Wolemba Richard Falk, World BEYOND War, April 29, 2021
Zikuwopseza Lamulo Ladziko Lonse KOMANSO DZIKO LAPANSI
Ma drones okhala ndi zida mwina ndi chida chovuta kwambiri chowonjezeredwa kuzida zopangira nkhondo kuyambira bomba la atomiki, komanso kuchokera pakuwona kwa dziko lapansir, itha kukhala yowopsa kwambiri pakukhudza kwake ndi zotsatira zake. Izi zitha kuwoneka zachilendo, zowopsa, komanso zokulitsa nkhawa. Kupatula apo, bomba la atomiki momwe limagwiritsidwira ntchito koyamba lidawonetsa kuti litha kuwononga mizinda yonse, kufalitsa mphamvu zowononga kulikonse komwe mphepo imanyamula, kuopseza tsogolo la chitukuko, komanso kuwopseza kupulumuka kwa zamoyozo. Idasintha kwambiri nkhondo zankhondo, ndipo ipitilizabe kusokoneza tsogolo la anthu mpaka kumapeto kwa nthawi.
Komabe, ngakhale zili zopanda tanthauzo komanso malingaliro ankhondo omwe amafotokoza zakusavomerezeka kwa atsogoleri andale kuti azigwira ntchito molimbika kuti athetse zida za nyukiliya, ndi chida chomwe sichinagwiritsidwepo ntchito pazaka 76 zapitazi kuyambira pomwe chidatulutsidwa koyamba kwa anthu osasangalala a Hiroshima ndi Nagasaki.[1] Kuphatikiza apo, kukwaniritsa kusagwiritsa ntchito kwakhala chinthu chofunikira kwambiri chalamulo, chamakhalidwe, komanso chanzeru kwa atsogoleri ndi omwe akukonzekera nkhondo kuyambira pomwe bomba loyamba lidabweretsa mantha osaneneka kwa aku Japan omwe adakumana ndi tsokalo omwe adakhalapo tsiku lomwelo m'mizinda yowonongedwayo .
The kulamula kwachiwiri zovuta yokhazikitsidwa pazaka makumi angapo zapitazi kuti apewe nkhondo ya zida za nyukiliya, kapena kuti achepetse chiopsezo chochitika, ngakhale sichingakhale chopanda pake, ndipo mwina sichikhala chokhazikika kwa nthawi yayitali, chimagwirizana ndi dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi lomwe lasintha kuti litumikire Akuluakulu amagawana nawo madera.[2] M'malo mosungira zida zowonongekazi kuti aphedwe pankhondo ndi kupambana pankhondo, zida za nyukiliya zakhala zikugwira ntchito yawo poletsa ndi zokakamiza, zomwe ngakhale zili zosaloledwa, zovuta pamakhalidwe, komanso zankhondo, zikuyerekeza kuti chimango cha mikangano yayikulu yapadziko lonse lapansi imangokhala pakuyanjana kwamphamvu kwamayiko olamulira.[3]
Kulimbikitsanso zolemetsazi ndizowonjezera zomwe zimatheka chifukwa cha mapangano olamulira zida zankhondo komanso kusachulukana. Kuwongolera zida kutengera zofuna za zida zazikulu za zida za nyukiliya, United States ndi Russia, zikufuna kukhazikika pochepetsa kuchuluka kwa zida za nyukiliya, zomwe zatchulapo zina zowononga komanso zodula, komanso kupewa zida zamtengo wapatali zomwe sizimaletsa chilichonse kapena mwayi waluso.[4] Mosiyana ndi kuwongolera zida zankhondo, kusachulukitsa kumakhazikitsa komanso kumalimbitsa kukula kwa dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi, ndikupangitsa kuti malamulo awili akhale okhazikika pamalamulo ndi malire ofananira kwa mayiko.
Boma lomwe silikuchulukitsa likuloleza gulu laling'ono, lomwe likukula pang'onopang'ono kuti likhale ndi zida zanyukiliya, ndikupanga ziwopsezo za zida za nyukiliya, pomwe likuletsa mayiko ena 186 otsala kuti asazipeze, kapenanso kupeza malire oti apange zida za nyukiliya.[5] Makhalidwe osalimbikitsawa amathandizidwanso chifukwa cholumikizidwa ndi geopolitics, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale miyezo iwiri, kusankha kosankha, komanso njira zosankhira mamembala, monga zikuwonekera pamalingaliro ankhondo otetezedwa odalira Iraq komanso Iran, komanso malo abata osakhala chete kwa zida zankhondo zanyukiliya zodziwika bwino, koma zosavomerezeka mwalamulo ku Israeli.
Izi zokhudzana ndi zida za zida za nyukiliya zimafotokozera zinthu zingapo zamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi lomwe limakhazikitsa maziko othandiza poganizira zovuta zosiyanasiyana komanso mayesero owopsa omwe abwera chifukwa cha kusintha kwamphamvu kwa ma drones ankhondo ndikufalikira kwawo kumayiko opitilira 100 ndi angapo omwe siaboma. zisudzo. Choyambirira, kusafuna komanso / kapena kulephera kwa maboma olamulira - mayiko aku Westphalian - kuti athetse zida zowonongekazi ndikupeza dziko lopanda zida za nyukiliya ngakhale atakhala ndi zovuta zina. Zolinga zandale zofunikira sizinapangidwepo, ndipo pakapita nthawi zatha.[6] Pakhala pali mafotokozedwe ambiri operekedwa chifukwa cholephera kuthetseratu Achilles Heal dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi, kuyambira kuopa kubera, kulephera kuthana ndi ukadaulo, kudzinenera kwa chitetezo champhamvu pakuletsa ndikuwongolera kwamphamvu kumafaniziridwa ndi zida zankhondo, a kutetezera kutuluka kwa mdani woipa komanso wakudzipha, mphamvu yakuledzera yamphamvu kwambiri, chidaliro chothandizira ntchito yolamulira padziko lonse lapansi, komanso kutchuka komwe kumadza chifukwa chokhala kilabu yokhayokha yolumikizana ndi mayiko olamulira.[7]
Chachiwiri, malingaliro olepheretsa komanso kusadzichitira bwino akhoza kuyanjanitsidwa ndi ukoma ndi kulingalira komwe kwalamulira mwambo wazowona zandale zomwe zikufotokozedwabe momwe maboma aboma amaganizira ndikuchitira m'mbiri yonse yadziko lapansi.[8] Lamulo lapadziko lonse lapansi silothandiza pakuwongolera zokhumba ndi machitidwe a mayiko olimba, koma nthawi zambiri amatha kukhazikitsidwa mokakamiza m'maiko ena onse chifukwa cha zolinga zandale, zomwe zimaphatikizapo kukhazikika kwadongosolo.
Chachitatu, lamulo ladziko lonse lankhondo lakhala likugwiritsa ntchito zida zatsopano ndi maukadaulo omwe amapatsa mwayi dziko lodziyimira palokha, kupendekeredwa poyitanitsa 'chitetezo' ndi 'kufunika kwa asitikali' kuti asunthike pambali zopinga zilizonse zalamulo ndi zamakhalidwe zomwe zikuyimira panjira.[9] Chachinayi, chifukwa cha kufalikira kwa kusakhulupirika, chitetezo chimakhazikika kuti athane ndi zovuta kwambiri kapena zochitika zoyipa kwambiri, zomwe ndizomwe zimayambitsa kusatetezeka ndi mavuto apadziko lonse lapansi. Zigawo zinayi za generalizationszi, ngakhale zilibe chidwi ndi zitsanzo, zimapereka chidziwitso chakumapeto kwa zoyesayesa zakulimbana ndi nkhondo, zida zankhondo, ndi nkhanza zakhala ndi zotulukapo zokhumudwitsa izi, ngakhale zinali zanzeru komanso zowoneka bwino. zifukwa zothandizirana ndi zovuta kwambiri pantchito yankhondo.[10]
NKHANI ZOPHUNZITSIRA: CHIAROSCURO GEOPOLITICS[11]
Ma Drones, monga zida zatsopano zoyankhira kuopseza kwamasiku ano, zimakhala ndi zinthu zingapo zomwe zimawapangitsa kuwoneka ovuta kuwongolera, chifukwa cha mikangano yandale masiku ano. Izi makamaka zikuphatikiza ziwopsezo zomwe anthu omwe siaboma amachita, kukhazikitsidwa kwa zigawenga zomwe sizili boma kapena maboma zomwe zimawopseza kuthekera kwa mayiko akuluakulu kuti ateteze madera awo, komanso kulephera kapena kusafuna kwa maboma ambiri kuteteza madera awo kuti asagwiritsidwe ntchito kuti akhazikitse mayiko ena ngakhale dziko lamphamvu kwambiri. Kuchokera pakuwona boma likuganizira njira zina zankhondo zomwe zilipo pano padziko lonse lapansi, ma drones amawoneka okongola kwambiri, ndipo zomwe zimapangitsa kukhala nazo, chitukuko, ndi kugwiritsira ntchito ndizokulirapo kuposa zida zanyukiliya.
