NaPeter van den Dungen, World BEYOND War, January 23, 2022
Ongororo yeBhuku: Sei Hondo? naChristopher Coker, London, Hurst, 2021, 256 pp., £20 (Hardback), ISBN 9781787383890
Mhinduro pfupi, inopinza yeWhy War? izvo vaverengi vechikadzi vangaisa pamberi 'nemhaka yevarume!' Imwe mhinduro ingava 'nemhaka yemaonero anotaurwa mumabhuku akadai!' Christopher Coker anotaura nezve 'chakavanzika chehondo' (4) uye anotaura kuti 'Vanhu vane chisimba chisingadzivisiki' (7); ‘Hondo ndiyo inoita kuti tive vanhu’ (20); ‘Hatingazopukunyuki kuhondo nekuti pane miganhu yekuti tingaisa sei mabviro edu kumashure’ (43). Kunyange Sei Hondo? pakarepo inoyeuchidza tsamba yakafanana ine mazita pakati paAlbert Einstein naSigmund Freud,1 yakabudiswa muna 1933 neInternational Institute of Intellectual Cooperation yeLeague of Nations, Coker haatauri nezvayo. Iko hakuna kutaurwa nezve CEM Joad's Why War? (1939). Maonero aJoad (akasiyana neaCoker) akataurwa noushingi pabutiro reiyi 1939 Penguin Special: 'Nyaya yangu ndeyokuti hondo haisi chinhu chisingadzivisiki, asi mhedzisiro yemamwe mamiriro akaitwa nevanhu; kuti munhu anogona kuzvibvisa, sekubvisa kwaakaita mamiriro akaita denda'. Chinokatyamadza zvakaenzana kusavapo kweinongedzo kune yakasarudzika pachinhu ichi, Kenneth N. Waltz's Man, State and War ([1959] 2018). Uyu muongorori wepamusoro-soro wehukama hwepasirese akasvika pamubvunzo nekuzivisa 'mifananidzo' mitatu yehondo, achitsvaga dambudziko muzvinhu zvakakosha zvemunhu, nyika, uye hurongwa hwepasi rose, zvichiteerana. Waltz akapedzisa, saRousseau pamberi pake, kuti hondo dziri pakati penyika dzinoitika nekuti hapana chinodzidzivirira (kusiyana nerunyararo rwuri mukati menyika-nyika nekuda kwehurumende yepakati, nekusagadzikana kuri kuitika pakati pavo nekuda kwekushaikwa kwehurongwa hwekuita. hutongi hwepasi rose). Kubva muzana ramakore rechi 19, kukura kwekudyidzana kwenyika pamwe chete nekuwedzera kuparadza kwehondo kwakaguma nekuedza kuderedza kuitika kwehondo nekutanga masangano ekutonga kwepasirese, kunyanya League of Nations mumashure meHondo Yenyika I neUnited States. Nyika mushure meHondo Yenyika II. MuEurope, zvirongwa zvemakore zana ekukunda hondo zvakazoitika (zvishoma muchikamu) mukuita kwakaguma neEuropean Union uye zvakakurudzira kubuda kwemamwe masangano edunhu. Pane kunetsa kune achangobva pamudyandigere purofesa wehukama hwepasirese kuLSE, tsananguro yaCoker yehondo inofuratira basa renyika uye kushomeka kwehutongi hwepasirese uye inongofunga munhu.
