pakutanga kwezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri nerimwe, kurwiswa kwa9/11 kwakavapa zvombo zvese zvavaida kurova vatsoropodzi vavo uye kuita kuti nyika yekuchengetedzwa kwenyika iwedzere kuvanda uye kusazvidavirira. Hurongwa hwematare edzimhosva akahwanda anozivikanwa seFISA (Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act) matare anga aripo uye achishanda pahwaro hwedare rakavanzika remutemo kubvira 1978. Mushure me9/11, zvisinei, masimba uye kusvika kwematare eFISA zvakakura. exponentially. Mumwe mutori wenhau anoongorora akavarondedzera se“vakava Dare Repamusorosoro rakafanana chinyararire.”⁵

Kunyangwe iyo NSA, CIA, nedzimwe nharaunda dzehungwaru dzichiwana nzira dzekuenderera mberi nezviito zvavo zvakadzikira zvisinei nekufumurwa kakawanda kwemazwi avanoedza kuvanza, izvo hazvireve kuti zvakazarurwa — kungave nekudonhedza, nemuridzo, kana nekudzikisira — ndezve. hazvina maturo. Ivo vane kuwedzera kwezvematongerwo enyika izvo vanogadzira mitemo vanoshuvira kudzvinyirira. Kuramba kurwa kunokosha.

WikiLeaks naJulian Assange

Wellerstein anonyora nezve“rudzi rutsva rwomurwiri . . . avo vakaona kuvanzika kwehurumende sechinhu chakaipa chinofanira kupikiswa uye kudzurwa,” asi asingambodudzi kuratidzwa kwakasimba uye kunoshanda kwechiitiko ichocho: WikiLeaks. WikiLeaks yakavambwa muna 2006 uye muna 2010 yakaburitsa zvinopfuura zviuru makumi manomwe nezvishanu zvemauto ehondo uye diplomatic kutaurirana nezvehondo yeUS muAfghanistan, uye vangangoita mazana mana ezviuru zvehondo yeUS muIraq.

Kuburitswa kweWikiLeaks kwemakumi ezviuru emhosva dzevanhu muhondo idzodzo kwaishamisa uye kwairwadza. Tambo dzevamiriri vezvematongerwo enyika dzakaburitswa dzaive nemabhiriyoni maviri emashoko ayo muchimiro chakadhindwa angadai akasvika kumavhoriyamu anofungidzirwa kuva zviuru makumi matatu.⁶ Kubva kwavari takadzidza “kuti United States yakabhomba vavariro dzavarwi; akaita denho umo vana vaisungwa maoko ndokupfurwa mumusoro, ndokudana kurwisa kwemhepo kuvanza chiito; akapfura vanhuwo zvavo nevatori venhau; vakatumira mauto 'evatema' kuti vatore uye kuuraya zvisiri pamutemo," uye, zvinoshungurudza, zvimwe zvakawanda.⁷

Pentagon, CIA, NSA, uye US State Department vakakatyamadzwa nekukatyamadzwa nekubudirira kweWikiLeaks mukufumura mhosva dzavo dzehondo kuti pasi rose rione. Zvishoma zvinoshamisa kuti vanoda nemoyo wose kuroverera muvambi weWikiLeaks, Julian Assange, semuenzaniso unotyisa wekutyisidzira chero munhu angangoda kumutevedzera. VaObama manejimendi havana kumhan'arira Assange nekutya kuisa chiitiko chine njodzi, asi VaTrump Administration vakamupomera pasi peEspionage Act nemhosva dzakatakura mutongo wemakore zana nemakumi manomwe ari mutirongo.

Biden paakatora chigaro muna Ndira 2021, vadziviriri vazhinji veFirst Amendment vakafungidzira kuti aizotevera muenzaniso waVaObama ndokurasa mhosva yaaipomerwa Assange, asi haana. Muna Gumiguru 2021, mubatanidzwa wemakumi maviri neshanu erusununguko rwevatori venhau, rusununguko rwevanhu, uye mapoka ekodzero dzevanhu akatumira tsamba kuna Attorney General Merrick Garland achikurudzira Dhipatimendi reJustice kuti rimise kuedza kwaro kupomera Assange. Mhosva yaari kupomerwa, vakazivisa kudaro, “inopa tyisidziro huru kurusununguko rwokudzvinyirira mose muri muviri muUnited States nokune dzimwe nyika.”⁸

Nheyo yakakosha iri mungozi ndeyekuti kupara mhosva kuburitswa kwezvakavanzika zvehurumende hazvienderane nekuvapo kwemapepanhau akasununguka. Izvo zvinopomerwa Assange hazvisi pamutemo mutsauko kubva kune zviito New York Times, ivo Washington Post, uye vamwe vasingaverengeki vaparidzi venhau vakagaroita.⁹ Pfungwa yacho haisi yekusimbisa rusununguko rwevatori venhau sechinhu chakagadzwa cheAmerica yakasununguka, asi kuiona seyakakosha magariro anofanirwa kugara achirwirwa.