Ma Drones ndiotsika mtengo pamtundu wawo wamakono poyerekeza ndi ndege zankhondo zankhondo, zimatha kuthetseratu chiopsezo chilichonse kwa ovutitsidwayo, makamaka pokhudzana ndi nkhondo yolimbana ndi omwe siaboma, zolinga zam'madzi, kapena mayiko akutali, ali ndi kuthekera yambitsani ziwonetsero mwanzeru ngakhale m'malo obisalira akutali ovuta kuti magulu ankhondo apite, atha kuloza molondola pamaziko azidziwitso zodalirika zomwe zasonkhanitsidwa pogwiritsa ntchito ma drones oyang'anitsitsa omwe ali ndi luso lowonera komanso kutchera, kugwiritsa ntchito kungakhale ndale kuyang'aniridwa kuti zitsimikizire kudziletsa komanso njira yatsopano yomwe ikuwunikira kuyenera kwa zolinga poyesa kuwunika komwe kwatsekedwa, ndipo kuwonongeka komwe kumachitika ndikuwonongeka kochititsidwa ndi ma drones ndi miniscule poyerekeza ndi njira zina zotsutsana ndi zigawenga ndi mitundu ingapo ya nkhondo zopanda malire. M'malo mwake, bwanji osagwiritsa ntchito ma drones ngati njira yankhondo yanzeru, yanzeru, komanso yovomerezeka yomwe imasinthiratu zigawenga zaku America kukhala njira zothanirana ndi mikangano m'malo mongodzudzulidwa ndikudandaula chifukwa chosokoneza malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi?[12]
Pali nkhani ziwiri zotsutsana, zomwe zimasiyanasiyana mosiyanasiyana, ndikusanthula mkhalidwe wankhondo zankhondo zoyeserera, komanso gawo lawo lalikulu pakukhazikitsa njira zophera anthu osankhidwa. Kumbali imodzi yazokambiranayi, ndi 'ana akuwala' omwe amati akuchita zonse zomwe angathe kuti achepetse mtengo komanso kuchuluka kwa nkhondo poteteza anthu aku America ku nkhanza za anthu opitilira muyeso omwe cholinga chawo ndikugwiritsa ntchito chiwawa kupha ambiri anthu wamba momwe angathere. Kumbali inayi, ndi 'ana amdima' omwe amawonetsedwa ngati ochita zankhanza zoyipa kwambiri kupha anthu ena, kuphatikiza nzika zaku America, popanda kunamizira kuti adzayankha mlandu pazolakwitsa komanso kuwononga kwambiri. M'malo mwake, nkhani zonse ziwirizi zikuwonetsa nkhondo ngati njira yakudzipha yakupha anthu mothandizidwa ndi boma, yololeza kuphedwa mwachidule popanda chindapusa kapena popanda zifukwa zomveka kapena kuyankha ngakhale zomwe akufuna ndi nzika yaku America.[13]
Kuyerekeza kugwiritsa ntchito kwa drone ndi zida za nyukiliya kukuwululira momwemonso. Panalibe kuyesera kuvomereza ntchito yachitukuko yomwe ingachitike kudzera kuwopseza ndikugwiritsa ntchito zida za nyukiliya, kupitilira mkangano wokakamiza, womwe sungawonetsedwe, kuti kukhalapo kwawo kudalepheretsa Cold War kukhala Nkhondo Yachitatu Yapadziko Lonse. Kudzinenera kotere, kukhulupiririka konse, kudalira chikhulupiriro chamakhalidwe kuti kugwiritsa ntchito kwawo kungakhale koopsa mbali zonse, kuphatikiza ogwiritsa ntchito, pomwe kuwopseza kugwiritsidwa ntchito kunali koyenera kukhumudwitsa kutenga kapena kukwiya ndi mdani.[14] Mosiyana ndi izi, ma drones, mlandu wololeza zida zankhondo umalumikizidwa ndi kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwenikweni poyerekeza ndi njira zina zankhondo wamba zophulika mlengalenga kapena kuwukira pansi.
“ANA A KUWALA”
Ana a nkhondo zochepa za drone adapatsidwa mwayi wovomerezedwa ndi zomwe Purezidenti Barack Obama adalankhula, moyenera, ku National Defense University, pa Meyi 23, 2013.[15] Obama adalimbikitsa zomwe adapereka kwa boma mzaka mazana awiri momwe nkhondo yasintha modabwitsa kangapo koma akuganiza kuti sizinasokoneze kukhulupirika pamalamulo oyambitsa a republic omwe akhazikitsidwa mu Constitution, yomwe "idagwira ngati kampasi yathu kudzera pakusintha kwamtundu uliwonse. . . . Malamulo oyendetsera dziko lino athetsa nkhondo zonse, ndipo nkhondo iliyonse yatha. ”
Potengera izi, a Obama akupitilizabe kukambirana mwatsoka komwe adalandira kuchokera ku purezidenti wa Bush, kuti ziwopsezo za 9/11 zidayambitsa nkhondo m'malo mopanga wamkulu upandu. Mmawu ake, "Iyi inali nkhondo yosiyana. Panalibe magulu ankhondo amene anafika m'mbali mwathu, ndipo sanatigwere kwenikweni. M'malo mwake, gulu la zigawenga linabwera kudzapha anthu wamba ambiri momwe angathere. ” Palibe kuyesera kuthana ndi funso loti chifukwa chiyani kukhumudwaku kungachitike ngati mlandu, zomwe zikadagwira ntchito poyambitsa nkhondo zowopsa zisanafike 9/11 'nkhondo zosatha' motsutsana ndi Afghanistan ndi Iraq. M'malo mwake, a Obama akunena zabodza, m'malo momunamizira kuti vuto linali "kugwirizanitsa mfundo zathu ndi malamulo."[16]
Malinga ndi a Obama, chiwopsezo chomwe al-Qaeda adachita zaka khumi zapitazo chatsika kwambiri, ngakhale sichinasoweke, ndikupangitsa kuti ikhale "mphindi yakudzifunsa mafunso ovuta-ponena za zomwe zikuwopseza masiku ano komanso momwe tingachitire nazo." Zachidziwikire, zikuwulula kuti kupambana pamtundu wankhondo sikunali kupambana pankhondo kapena kulanda madera, koma kuphedwa mu 2011 kwa mtsogoleri wodziwika bwino wa al-Qaeda, Osama bin Laden, m'malo osamenya nkhondo omwe kwenikweni anali malo obisalira osafunikira kwenikweni pantchito yolimbana ndi uchigawenga. Obama adanenanso zakukwaniritsidwa ndi mayina owerengeka pamndandanda wa omwe adaphedwa: "Lero, Osama bin Laden wamwalira, momwemonso ambiri mwa atsogoleri ake apamwamba." Izi sizotsatira, monga momwe zidakhalira pankhondo zam'mbuyomu, zankhondo, koma chifukwa chazinthu zosavomerezeka zomwe zimachitika popha anthu ndi machitidwe apadera ophwanya ufulu wa mayiko ena osavomerezeka.
Ndi pamtunduwu pomwe mawu a Obama amatembenukira ku mikangano yomwe idachitika chifukwa chodalira ma drones, omwe ntchito yake idakulirakulira kuyambira pomwe Obama adabwera ku White House ku 2009. Obama akutsimikizira m'mawu osamveka komanso osadziwika kuti "zisankho zomwe tili kupanga tsopano kutanthauzira mtundu wa dziko ndi dziko lapansi lomwe timasiyira ana athu. . . . Chifukwa chake America ili pamphambano. Tiyenera kufotokozera za nkhondoyi komanso kukula kwa nkhondoyi, apo ayi itifotokozera. ” Poyesa kuyambiranso nkhondo yolimbana ndi uchigawenga wapadziko lonse lapansi, a Obama alankhula chilankhulo chotsitsa: ". . . sitiyenera kutanthauzira kuyesayesa kwathu ngati 'nkhondo yankhondo yapadziko lonse yopanda malire,' koma monga gulu la anthu opitilizabe, omwe akufuna kuthana ndi magulu achiwawa omwe akuopseza America. ” Komabe palibe chifukwa chofotokozera chifukwa chake kulimbana kwa ndale kumadera akutali monga Yemen, Somalia, Mali, ngakhale Philippines kuyenera kuwonedwa ngati madera omenyera nkhondo malinga ndi chitetezo cha dziko pokhapokha kufikako kwa njira yayikulu yaku America ikuphatikizira dziko lililonse padziko lapansi. Zachidziwikire, kukhazikitsa mphamvu zankhondo yaku America pazomwe zimawoneka ngati zovuta kuwongolera moyo wazandale wakunja kwamayiko akunja sizipanga maziko m'malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi operekera nkhondo kapena kuwopseza ndikugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zadziko lonse.