Anoona kuti basa remuDutch ethologist, Niko Tinbergen ('wausingafungire kuti wakambonzwa') - 'murume akatarisa mazizi' (Tinbergen [1953] 1989), uyo akashamiswa nemaitiro avo ehasha - anopa nzira yakanakisa yekupa mhinduro kune Nei Hondo? (7). Nongedzero kumaitiro emhuka dzakasiana-siana huru dzinooneka mubhuku rose. Asi, Coker anonyora kuti hondo haizivikanwi munyika yemhuka uye kuti, achitaura Thucydides, hondo ndiyo 'chinhu chevanhu'. Munyori anotevera 'The Tinbergen Method' (Tinbergen 1963) iyo inosanganisira kubvunza mibvunzo mina pamusoro pemaitiro: kwaakabva kupi? ndedzipi nzira dzinoita kuti ibudirire? chii chinonzi ontogeny (nhoroondo yekushanduka-shanduka)? uye basa rayo nderei? (11). Chitsauko chakapirwa kune imwe neimwe yeiyi mitsetse yekubvunza ine chitsauko chekupedzisira (chinonyanya kufadza) chinotaura nezvezvichaitika mune ramangwana. Zvingadai zvakave zvakakodzera uye zvinobereka zvibereko kana Coker akacherechedza basa rehama yaNiko Jan (uyo akagovera mubairo wekutanga weNobel mune zvehupfumi mu1969; Niko akagovera mubairo muphysiology kana mushonga mu1973). Kana Coker akanzwa nezvemumwe wenyanzvi dzezvehupfumi dzepasirese aive chipangamazano weLeague of Nations muma1930 uye mumiriri akasimba wehurumende yenyika, hapana kutaurwa nezvazvo. Basa raJan refu uye rakanakisa rakazvipira kubatsira kushandura nzanga, kusanganisira kudzivirira uye kubviswa kwehondo. Mubhuku rake raakanyorerwa pamwe chete, Warfare and welfare (1987), Jan Tinbergen akapokana kusaparadzana kwehutano nekuchengetedzeka. The Network of European Peace Scientists yakatumidza musangano wayo wepagore mushure make (20th edition muna 2021). Zvakakoshawo kutaura kuti shamwari yaNiko Tinbergen, nyanzvi yezvetsika uye nyanzvi yemhuka Robert Hinde, akashanda muRAF munguva yeHondo Yenyika II, akanga ari mutungamiri weBritish Pugwash Group uye Movement for the Abolition of War.
Coker anonyora, 'Pane chikonzero chaicho chandanyora bhuku rino. Kunyika dzokuMadokero hatigadzirire vana vedu hondo’ (24). Chirevo ichi chine mubvunzo, uye nepo vamwe vachibvumirana nekutonga uku kukundikana, vamwe vanopindura vachiti, 'saizvozvo - tinofanira kudzidzisa runyararo, kwete hondo'. Anokwevera ngwariro kunzira dzetsika dzinoita kuti hondo irambe iripo uye anobvunza kuti, ‘Hatina tanga tichiedza kuvanza kushata kwehondo here . . . uye handicho chimwe chezvikonzero chinozvifambisa here? Hatisati tichizvirapisa kurufu here nokushandisa manyemwe akadai see“Vakawa”?' (104). Zvakadaro, asi anoita seanozeza kubvuma kuti zvinhu zvakadaro hazvichinjike. Coker pachake angave asina mhosva zvachose paanoti, 'hapana taboo yekurwisana nehondo. Hapana murairo unowanikwa uchipikisa muMitemo ineGumi’ (73) – zvichireva kuti ‘Usauraya’ hazvinei nekuuraya muhondo. Kuna Harry Patch (1898–2009), musoja wekupedzisira wekuBritain asara muHondo Yenyika I, 'Hondo imhondi yakarongeka, uye hapana chimwe'2; kuna Leo Tolstoy, 'masoja imhondi dzakapfeka yunifomu'. Pane akati wandei anonongedza kuHondo neRunyararo (Tolstoy 1869) asi hapana kune yake yakazotevera, zvinyorwa zvakasiyana kwazvo pachinhu ichi (Tolstoy 1894, 1968).