Vese vadziviriri vekodzero dzevanhu nerusununguko rwevatori venhau vanofanirwa kuda kuti mhosva yaari kupomerwa Assange ibviswe nekukasika, uye kuti aburitswe mutirongo pasina kunonoka. Kana Assange achigona kupomerwa uye kusungwa nekuda kwekuburitsa ruzivo rwechokwadi- "chakavanzika" kana kwete- ekupedzisira anopenya ember dzemahara anodzima uye nyika yekuchengetedza nyika ichatonga isingapikiswe.

Kusunungura Assange, zvisinei, ingori ihondo yakanyanya kusimba muhondo yeSisyphean yekudzivirira hutongi hwevanhu kubva mukudzvinyirirwa kwakanyanya kwehurumende yenyika. Uye zvakakosha sekufumura mhosva dzehondo dzeUS, isu tinofanira kunanga kumusoro: ku kudzivirira nekuvakazve bato rine simba rekurwisa hondo seriya rakamanikidza kumisa kurwiswa kwematsotsi kuVietnam.

Nhoroondo yaWellerstein yemabviro ekusikwa kwekuvanzika kweUS mupiro unokosha kuhondo yepfungwa yekurwisana nayo, asi kukunda kwekupedzisira kunoda-kudimikira Wellerstein pachake, sezvataurwa pamusoro apa- "kuwedzera rondedzero kupfuura iyo nguva," kusanganisira kurwira nzanga itsva yakanangana nokuzadzikisa zvinodiwa nevanhu.

Yakadzorwa Dhata: Iyo Nhoroondo yeNuclear Secrecy muUnited States
Alex Wellerstein
Yunivhesiti yeChicago Press
2021
528 mapeji

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Cliff Conner munyori wenhoroondo dzesainzi. Ndiye munyori we Dambudziko reSain America (Haymarket Books, 2020) uye Nhoroondo Yevanhu yeSainzi (Bold Type Books, 2005).

Notes

1. Paive nekuedza kwekutanga kuchengetedza zvakavanzika zvemauto (ona Defence Secrets Act ya1911 uye Espionage Act ya1917), asi sekutsanangura kwaWellerstein, "vakange vasati vamboshandiswa kune chero chinhu chakakura sekuedza kwaizoitwa bhomba reatomu reAmerica" (p. 33).
2. Paive nevasori veSoviet muManhattan Project uye shure kwaizvozvo, asi huchenjeri hwavo hauna kufambisira mberi nguva yechirongwa chezvombo zvenyukireya cheSoviet.
3. Joshua Kurlanzick, Nzvimbo Yakanaka Yekuve neHondo: America muLaos uye Kuzvarwa kweMauto CIA (Simon & Schuster, 2017).
4. New York Times Editorial Board, "America's Forever Wars," New York Times, Gumiguru 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/opinion/americas-forever-wars.html.
5. Eric Lichtblau, "Pachivande, Dare Rinowedzera Masimba eNSA," New York Times, Chikunguru 6, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/07/us/in-secret-court-vastly-broadens-powers-of-nsa.html.
6. Chero kana ese eaya mabhiriyoni maviri mazwi anowanikwa paWikiLeaks 'inotsvaga webhusaiti. Heino chinongedzo kuWikiLeaks' PlusD, inova chidimbu che "Public Library yeUS Diplomacy": https://wikileaks.org/plusd.
7. Julian Assange et al., Iyo WikiLeaks Mafaira: Nyika Zvinoenderana neUS Empire (London & New York: Verso, 2015), 74-75.
8. "ACLU tsamba kuUS Department of Justice," American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Gumiguru 15, 2021. https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/assange_letter_on_letterhead.pdf; Onawo tsamba yakavhurwa yakabatana kubva The New York Times, The Guardian, Le Monde, Der Spiegel, uye Nyika (Mbudzi 8, 2022) ichidaidzira kuhurumende yeUS kuti ibvise zvayaipomerwa Assange: https://www.nytco.com/press/an-open-letter-from-editors-and-publishers-publishing-is-not-a-crime/.
9. Sokutsanangura kunoita nyanzvi yezvemitemo Marjorie Cohn, “Hapana mutori wenhau kana mutori wenhau akambomhan’arirwa pasi peEspionage Act nokuda kwekubudisa mashoko echokwadi, ayo anodzivirirwa basa reFirst Amendment.” Ndizvozvo, anowedzera, "chishandiso chakakosha chekutora nhau." ona Marjorie Cohn, "Assange Anotarisana Nekuwedzera Kufumura Mhosva dzeHondo dzeUS," Zvakashata, Gumiguru 11, 2020, https://truthout.org/articles/assange-faces-extradition-for-exposing-us-war-crimes/.