Sikuti Obama amangonena mopanda tanthauzo ndi izi[17], koma kusakhazikika kwake kusafuna kuwona zenizeni za zomwe zikuchitika m'dzina la America zomwe zimapangitsa chithunzi chake chabwino cha nkhondo zankhondo za drone kukhala chosokoneza komanso chosocheretsa. Obama akuti "[a] s zinali zowona pankhondo zam'mbuyomu, ukadaulo watsopanowu umadzutsa mafunso ovuta-okhudza omwe akuwatsata, nanga bwanji, za anthu wamba wamba, komanso kuopsa kopanga adani atsopano; zovomerezeka zanyanyazo malinga ndi malamulo aku US komanso malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi; pankhani yokhudza kuyankha mlandu komanso makhalidwe abwino. ”[18] Inde, izi ndi zina mwazovuta, koma mayankho omwe aperekedwawa ndiabwino kuposa kuzemba kwamalamulo ndi malingaliro omwe abwera. Chotsutsana chachikulu ndikuti nkhondo za drone zakhala zikuchitika zothandiza ndi mwalamulo, ndipo zimayambitsa kuvulala kochepa kuposa njira zina zankhondo. Mikangano iyi ili ndi kukayika kwakukulu komwe sikunayankhidwe mwachidule komwe kungakhale koyenera ngati Obama amatanthauza zomwe wanena zakumana ndi mafunso ovuta.[19]
Kudzitchinjiriza kwake kwachikhalidwe ndizofanana ndi njira yonseyi. Congress idapatsa Executive mphamvu yayikulu, yopanda malire kuti agwiritse ntchito mphamvu zonse zofunikira kuti athane ndi ziwopsezo zomwe zidachitika pambuyo pa ziwonetsero za 9/11, potero kukwaniritsa malamulo oyendetsera dziko logawa mphamvu. Padziko lonse lapansi, a Obama afotokoza zotsutsana ndi ufulu wa United States woti adziteteze asananene kuti, "Chifukwa chake iyi ndi nkhondo yolungama - nkhondo yomenyedwa molingana, pomaliza, komanso yodziteteza." Panali pano pomwe akanatha kufunsa mafunso okayikira za kuwukira kwa World Trade Center ndi Pentagon ngati zomwe zimawerengedwa ngati 'zochita zankhondo' osati milandu yoopsa ngati 'milandu yolimbana ndi anthu.' Panali njira zina zothanirana ndi nkhondo zomwe zimaperekedwa ndikudzitchinjiriza motsutsana ndi gulu lachigawenga lomwe Al Qaeda adawoneka kuti mwina adasanthula, ngakhale atakhala kuti sanatengeredwe, kubwerera ku 2001. Khama kuyambira mu 2013 likadakhoza kuyambitsanso funso lofunikira kapena, modzichepetsera, kuwonetsa kuti zigawenga zomwe zimachita kuchokera kunkhondo kupita kunkhondo yapadziko lonse yolimbana ndi milandu yapadziko lonse lapansi yomwe idachitidwa moyanjana pakati pa maboma m'njira yolemekeza malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi, kuphatikizapo UN Charter ..
Obama adalephera kugwiritsa ntchito mwayi wotere. M'malo mwake, adapereka mayankho achinyengo podzudzula pagulu lankhondo lankhondo ngati lingaliro komanso machitidwe. A Obama ati, ngakhale pali umboni wochuluka wotsutsana ndi izi, kugwiritsa ntchito ma drone kumatsutsidwa ndi "dongosolo lomwe limayang'anira momwe timagwiritsira ntchito mphamvu polimbana ndi zigawenga - kulimbikira malangizo omveka bwino, kuyang'anira ndi kuyankha mlandu zomwe tsopano zalembedwa mu Malangizo a Presidential Policy Guidance." Zinatsatiranso chimodzimodzi ndi zomwe a John Brennan anatenga mu nkhani ku Harvard Law School chaka chimodzi kapena chapitacho. Brennan anali akugwira ntchito ngati mlangizi wamkulu wotsutsana ndi uchigawenga wa Obama. Ananenetsa kudzipereka kwa Boma la US kutsatira malamulo ndi mfundo za demokalase zomwe zapatsa anthu aku America mawonekedwe osiyana: "Ndayamika kwambiri ntchito yomwe mfundo zathu, makamaka zamalamulo, zimathandizira kuteteza dziko lathu kukhala lotetezeka. ”[20] Brennan, pomwe akuti akuchita zonse zomwe zingachitike kuti ateteze anthu aku America ku ziwopsezo izi kuchokera kunja komanso mkati mwake adatsimikizira omvera ake kusukulu zamalamulo m'njira yomwe ikuphatikiza "kutsatira lamuloli" pazochitika zonse, ndikunena momveka bwino za " zochita zobisa. ” Koma chomwe chikutanthawuzidwa pano sichikutanthauza kuti tipewe kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zoletsedwa ndi malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi, koma kungoti zochitika zobisika zomwe zakhala gawo lalikulu la 'nkhondo yolimbana ndi uchigawenga' ya Obama sizidutsa "maulamuliro omwe tapatsidwa ndi Congress. ” Ndikuchenjera kwamalingaliro, Brennan amadziwika kuti ndi malamulo okha zoweta mphamvu zalamulo pomwe zikuwoneka kuti zikuwongolera kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu m'maiko ena akunja. Zikafika pakufunika kwamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi, a Brennan amadalira zodzipangira zokhazokha komanso zomangamanga kuti zitsimikizire kuti munthu akhoza kuwomberedwa ngati angawopsezedwe ngakhale atakhala kutali ndi malo otchedwa 'nkhondo yankhondo,' ndiye kuti , kulikonse padziko lapansi atha kukhala gawo limodzi lankhondo.[21] Izi ndizonyenga kwambiri chifukwa kugwiritsa ntchito ma drone m'maiko monga Yemen ndi Somalia sikuti kuli kutali ndi nkhondo yotentha; mikangano yawo idathetsedweratu, ndipo zomwe zimatchedwa 'siginecha' zimayesedwa ngati anthu oyenera omwe akukayikira madera akunja.