Pakupenda, imwe nzira yetsika inofungwa naCoker, anoti: 'Vanyori vakawanda . . . handina kumboona nhandare yehondo, uye nokudaro handina kumbopenda kubva pane zvakaitika kare. . . basa ravo rakaramba rakakotsekana risina hasha kana hasha, kana kuti kunyange tsitsi huru nokuda kwevanyajambwa vehondo. Vaisawanzosarudza kutaura vakamiririra vaya vakangoramba vasina kutaura nezera remakore’ (107). Ichi ndicho chimwe chinhu chinokonzera kutyaira kuhondo iyo, zvisinei, inogona kuchinja uye izvo zvinoreva, zvakare, iye anofuratira. Uyezve, anotarisa mabasa evamwe vevanyori vakuru vemazuva ano seRussia Vasily Vereshchagin. William T. Sherman, mutungamiriri weAmerica wemauto eMubatanidzwa munguva yeHondo Yenyika Yese yeU. Vereshchagin akava musoja kuti azive hondo kubva pane zvakaitika kwaari uye akafira muchikepe chehondo munguva yeHondo yeRusso-Japanese. Munyika dzinoverengeka, masoja akarambidzwa kushanyira kuratidzwa kwake (anti-) mifananidzo yehondo. Bhuku rake pamusoro pemhirizhonga yaNapoleon yekuRussia (Verestchagin 1899) yakarambidzwa muFrance. Kunofanirawo kutaurwa nezvaIri naToshi Maruki, maJapan mapendi eHiroshima mapanera. Pane kumwe kutaura kunorwadza kwehasha kana hasha kudarika Picasso's Guernica? Coker inoreva nezvayo asi haatauri kuti vhezheni yematepi kusvika nguva pfupi yadarika yakaratidzwa muchivakwa cheUN muNew York yaive (mu) yakafukidzwa muna Kukadzi 2003, apo US Secretary of State Colin Powell akapikisa nyaya yehondo neIraq. 3
Kunyangwe Coker achinyora kuti yaingova neHondo Yenyika I kuti maartist akapenda zviratidziro 'zvaifanira kunge zvakaodza mwoyo chero munhu anga afunga kujoinha mavara' (108), akanyarara pamatanho akasiyana anoshandiswa nevakuru vehurumende kudzivirira kuodzwa mwoyo kwakadaro. Zvinosanganisira kuongororwa, kurambidza uye kupisa mabasa akadaro - kwete chete, semuenzaniso, muNazi-Germany asiwo muUS uye UK kusvika panguva ino. Kunyepa, kudzvanyirira, uye kushandiswa kwechokwadi, nguva isati yasvika, panguva uye mushure mehondo kwakanyatso kunyorwa mune zvechinyakare exposés na, eg Arthur Ponsonby (1928) naPhilip Knightly ([1975] 2004) uye, nguva pfupi yadarika, muThe Pentagon Papers ( Hondo yeVietnam), 4 Iyo Iraq Inquiry (Chilcot) Chirevo, 5 uye Craig Whitlock's The Afghanistan Mapepa (Whitlock 2021). Saizvozvowo, kubvira pakutanga, zvombo zvenyukireya zvave zvakapoteredzwa nekuvanzika, kuongorora uye nhema, kusanganisira zvakazoitika pashure pokubhomba kweHiroshima neNagasaki muna August 1945. Uchapupu hwazvo hahuna kuratidzwa pakusvitsa kwayo makore 50 muna 1995 mukuratidzira kukuru kwakaitika yakanga yarongwa muSmithsonian muWashington DC; yakakanzurwa uye director wemuseum akadzingwa basa zvakanaka. Mafirimu ekutanga ekuparadzwa kwemaguta maviri aya akatorwa uye akatsikirirwa neUS (ona, semuenzaniso Mitchell 2012; onawo wongororo yakaitwa naLoretz [2020]) nepo BBC yakarambidza kuratidzwa paterevhizheni yeThe War Game, firimu rayaive naro. yakapihwa basa pamusoro pemhedzisiro yekudonhedza bhomba renyukireya paLondon. Yakasarudza kusatepfenyura firimu ichityira kuti ingangosimbisa hurongwa hwekurwisa zvombo zvenyukireya. Vakashinga vanoridza muridzo vakaita saDaniel Ellsberg, Edward Snowden naJulian Assange vakamhan'arirwa uye vakarangwa nekuda kwekufumura kwavo hunyengeri hwepamutemo, mhosva dzehondo dzechisimba, uye mhosva dzehondo.