Zonena za purezidenti wa Obama ndikuti ma drones amangolimbana ndi iwo okha omwe akuwopseza, kuti chisamaliro chachikulu chimatetezedwa kuti zisawonongeke zachitetezo cha anthu, ndikuti njira zoterezi sizimapangitsa kuwonongeka kochepa komanso kuwonongeka kuposa momwe zimakhalira poyambira kuwopseza komwe kudalira ukadaulo waukadaulo wa ndege zopangidwa ndi nsapato pansi. Obama adayankha funso lovuta ngati zili m'malamulo awa kuti akwaniritse nzika zaku America zomwe zikuchita zandale pomwe akukhala kudziko lina. Obama adagwiritsa ntchito nkhani ya Anwar Awlaki, mlaliki wachisilamu, kuti afotokoze chifukwa chomupangira kuti amuphe, ndikuwonetsa kulumikizana kwake ndi zigawenga zingapo zomwe zalephera ku United States: “. . . nzika yaku US ikapita kunja kukamenya nkhondo ndi America. . . Kukhala nzika sikuyenera kutchinjiranso monga momwe wobisalira amene akuwombera khamu la anthu osalakwa ayenera kutetezedwera ku gulu la akatswiri. ”[22] Komabe kufotokozera kumeneku sikukuyankha otsutsa chifukwa chake asadaphedwe mlandu womwe Awlaki adaumirizidwa ku bungwe lina lamilandu, zomwe zimathandiza chitetezo chokhazikitsidwa ndi khothi, kuti zitsimikizire kuti 'njira yoyenera' mkati mwa gululo posankha zolinga Osati chabe chidindo cha mphira pazoyambira za CIA ndi Pentagon, ndipo chifukwa chake sipangakhale kuwululidwa kwathunthu kwaumboni ndi zomveka.[23]
Chododometsa kwambiri, chifukwa chikuwonetsa chikhulupiriro choipa, kulephera kwa Obama kubweretsa zovuta zowopsa zomwe gulu la achinyamata lomwe likulowera kudera lina la Yemen kuposa komwe drone idagwira Anwar Awlaki. Omwe anali mgululi anali mwana wamwamuna wazaka 16 wa Awlaki, a Abdulrahman Awlaki, msuwani wake, ndi ana ena asanu pomwe anali kukonzekera kanyumba kowonekera pa Okutobala 14, 2011, patatha milungu itatu drone atapha abambo a Abdulrahman. Agogo aamuna a Abdulrahman, Yemeni wotchuka yemwe anali nduna yakale komanso purezidenti wa yunivesite, akunena za zoyesayesa zake zokhumudwitsa m'makhothi aku America kudalira mndandanda wazomwe zachitika komanso kusayankha mlandu ngakhale atakhala ovuta chonchi. Izi ndizochitika zomwe zikuwonetsa chifukwa chomwe chidziwitso chonse cha mphamvu ya ma drones chili pansi pa izi mdima mtambo wosakhulupirira. Awlaki wachichepere akuwoneka kuti ndi amene adazunzidwa ndi zomwe zatchulidwa mgulu lankhondo ngati 'siginecha,' ndiye kuti, mndandanda womwe umapangidwa ndi anthu osankhidwa koma uli ndi gulu lomwe akatswiri ofufuza za CIA kapena Pentagon amawapeza okayikira mokwanira kuti apereke zifukwa zakupha kwawo kuchotsa. Makamaka, Obama sanatchulepo zigawenga zomwe zimasainidwa mmawu ake, motero sangapereke boma kuti lithe kuwongolera kumeneku. Izi zikutsutsa malingaliro ake onse akuti kuwongolera kumachitika moyenera motsogozedwa ndi iye ndipo kumachitika mwanzeru kwambiri zomwe zimalepheretsa anthu omwe amatchedwa 'ofunika kwambiri' omwe akuwopseza chitetezo cha US ndikukonzekera kuukira kulikonse kuti athetse kuchuluka komwe kungawononge anthu wamba. Kuyeserera kotereku ndikonyenga ngakhale kuvomerezedwa pakokha ngati kuwombedwa ndi ma drone ndikuwopsezedwa ndi chikhalidwe chawo kumafalitsa mantha akulu kumadera onse, motero chifukwa ngakhale munthu m'modzi yekhayo amene waphedwa waphedwa kapena kuvulazidwa, kunyanyala kumamveka kwambiri kwambiri mlengalenga, komanso kwa nthawi yayitali munthawi. Cholinga cha uchigawenga waboma ndichachidziwikire kuti sichingafanane ndi chandamale chavomerezedwayo pokhapokha ngati munthu yemwe akukhudzidwa akukhala kumidzi.
Pali zinthu zina ziwiri m'mawu a Obama zomwe zimafunikira chidwi. Malingaliro ake apakati ndichimodzi chofunikira kwambiri kuteteza anthu aku America kuti asawopsezedwe, kuphatikizaponso anthu obadwira kwawo omwe awonetsedwa ndikuwombera kwa Fort Hood komanso kuphulitsa bomba kwa Boston Marathon, komabe akutsimikizira kuti palibe Purezidenti waku America yemwe ayenera "kuyendetsa ma drones okhala ndi zida Nthaka ya US. ”[24] Choyamba, bwanji ngati pali chitetezo kapena zofunikira pakukakamiza? Chachiwiri, zikuwoneka ngati kuvomerezedwa, mosasamala, kwa ma drones opanda zida, zomwe zikutanthauza kuyang'aniridwa ndi zochitika zapakhomo za anthu omwe akuwakayikira.
Njira ya Obama yovomerezera kuti akazembe aku America akukumana ndi ziwopsezo zachitetezo zomwe zimaposa zomwe mayiko ena akukumana nazo zikuwoneka zokayikitsa, pofotokoza kuti "[iye] ndiye mtengo wokhala dziko lamphamvu kwambiri padziko lapansi, makamaka ngati nkhondo yosintha ikutsuka mdziko lachiarabu. ” Apanso kutulutsa kosamveka sikumapereka konkriti: chifukwa chiyani akazembe aku America amasankhidwa? Kodi madandaulo awo motsutsana ndi United States, omwe ngati atachotsedwa, angalimbikitse chitetezo cha ku America kuposa kupanga akazembe m'malo achitetezo ndikuwombera ma drone kulikonse padziko lapansi kupatula ngati Purezidenti wosayankha mlandu asayina? Kodi zonena zachifumu zaku America komanso magulu ankhondo apadziko lonse lapansi komanso kupezeka panyanja ndizoyenera kuwunikiridwa mwalamulo pakuwopseza kapena kugwiritsa ntchito gulu lankhondo lapadziko lonse lapansi? Nanga bwanji pulogalamu yoyang'anira padziko lonse yomwe yafotokozedwa m'mabuku aboma omwe a Edward Snowden adatulutsa?
Apanso zochotsedwazo ndi zabwino, nthawi zina ngakhale kumveketsa bwino, pamtundu wawo wokha wa nkhani, pokhapokha mpaka zitayerekezedwa ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwa mfundo, zomwe zimakutidwa mumdima, ndiye kuti, alibe kuwala. Polimbikitsa mawu, atapereka lingaliro loti apitilize njira yankhondo, a Obama akuwona kumapeto kwa nkhani yake kuti nkhondoyi "monga nkhondo zonse, iyenera kutha. Izi ndi zomwe mbiri imalangiza, ndizomwe demokalase yathu imafuna. ” Amaliza ndi kukonda kwawo kukonda dziko lako motere: "Ndiwo anthu aku America omwe ali otsimikiza mtima, komanso osasokonezedwa." Brennan anasankha pafupifupi mawu ofanana pomaliza kuyankhula kwake ku Harvard Law School: "Monga anthu, monga fuko, sitingathe — ndipo sitiyenera - kugonja pachiyeso chokhazikitsa malamulo ndi zikhalidwe zathu tikakumana ndi ziwopsezo ku chitetezo chathu ... Ife ' bwino kuposa pamenepo. Ndife Achimereka. ”[25] Chomvetsa chisoni ndichakuti zotengera ndizachinyengo. Zomwe tachita m'dzina lachitetezo ndizomwe a Obama ndi a Brennan akuti sitiyenera kuchita pokhudzana ndi malamulo ndi zikhalidwe za dzikolo, ndipo malingaliro ngati amenewa abwerezedwa posachedwa ndi Biden ndi Blinken. Chizolowezi cha akuluakulu aku America pamalamulo apadziko lonse okonda zachikondi sichimakwaniritsidwa konse pakukhazikitsidwa kwa mfundo zakunja zikafika pa "chitetezo" kapena njira yayikulu. Timadziuza tokha ndikuphunzitsa ena kuti adziphatikize nawo pakuwona dziko lolamulidwa ndi olamulira, komabe machitidwe athu akuwonetsa machitidwe potengera kuzindikira ndi chinsinsi.
“ANA A MDIMA”
Kutembenukira ku nkhani yotsutsa momwe zenizeni za nkhondo za drone zimafotokozedwera mwanjira ina. Izi sizitanthauza kukana kwathunthu nkhondo zankhondo zapamadzi, koma zikutsimikizira kuti machenjererowa ndi momwe zikuyendetsedwera pakadali pano sizinafotokozedwe mwachilungamo kapena moona mtima, motero, sizingayanjanitsidwe mosavuta ndi malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi kapena malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. Otsutsa omwe akukamba nkhani ku Washington atha kudzinenera chifukwa chongoganiza kuti palibe njira yochepetsera kudalira ma drones m'njira yomwe imazindikira zolephera zamalamulo komanso zamakhalidwe abwino m'malo mokhalabe munjira zankhanza komanso zowopsa momwe ma drones akhalapo ndipo akugwiritsidwa ntchito ndi Boma la US. Mwanjira ina, ngati chinyengo chachikulu cha ana a pro-drone a nkhani yopepuka ndikuyenera kuyang'ana pamlingo wonyalanyaza zovuta zomwe zimakhalapo chifukwa cha momwe angagwiritsire ntchito zenizeni, zabodza za ana amdima ndizo kuti achepetse ndemanga zawo pamlingo wa konkire womwe umanyalanyaza zovuta zachitetezo zomwe zimalimbikitsa kudalira ma drones ndi anzawo mgulu la 'ntchito zapadera' ndi mzere womwe ungabwerere nkhondo yachiwiri yapadziko lonse, ngati sichoncho kale. Nkhani yoyenera pa ma drones itha kuphatikizira kaphatikizidwe kamene kanalingalira zachitetezo pakudziwitsa zovuta zomwe zimachitika pomenya nkhondo yopanda malire m'malo mofotokozera zomwe zikuwopseza ngati m'milandu yopanda malire, komanso kuda nkhawa ndi tanthauzo lakutsimikizira kudalira roboti ikuyandikira mikangano pomwe kulumikizana kwaumunthu ndi zankhondo kumathyoledwa kapena kukhala kutali.
Kusinthaku ndikuwopsezedwa ndi omwe sanachite nawo madera ena mosakayikira ndi zomwe a Dick Cheney anali kunena pomwe adawopseza mwamphamvu kuti United States ibwezeretse chitetezo padziko lapansi pambuyo pa 9/11 ikufunika kuchitapo kanthu 'mdimawo.' Omwe amafalitsa koyambirira kwa nkhani ya 'ana amdima' sanasangalale polandira chithunzichi komanso mfundo zake. Inde, Cheney adalongosola zakusamvera kwamalamulo poyankhulana pa Seputembara 16, 2001 pa Pezani Nkhani: “Tiyeneranso kugwira ntchito yamtundu wanji, ngati mungafune. Tiyenera kuthera nthawi mumithunzi ya anzeru. . . Ndilo dziko lomwe anthu awa amagwirako ntchito, motero tifunika kugwiritsa ntchito njira iliyonse, kuti tikwaniritse cholinga chathu. ”[26] Zomwe izi zimatanthawuza munthawi yeniyeni inali kudalira kuzunzidwa, masamba akuda m'maiko akunja, ndikupha mindandanda, ndikuchotsa zopondereza kapena kufunitsitsa kuthana ndi zovomerezeka zomwe sizingachitike kuti zitsimikizire mfundo.[27] Izi zikutanthauza kuti kudalira 'malo akuda' m'maiko angapo ochezeka omwe angalole CIA kuti izigwiritsa ntchito malo awo obisalamo mwachinsinsi zoletsa zakudziko, ndipo sipadzakhala mafunso. Zinatsogolera ku 'kutanthauzira kwapadera,' kusamutsa okayikira kumaboma omwe angazunzike kupitilira zomwe zimawoneka ngati zovomerezeka ngati 'kufunsa mafunso' motsogozedwa ndi aku America. Zomwe Donald Rumsfeld adawona kuti zikuwonjezera kufalikira kwa Pentagon Special Access Program ya Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) mwina kuti apewe kudalira CIA chifukwa zoyipa zomwe anali kunena kuti anali "ophedwa."[28] Pomwe pulogalamu ya PBS TV Kutsogolo adawonetsa za nkhondo yankhondo yomwe idalumikizidwa ndi prezidenti wa neoconservative a George W. Bush ku 2008, idasankha mutu wakuti "Mdima Wamdima," monganso Jane Mayer pakuwunika kwake kwa njira zomwe akatswiri a Cheney / Rumsfeld adapanga kuyankha kwa boma ku 9/11.[29] Sizosadabwitsa kuti Cheney anali wowoneka ngati womasuka pokhala ngati choyimira choyipa chachikhalidwe chodziwika mwa njira ya Star Nkhondo khalidwe la Darth Vader.[30]
Monga tikudziwira pakadali pano, 9/11 idathandizira kuti a Cheney ndi Rumsfeld akhazikitse mphamvu zoyang'anira magulu ankhondo mu purezidenti ndikuwonetsa mphamvu zaku America padziko lonse lapansi kutengera mwayi wapambuyo pa Cold War komanso zoyambira zake osaganizira kuchepa kwa madera a ulamuliro kapena zoletsa zamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. Cholinga chawo chinali kutsogolera kusintha kwa zochitika zankhondo zomwe zingabweretse nkhondo mu 21st , zomwe zimatanthawuza kuchepetsa zida ndi machitidwe wamba, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti anthu ovulala komanso otsutsa andale azitsutsana ndi mfundo zakunja zakunja, ndikudalira ukadaulo waluso womwe ungakhale ndi kuthekera kopambana kugonjetsa mdani aliyense kulikonse padziko lapansi. 9/11 poyamba zidali zodabwitsa pomwe njira yayikulu ya neocon idakonzedwa kuti ipambane mwachangu komanso yotsika mtengo motsutsana ndi maboma akunja modetsa nkhawa pa Gulf War mu 1991, koma mofunitsitsa kuti akhale andale pakufuna ndale Zotsatira zomwe zingalimbikitse ulamuliro wapadziko lonse ku US. Zomwe sizimayembekezeredwa, komabe, zomwe zidawopsa m'mitima yambiri, zidali kuti ochita ndale zankhanza atha kukhala osachita maboma omwe magulu awo amwazikana m'malo ambiri ndikusowa malo oyenera omwe angayang'anitsidwe kubwezera (motero, osayimitsidwa). Kusintha ku chiwopsezo chotere cha chitetezo ndi chomwe chidabweretsa njira zoyipa kutsogolo ndi pakati, popeza luntha laumunthu linali lofunikira, olakwirawo amatha kubisala kulikonse kuphatikiza ku United States. Chifukwa kupezeka kwawo nthawi zambiri kunkasakanikirana ndi anthu wamba, amayenera kukhala achiwawa kapena osankhidwa mwapadera popha anthu.
Panali pano pomwe ntchito zapadera, monga kuphedwa kwa Osama Bin Laden, ndizoyimira, komanso nkhondo zankhondo nthawi zambiri zimakhala njira ndi njira zosankhira. Ndipo ndipamene wotsutsa uchigawenga, ngakhale atakutidwa ndi mdima, adadzakhala mtundu wachigawenga wovomerezeka. Wandale yemwe amaphulitsa nyumba zaboma siosiyana kwenikweni ndi wogwira ntchito zaboma yemwe amayendetsa drone kapena amapita kukapha anthu, ngakhale wochita zankhanzazi sanena kuti akufuna kuwongolera molondola ndikukana kuvomera mlandu wakupha mosasankha.
Potengera kuchuluka kwakupitilira komwe awonetsedwa ndi purezidenti wa Obama ngakhale adadalira nkhani ya 'ana akuwala', otsutsa owolowa manja adayang'ana kwambiri pa khalidwe a boma omwe amadziwika ndi kudalira kwawo njira zamdima. Olemba monga Jeremy Scahill ndi a Mark Mazetti akukambirana momwe zinthu zofunika kwambiri pakuwonera dziko la Cheney / Rumsfeld zathandizidwira, ngakhale kuwonjezedwa, panthawi ya utsogoleri wa Obama: nkhondo mumthunzi; nkhondo yapadziko lonse; kuyang'anira omwe akuwakayikira omwe amadziwika kuti akuphatikiza aliyense, kulikonse; lingaliro lowopseza lomwe lingayandikire ngati aliyense (kuphatikiza nzika zaku America) mkati kapena kunja kwa dzikolo; kudalira mwachangu ziwonetsero zankhondo za drone monga zololedwa ndi purezidenti; ndipo akufuna kupha anthu ngati 'malo omenyera nkhondo' monga Obama adavomerezera kuti a Osama Bin Laden aphedwe ngati mwayi wopambana pomenya nkhondo ndi al-Qaeda ndi anzawo.
Pali zosintha zina panjira yankhondo yolimbana ndi uchigawenga: kutsindika kumayikidwa kwa adani omwe siaboma, ndipo njira zosinthira maboma motsutsana ndi omwe akuchita nawo nkhanza zimapewa ngati zingatheke; Kuzunza ngati njira kumakankhidwira mkati mwamdima, kutanthauza kuti imakanidwa koma sikuthetsedwa. (mwachitsanzo, mikangano yakukakamiza ku Guantánamo.) Mwanjira ina, ana amdima amalamulirabe mkangano 'weniweni', wotsimikizika kwambiri ndi mayankho okhwima a Obama kwa owimba mluzu monga Chelsea Manning ndi Edward Snowden. Kulankhula kwaufulu kwa ana owala kumakhazika mtima pansi anthu aku America, koma kuzemba zovuta zazikulu zomwe zikuwunikidwa pamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi machitidwe apadziko lonse lapansi pogwiritsa ntchito njira zomwe a Obama apitiliza kupitiliza nkhondo poyankha 9/11 (ndiye kuti, mpaka pano, kugawana kwathunthu malingaliro a Cheney kuti kungakhale kulakwitsa kwakukulu kutengera 'uchigawenga' ngati mlandu osati ngati 'nkhondo.').