Semwana, Coker aifarira kutamba nemasoja ematoyi uye achiri mudiki aifarira kutora chikamu mumitambo yehondo. Akazvipira kuuto rechikoro uye akanakidzwa nekuverenga nezve Hondo yeTrojan nemagamba ayo uye akadziya kune nhoroondo dzevakuru vakuru vakaita saAlexander naJulius Caesar. Wekupedzisira aive 'mumwe wevapambi vakuru vevaranda venguva dzese. Pashure pekuita mushandirapamwe kwemakore manomwe akadzokera kuRoma aine vasungwa miriyoni imwe chete vakatengeswa muuranda, nokudaro . . . achimuita bhirioni usiku hwose' (134). Munhoroondo yose, hondo nevarwi zvave zvichibatanidzwa nekunakidzwa nekunakidzwa, pamwe nekubwinya uye ugamba. Maonero ekupedzisira uye hunhu hwagara huchifambiswa nehurumende, chikoro uye chechi. Coker haatauri kuti kudiwa kwemhando yakasiyana yedzidzo, yegamba uye yenhoroondo yakapopotedzana kare 500 makore apfuura (apo hondo nezvombo zvaive zvekare kana zvichienzaniswa nanhasi) nevatungamiri vevanhu (uye vatsoropodzi vehurumende, chikoro nechechi) vakadai saErasmus naVives vaivewo vavambi vezvidzidzo zvemazuva ano. Vives akaisa kukosha kukuru pakunyora nekudzidzisa kwenhoroondo uye akatsoropodza huwori hwayo, achiti 'Zvingava truer kudaidza Herodotus (uyo Coker anogara achitaura nezvake semutauri akanaka wenhau dzehondo) baba venhema pane venhoroondo'. Vives akarambawo kurumbidza Julius Caesar nokuda kwokutumira zviuru zvakawanda kwazvo zvavarume kurufu rwamasimba masimba muhondo. Erasmus akanga ari mutsoropodzi akakomba waPope Julius II (mumwewo aiyemura Kesari uyo, sapapa, akagamuchira zita rake) uyo sezvinozivikanwa akapedza nguva yakawanda ari munhandare yehondo kupfuura muVatican.
Hapana kutaurwa kunoitwa nezvezvakawanda zvinofarirwa zvine chekuita ne, uye kukurudzira, hondo, kutanga uye zvakanyanya basa remauto, vagadziri vezvombo uye vatengesi vezvombo (aka 'vatengesi verufu'). Murwi weAmerica ane mukurumbira uye akashongedzwa zvakanyanya, Major General Smedley D. Butler, akapikisa kuti Hondo iRacket (1935) umo vashoma vanowana purofiti uye vazhinji vanobhadhara mari. Mukutaura kwavo kwekuonekana nevanhu vekuAmerica (1961), Mutungamiri Dwight Eisenhower, mumwe mukuru wemauto eUS akashongedzwa zvakanyanya, akanyevera nenzira yechiporofita nezve njodzi yekukura kwemauto-maindasitiri. Nzira iyo inobatanidzwa nayo mukuita sarudzo inotungamira kuhondo, uye mukuita kwayo uye kushuma, yakanyorwa zvakanaka (kusanganisira mune zvinyorwa zvataurwa pamusoro apa). Kune zvakawanda zvinogutsa zvidzidzo zvenyaya izvo zvinojekesa kwakabva uye hunhu hwehondo dzinoverengeka dzemazuva ano uye zvinopa mhinduro dzakajeka uye dzinoshungurudza kumubvunzo wekuti Nei Hondo? Maitiro eshiri dzegungwa anoita seasina basa. Zvidzidzo zvakadaro zvehumbowo-zvakavakirwa nyaya hazviiti chikamu chekuferefeta kwaCoker. Kushaikwa ndisipo kubva kunumerically impressive bibliography of ca. Mazita e350 ndiwo mabhuku ehunyanzvi ezverunyararo, kugadzirisa kusawirirana uye kudzivirira hondo. Zvirokwazvo, izwi rekuti 'rugare' harimo mumabhuku ebhaibheri; referensi isingawanzo kuitika mumusoro wenovhero yaTolstoy ine mukurumbira. Muverengi nokudaro anosiiwa asingazivi zvakawanikwa pamusoro pezvikonzero zvehondo semugumisiro wekutsvaga kwerunyararo uye zvidzidzo zverunyararo zvakabuda muma1950 nekuda kwekunetsekana kuti hondo munguva yenyukireya yakatyisidzira kupona kwevanhu. Mubhuku raCoker's idiosyncratic uye rinovhiringidza, mareferensi ehuwandu hwemabhuku nemafirimu anomhanyisa peji; zvinhu zvakasiyana zviri kukandwa mumusanganiswa zvinogadzira nyonganiso. Semuyenzaniso, pasina nguva Clausewitz yaunzwa ipapo Tolkien anooneka (99–100); Homer, Nietzsche, Shakespeare naVirginia Woolf (pakati pevamwe) vanodaidzwa mumapeji mashoma anotevera.