MADONONI NDI TSOGOLO LA DZIKO LAPANSI
Mtsutso wapakati pa nkhondo zankhondo za drone umayang'ana kwambiri pamawonekedwe ndi chinsinsi, ndikuwongolera zinthu zofunika. Ana onse akuwala (oyimira purezidenti wa Obama ndi omenyera ufulu wawo) ndi ana amdima (a Cheney / Rumsfeld cabal) ndiosavomerezeka osagwiritsa ntchito zida zankhondo za drones, osanyalanyaza zovuta za zida zotere ndi maukadaulo pamalingaliro amilandu yapadziko lonse lapansi dongosolo. Potsimikizira izi, mawu oyamba a zida za nyukiliya ndiofunikira. Kwa ma drones, lingaliro lakukakamira koyambirira kwa ma drones kutengera zoletsa zopanda malire ndi zida zowonetsetsa kuti kusakhala nazo zikuwoneka ngati zopanda mkangano. Popeza kutukuka kwa ochita ndale omwe siaboma omwe ali ndi zolinga zapadziko lonse lapansi, zida zankhondo zaku drones, ndi. kuthekera kwawo kugulitsa zida zankhondo, ndikwabwino kwambiri kuti ntchito iliyonse yomwe angafune kuletsa panthawiyi itha kukhala yovuta.
Zomwezi zimakhudzanso zoletsa zachiwiri zomwe zimakhudzana ndi kuwongolera pakufalitsa kwawo kofanana ndi njira yopewera kufalitsa. Ma drones ali kale ndi anthu ambiri, ukadaulo umadziwika bwino, msika ndiwowoneka bwino, komanso magwiridwe antchito amitundu yayikulu kwambiri kuganiza kuti aliyense wodziyimira pawokha kapena wosachita nawo ziwonetsero zandale sangayembekezere zabwino zomwe zingachitike wokhala ndi ma drones, ngakhale kutumizidwa kwa ma drones kuukira kumatha kutsalira kwakanthawi kochepa kutengera malingaliro a chitetezo cha maboma osiyanasiyana. Chifukwa chake, zabwino zomwe tingayembekezere pakadali pano ndizovomerezeka pamalingaliro okhudzana ndi kagwiritsidwe ntchito, zomwe zitha kutchedwa zopinga zachitatu zomwe zikufanana ndi momwe lamulo lankhondo lathandizira pamachitidwe ankhanza m'njira zomwe zili pachiwopsezo chazosintha zakusowa kwa 'zida zankhondo' popeza zida ndi maluso andalama zimabweretsa kusintha munkhondo.
Nkhani zakulamulidwa padziko lonse lapansi zatetezedwanso pazokambirana zomwe zikuchitika pakugwiritsa ntchito ma drones, osatchulidwapo m'kulankhula kwa Obama kwa Meyi 23rd, ndipo adangovomereza mwanjira zina mu Cheney / Rumsfeld akuwona pambuyo pa 9/11 malo ankhondo. Mwachidule, chithandizo cha ziwopsezo za 9/11 ngati 'zochita za nkhondo' osati 'milandu' zimakhala zofunikira kwambiri kuposa ziwopsezo zomwe. Zimatsogolera pafupifupi osaganizira kuti awone dziko lapansi ngati nkhondo yapadziko lonse lapansi, komanso kunkhondo yomwe ilibe kumapeto kwenikweni monga zakhala zikuchitika pankhondo zam'mbuyomu. Mwakutero, limapereka lingaliro lakumenya nkhondo kosatha, ndikuvomereza kofananira kwa lingaliro loti aliyense, kuphatikiza nzika ndi okhalamo, atha kukhala adani. Lingaliro lankhondo lamuyaya lakhala likutsutsidwa ndi kudzipereka kwa Biden kuti atenge gulu lankhondo laku America ku Afghanistan patatha zaka 20 akuchita nkhondo yankhondo yotsika mtengo komanso yopanda phindu pofika tsiku la 9/11. Atsogoleri andale komanso oyang'anira ankhondo apanga upangiri pamalingaliro otere, ndipo Biden adadzisiyira yekha malo osinthira njira zina kupatula nsapato zapansi.
Popeza kuzindikirika kwa chitetezo kumalimbikitsidwa ndi kusonkhanitsa anzeru, komwe kumachitika mobisa, udindo woperekedwa kuteteza dzikolo ndi anthu ake umapereka kwa atsogoleri andale komanso mabungwe osavomerezeka chilolezo chakupha, kupereka chilango chamilandu yowonjezerapo osalowererapo Kusanthula milandu, kuweluza milandu, ndi kuwazenga mlandu. M'kupita kwa nthawi, mgwirizano wamphamvu wa mabomawo pofika nthawi zonse umasokoneza kuthekera kwa 'mtendere' ndi 'demokalase,' ndipo kumakhazikitsanso 'dera lakuya' ngati njira yofananira yolamulira masiku ano. Ngati kulumikizidwa ndikuphatikiza ndalama ndi zachuma pamachitidwe okopa anthu, kubwera kwa mitundu yatsopano ya fascism kumakhala kosapeweka, ngakhale mawonekedwe achitetezo apadziko lonse lapansi.[31] Mwanjira ina, ma drones amalimbikitsanso zochitika zina mdziko lapansi zomwe zimawononga ufulu wa anthu, chilungamo chapadziko lonse lapansi, komanso chitetezo cha zofuna za anthu padziko lonse lapansi. Izi zikuphatikiza kuyika ndalama zazikulu muntchito zachinsinsi zowunikira padziko lonse lapansi zomwe zimawunika miyoyo ya nzika zapanyumba, anthu osiyanasiyana akunja, komanso kuyendetsa mabungwe azamayiko akunja mochulukirapo komanso kosokoneza kuposa ukazitape wachikhalidwe. Zolinga zapadera pakulimbikitsa kugula zida zankhondo ndi malonda akunja zimapanga maulalo aboma / mabungwe omwe amalungamitsa ndalama zambiri zodzitchinjiriza, kukokomeza chitetezo, ndikulimbikitsa zankhondo zapadziko lonse zomwe zikulepheretsa zochitika zonse zogona ndi bata lokhazikika.
NKHONDO YOPHUNZITSA NDIPONSO MALAMULO OTHANDIZA
Pali zovuta zina zakumenya nkhondo ya drone zomwe zimayambitsa zovuta zamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi kuti akakamize anthu kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu ndikuwongolera machitidwe ankhondo. Izi zakambidwa ndi ena mwa 'ana akuwala' omwe amatsutsa mfundo zovomerezeka pamagwiritsidwe ntchito a ma drones. M'malo mwake, ma drones samatsutsidwa pa se, koma njira zawo zovomerezeka zokha ndi malamulo okhudzana ndi kagwiritsidwe ntchito.
Njira Yopita Kunkhondo
Cholinga chachikulu cha malamulo amakono padziko lonse lapansi ndikuti alepheretse kupita kunkhondo kuti athetse mikangano yapadziko lonse yomwe ikubwera pakati pa mayiko odziyimira pawokha. Mwanjira zambiri, ntchitoyi yakhala ikuyenda bwino pakati pa mayiko akuluakulu mokhudzana ndi padziko lonse nkhondo monga osiyana ndi mkati nkhondo. Kuwonongeka kwa nkhondo, kuchepa kwa kukula kwa madera, komanso kukwera kwachuma padziko lonse lapansi kumatsimikizira kuti lingaliro lankhondo ngati njira yomaliza ndichofunikira kwambiri pagawo laposachedwa kwambiri ladziko lapansi. Kuchita koteroko tsopano kuli pachiwopsezo chifukwa chokwera kwa ziwawa zomwe sizamayiko akunja komanso kuyankha mwa ma drones ndi magulu apadera omwe amagwira ntchito mosasamala malire. Zomwe zikutanthawuza ndikuti nkhondo yapadziko lonse lapansi imayamba kuchepa, ndipo malingaliro andewu asunthidwira kunkhondo zatsopano zomwe dziko lonse lapansi lachita motsutsana ndi omwe siaboma andale. Ndipo nkhondozi, zomwe zimachitika mwachinsinsi chobisika, komanso pachiwopsezo chazovulala kumbali yodalira kuwukira kwa ma drone, zimapangitsa kuti nkhondo isakhale yovuta kwambiri kunyumba: anthu sayenera kukhutira, Kuvomerezeka kwa DRM kumatha kupezeka mwachinsinsi, ndipo sipangakhale zowopsa zankhondo zaku US kapena zosintha zambiri zachuma. Nkhondo zokhazi zomwe zimakhala zofananira zimakhala zotsika mtengo komanso zosavuta, ngakhale sizitengera anthu wamba omwe amachitiridwa nkhanza zankhanza. Kuwunikaku kukuwonongeka mwachangu chifukwa chakuchulukirachulukira kwa zida zankhondo za drone, kuphatikiza kwa omwe sanachite nawo zankhondo komanso kupititsa patsogolo chitukuko chaukadaulo wa drone.
M'masiku aposachedwa, Azerbajan wagwiritsa ntchito ma drones omenyera motsutsana ndi akasinja aku Armenia pakuphulika kwa nkhondo ku 2020 mnyumba ya Nagorno-Karabakh. A Houthis alabadira kulowererapo kwa Saudi Arabia ku Yemen ndi ziwopsezo zowononga ma drone mu Seputembara 14, 2019 pamunda wa Khurais Mafuta ndi malo opangira mafuta a Aqaiq. Zikuwoneka kuti osewera onse aku Middle East tsopano ali ndi ma drones ngati gawo limodzi lazida zawo. Mosakayikira, mpikisano wamagulu wophatikizira mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya ma drones wayamba kale, ndipo mwina watentha thupi, ngati sichoncho kale.
Zigawenga Zachikhalidwe
Panali chizolowezi china chilichonse chamachitidwe ankhondo okhudzana ndi kudalira boma, ndiye kuti gulu lankhondo lolunjika kwa anthu wamba. Kuphulitsa bomba mosasankha kwa mizinda yaku Germany ndi Japan munthawi yomaliza ya Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse inali imodzi mwamavuto akulu kwambiri, koma kulandidwa kwa mizinda yaku Soviet Union, maroketi omwe adawomberedwa m'mizinda yaku England, komanso kuwuka kwa nkhondo zapamadzi zoyenda panyanja zombo zonyamula chakudya ndi zothandiza anthu zopereka kwa anthu wamba zinali zitsanzo zina zotchuka. Komabe mtundu wa 'nkhondo zonyansa' zomwe zidachitika pambuyo pa 9/11 zidakumbutsa uchigawenga waboma ngati gawo lamayendedwe amdima poyesa kuwononga maukonde a al-Qaeda, ndikuwononganso malo omwe amatchedwa zigawenga zapadziko lonse lapansi kapena zigawo kufikira. Monga momwe ntchito zaku America ku Yemen ndi Somalia zikusonyezera, lingaliro loti 'kufikira padziko lonse lapansi' lasinthidwa ndi magulu ankhondo kapena magulu omwe ali ndi chizindikiritso ngakhale zolinga zawo zili m'malire amayiko, osawopseza, posachedwa kapena mwanjira ina, kuti Chitetezo chamayiko aku America ngati chingatengeredwe mderalo.
Mikangano pakati pa kuchitira zigawenga zotsutsana ndi boma ngati njira yoipitsitsa yomwe imayimitsa chitetezo chalamulo pomwe ikunena kuti imachita ziwawa zomwezi ndikulanda malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. Mpaka Cheney / Rumsfeld avomereze nkhondo yachinsinsi mwa kuphedwa, United States sinatsatire kukhazikitsidwa kwa ziwopsezo ku Israeli kuti amenyane ndi zida zankhondo zomwe zidachokera pamithunzi ya malingaliro aku Israeli mpaka kuvomereza kovomerezeka mu 2000 (patadutsa zaka zambiri za disvowal ). Kuphatikiza pa kukhazikitsidwa kwanzeru kwa njira zauchifwamba zofooketsera mdani, pali kuwopseza anthu onse omwe ndi malo owukira ndi ma drone. Ndiye kuti, sikuti ndianthu kapena gulu lokhalo lomwe likufuna, koma chidziwitso chokhala ndi ziwombankhanga zotere, zomwe zimayambitsa nkhawa yayikulu komanso kusokonekera kwakukulu m'madera omwe awukiridwa.[32]
Kupha Koyenera
Malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi okhudzana ndi ufulu wachibadwidwe komanso malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi onena za nkhondo amaletsa kuweruza kwina.[33] Kulimbikira kunanenedwa kuti kuwombera koteroko ndi kovomerezeka ngati chiwopsezo chikuwoneka kuti ndichachikulu komanso chayandikira, malinga ndi kutsata kwachinsinsi, osatsata njira zofufuzira pambuyo pake komanso kuyankha mlandu. Kudalira kachitidwe kotere kovomerezeka pamachitidwe okhudzana ndi nkhondo za drone ndi zochitika zapadera kumawononga mitundu iwiri yamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi: (1) imakhala yopha anthu mopanda lamulo, komanso kutengera kuzindikira kosabwereza kwa boma akuluakulu, kuphatikiza kuyamikiridwa kwamomwe akuwopsezedwera (zomveka zoterezi ndi chimodzi mwa 'tikhulupirireni'); ndipo (2) ikuwononga kwambiri chiletso choloza nzika zomwe sizikugwira ntchito zankhondo, ndipo nthawi yomweyo kumachotsa malingaliro oyenera kuti omwe awapalamula ali ndi ufulu wolingalira kuti ndi osalakwa komanso ali ndi chitetezo.
Zotsatira zake, kusiyanitsa pakati pamilandu yapadziko lonse pakati pa zomwe asitikali ankhondo akuchita komanso zomwe sizankhondo ndiye kuti mphamvu zoyeserera ufulu wachibadwidwe pofuna kuteteza anthu kukhala osalakwa zimanyalanyazidwa. Komanso, zomwe akuti milandu yakupha oweruza milandu imachitidwa pang'ono ndipo poyang'anizana ndi chiwopsezo chomwe chayandikira chifukwa chonena kuti 'kulolera' sikungachitike chifukwa chobisalira ntchito za ma drones, komanso kuwunika kodziyimira pawokha kwamachitidwe enieni a Kugwiritsa ntchito atolankhani ndi ena sikugwirizana ndi zomwe boma lanena zakuti ali ndi udindo. Ndiye kuti, ngakhale kukangana kungavomerezedwe kuti lamulo lankhondo ndi lamulo la ufulu wachibadwidwe liyenera kupendekera poyerekeza ndi ziwopsezo zatsopano zachitetezo, palibe chomwe chikuwonetsa kuti zoponderezazi zakhala zikuchitika. Chikhalidwe cha kuyandikira, ngakhale chimasuliridwa mwachikhulupiriro, chimadziwika kuti ndi chovomerezeka.
Kukulitsa Kudziteteza
Mtsutso wofunikira kwambiri pankhani yankhondo zankhondo za drone ndikuti chifukwa cha kuwopseza komwe anthu andale akuchita pofunafuna zochitika zapadziko lonse lapansi ndipo amapezeka kulikonse ndi kulikonse, njira zoyeserera ziyenera kuvomerezedwa ngati gawo lamphamvu yodzitchinjiriza. Njira zoyeserera potengera kubwezera ngati kulepheretsa kulephera kuli
Zosagwira ntchito, ndipo popeza kuwonongeka kwa anthu omwe siaboma kumawopseza mwamtendere ndi chitetezo cha mayiko okhwima kwambiri, kunyanyala koyambirira ndikofunikira komanso koyenera. Kugonjera kotereku kumakhudza malingaliro owopseza, ndipo momwe amagwiritsidwira ntchito polimbana ndi nkhondo zankhondo, kumachepetsa kuyesayesa konse kochepetsa kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwapadziko lonse lapansi kuti zitsimikizire molondola zodzitchinjiriza zomwe zitha kuwunikiridwa ndikwanzeru komanso molingana ndi njira zina zomwe zikupezeka mu Article 51 ya Msonkhano wa UN. Cholinga chachikulu cha Mgwirizanowu chinali choletsa momwe angatetezere pansi pa malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. Kusiya kwa ntchitoyi kukuyimira kubwerera kosavomerezeka ku njira yoyambira chisanachitike yamalamulo yopititsa kunkhondo ndi mayiko odziyimira pawokha.[34]
Lingaliro la Kubwezera
Chofunikira pamalamulo ankhondo ndi lingaliro lazoyambilira ndikuvomereza mfundo zoyambiranso zomwe zomwe akuti ndizovomerezeka ndi boma lolamulidwa sizingakanidwe kudziko lofooka.[35] United States idakhazikitsa njira yotsutsanayi komanso yoyipa poyesa kuyesa zida zanyukiliya mumlengalenga, polephera kupereka madandaulo pomwe mayiko ena, kuphatikiza France, Soviet Union, ndi China, pambuyo pake adayesa zida zawo, potengera lingaliro lakubwezera. Izi zidachita izi ngakhale pofika nthawi yomwe mayiko ena anali kuyesa mlengalenga United States imangochepetsa kuyesa kwawo m'malo obisika osawononga chilengedwe.