Coker haafunge kuti tingave nehondo nekuti 'nyika yakashongedzwa nepfuti uye runyararo haruna mari shoma' (UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon). Kana nekuti isu tichiri kutungamirwa neyekare (uye yakashorwa) dictum, Si vis pacem, para bellum (Kana iwe uchida rugare, gadzirira kurwa). Zvingave here nekuti mutauro watinoshandisa unovanza chokwadi chehondo uye wakafukidzwa nematauriro: shumiro dzehondo dzava shumiro yekudzivirira, uye ikozvino chengetedzo. Coker haaiti (kana kungopfuura) kugadzirisa nyaya idzi, izvo zvese zvinogona kutorwa sezviri kuita kuti hondo irambe iripo. Ihondo uye varwi vanotonga mabhuku enhoroondo, zviyeuchidzo, mamiziyamu, mazita emigwagwa uye masikweya. Zvichangobva kuitika uye mafambiro ekubvisa hukoloni hwedzidzo uye nhandare yeruzhinji, uye kururamisira kwemarudzi nevarume uye kuenzana, zvinodawo kuwedzerwa kukubvisa mauto munharaunda. Nenzira iyi, tsika yerunyararo uye isina mhirizhonga inogona zvishoma nezvishoma kutsiva tsika yakadzika midzi yehondo nemhirizhonga.
Pakukurukura nezveHG Wells uye zvimwe 'zvekunyepedzera kudzokororwa kweramangwana', Coker anonyora kuti, 'Kufungidzira ramangwana, hongu hazvireve kuigadzira' (195-7). Zvisinei, KANA Clarke (1966) akatsigira kuti dzimwe nguva ngano dzehondo yeramangwana dzakasimudza tarisiro dzakaita kuti, kana hondo yasvika, ingadai yakanyanya chisimba kupfuura zvingave zvakadaro. Zvakare, kufungidzira nyika isina hondo chinhu chakakosha (kunyangwe chisina kukwana) chimiro chekuunza. Kukosha kwemufananidzo uyu mukuumba ramangwana kwave kuine nharo dzinogutsa, semuenzaniso, naE. Boulding naK. Boulding (1994), mapiyona maviri erunyararo mamwe ebasa rakafuridzirwa naFred L. Polak's The Image of the Future. (1961). Mufananidzo unotsvedza ropa uri pakavha yeWhy War? anotaura zvose. Coker anonyora kuti, 'Kuverenga kunoita kuti tive vanhu vakasiyana; tinowanzoona upenyu nenzira yakanaka zvikuru . . . kuverenga bhuku rinokurudzira rehondo kunoita kuti zvive nyore kuti tirambe takabatirira papfungwa yekunaka kwevanhu' (186). Iyi inoratidzika senzira isinganzwisisike yekukurudzira kunaka kwevanhu.
Notes
- Sei Hondo? Einstein kuna Freud, 1932, https://en.unesco.org/courier/may-1985/ why-war-letter-albert-einstein-sigmund-freud Freud kuna Einstein, 1932, https:// en.unesco.org /courier/marzo-1993/why-war-letter-freud-einstein
- Patch naVan Emden (2008); Audiobook, ISBN-13: 9781405504683.
- Nezvekudhirowa kwemabasa evapendi ataurwa, ona War and Art rakapepetwa naJoanna Bourke ndokuongororwa mujenari rino, Vol 37, No. 2.
- Pentagon mapepa: https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers
- The Iraq Inquiry (Chilcot): https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20171123122743/http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/the-report/
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Peter van den Dungen
Bertha Von Suttner Peace Institute, The Hague
petervandendungen1@gmail.com
Chinyorwa ichi chakatsikiswazve chine shanduko diki. Shanduko idzi hadzina kukanganisa zvidzidzo zvechinyorwa.
© 2021 Peter van den Dungen
https://doi.org/10.1080/13623699.2021.1982037