Ndi magwiritsidwe ntchito a drone, komabe, dziko lapansi likhoza kukhala lachisokonezo ngati zomwe United States ikunena kuti ndizovomerezeka pazochita zake ndi ma drones zikuchitidwa ndi mayiko ena kapena magulu andale. Ndizongonena chabe zandale zomwe United States imachita pokhudzana ndi kagwiritsidwe ntchito ka mphamvu zomwe zitha kufotokozedweratu mtsogolo ngati maziko osasunthika padziko lonse lapansi, motero, zikutanthauza kuti kukana malingaliro aku Westphalia azamalamulo mofanana, monga komanso ufulu wamayiko kuti asalowerere ndale poyerekeza ndi mikangano yomwe sali maphwando. Mtsutso wa drone wafika pakadali pano pachikhalidwe chalamulo chomwe chimapangitsa kupatula kwa Amereka kukhala kosavomerezeka. Ndikufalikira kwa zida za drone mtundu uwu wamakondedwe asankhidwa. Malingaliro aku Westphalian olamulidwa ndi mayiko odziyimira pawokha amafunikira kuthana ndi zida zonse za drones kapena kupangitsa kuti azigwiritsa ntchito malo akunkhondo.
Nkhondo Yapadziko Lonse
Mwaulemu, Cold War idasandutsa dziko lonse kukhala bwalo lankhondo lapadziko lonse lapansi, pomwe CIA imayang'anira zochitika zobisika m'maiko akunja ngati gawo limodzi lolimbana ndi kufalikira kwa chikoka cha Chikomyunizimu ('ankhondo opanda malire' kapena mayunifolomu). Pambuyo pa 9/11 mgwirizano wapadziko lonse lapansi udayambitsidwanso momveka bwino, ndikuwunikanso makamaka pachiwopsezo chotetezedwa ndi netiweki ya al Qaeda yomwe idanenedwa kuti ili m'maiko ambiri ngati 60. Pomwe ziwopsezo zimachokera kumagawo omwe sankagwira ntchito, nzeru zachinsinsi, kuyang'anira kwamphamvu, ndikuzindikiritsa anthu owopsa omwe amakhala m'maselo ogona pakati pa anthu wamba kukhala chidwi chachikulu. Maboma akunja, makamaka Pakistan ndi Yemen, akuti adakakamizidwa kuti apereke chilolezo chazisankho zakuwomberana ndi ma drone mdera lawo, zomwe zidawakwiyitsa komanso kuwatsutsa mwa mabomawo. Mitundu iyi ya 'chilolezo' idasokoneza kudziyimira pawokha kwa mayiko ambiri odziyimira pawokha, ndipo idadzetsa kukayikira kwakukulu pamaubale pakati pa boma ndi anthu. Zimadzutsanso mafunso pazomwe zitha kutchedwa 'kuvomerezeka.' Ndizokayikitsa ngati mtundu wovomerezekayo wovomerezeka ukanapereka zifukwa zokwanira zakusokonekera kwa ufulu wandale zamayiko olamulira.
Zonena zaku America zakhala kuti zili ndi mwayi wogwiritsa ntchito ma drones motsutsana ndi zomwe zikuwopseza ngati boma lakunja silikufuna kapena silitha kuchitapo kanthu kuti lichotse chiwopsezocho, potengera zomwe boma likunena kuti boma lili ndi Sitiyenera kulola kuti madera awo agwiritsidwe ntchito ngati poyambira zachiwawa zamayiko ena. Chomwe chikuwonekeratu, komabe, ndikuti kudalirana kwa mikangano padziko lonse lapansi, komanso kuwopseza ndi mayankho, sikukugwirizana ndi malamulo aboma komanso kayendetsedwe kabwino ka dziko lonse lapansi. Ngati lamulo likupitilirabe pansi pa izi, liyeneranso kukhala logwirizana, komanso pali zifukwa zosakwanira zandale zokhazikitsira ndi kupatsa mphamvu machitidwe ndi mabungwe apadziko lonse lapansi okhala ndiulamuliro woyenera.
Zotsatira zake, njira zokhazokha zikuwoneka kuti ndi boma lokhazikika lomwe likupezeka pano, kapena boma lachifumu lapadziko lonse lapansi lomwe limakana mwatsatanetsatane lingaliro la kubwezera komanso lingaliro lamalamulo lofanana pakati pa mayiko odziyimira pawokha. Mpaka pano, palibe imodzi mwanjira izi ku Westphalian yomwe yakhazikitsidwa kapena ingavomerezedwe ngati yalengezedwa. Mayiko ambiri atha kunena kuti, madera achitatu akugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati malo achitetezo a adani. Cuba itha kuyambitsa mkangano wokhudzana ndi United States, ndipo kusalingana kwa mayiko kuposa zoletsa zamalamulo, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti zigawenga zaku Cuba zitheke ku Florida.
Nkhondo Yokha-mbali
Nkhondo za Drone zimabweretsa njira zingapo zankhondo zomwe zilibe chiopsezo cha anthu kumbali yamphamvu kwambiri komanso yotsogola pankhondo, ndipo zatchuka posachedwapa chifukwa cha ziwembu ndi zida zankhondo zomwe Israeli ndi United States agwiritsa ntchito. Chizolowezi cha nkhondo imodzi-imodzi chapangitsa kuti zisunthire zolemetsa zankhondo kwa mdani momwe zingathere. Kusintha koteroko kumawonetsa mtundu wankhondo womwe umafuna kuteteza mbali yake momwe ungathere kuchokera kuimfa ndi chiwonongeko, kwinaku ukuwononga zambiri mbali inayo. Chosiyana kwambiri ndi zomwe zachitika posachedwa pomwe asitikali ankhondo alimbana ndi uchigawenga, malo owonetsera nkhondowo, ndi mbali imodzi ya ziwopsezo. Ntchito zingapo zankhondo zikuwonetsa izi: Gulf War (1991); Nkhondo ya NATO Kosovo (1999); Kuukira kwa Iraq (2003); Nkhondo ya NATO Libya (2011); ndi magulu ankhondo aku Israeli olimbana ndi Lebanon ndi Gaza (2006; 2008-09; 2012; 2014). Kuwonjezeka kwa kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa ma drones ku Afghanistan ndi chitsanzo chomaliza chomenyera nkhondo imodzi, kuchotsapo gulu lankhondo lonse palimodzi, kuchititsa ziwonetsero ndi malamulo ochokera kumalikulu akutali (mwachitsanzo ku Nevada). Kukana kuzunzidwa ngati njira yovomerezeka yankhondo kapena kukhazikitsa malamulo mwanjira ina kumawonetsera kukhala mbali imodzi kwa ubale pakati pa wozunza ndi wozunzidwayo ngati wotsutsa mwamakhalidwe komanso mwalamulo kupatula zifukwa zotsutsana zotsutsa kuti kuzunza sikugwira ntchito komanso kosaloledwa.[36] Zomwe zakhala zikuchitika pankhondo zankhondo za drone zilipo, kuphatikiza malingaliro akuti ufulu ndi mkwiyo wa anthu omwe akuwomberedwa ndi drone zimalimbikitsa kukulitsa mtundu wankhanza wandale womwe drones adatsutsana nawo, komanso kusiyanitsa maboma akunja.
Zachidziwikire, ndikufalikira kwa zida za drone, maubwino a asymmetry amatuluka msanga.
Nkhondo Yamtsogolo ya Drone
Pomwe andale amatanganidwa ndikuyankha zomwe ziwopsezedwa posachedwa, opanga zida ndi Pentagon omwe akukonzekereratu akuyang'ana malire aukadaulo wankhondo za drone. Malirewa ndi ofanana ndi nthano zopeka zasayansi zankhondo zankhondo zopanga zida zapamwamba kwambiri, komanso makina akupha. Pali zotheka za ma drone omwe amatha kuchita zankhondo ndi anthu ochepa, kulumikizana wina ndi mnzake kuti akonze zankhondo zakupha kwa mdani, zomwe zitha kukhala ndi zida zodzitetezera. Kudalira ma drones munkhondo zomwe zikuchitika pakadali pano kuli ndi zotsatira zosapeweka zopereka chidwi ku zomwe zingachitike kukonza magwiridwe antchito ndi kukhazikitsa mishoni zatsopano zankhondo. Kaya mphamvu zaukadaulo zomwe zatulutsidwa zitha kuwongoleredwa kapena kutsekedwa zikuwoneka zokayika, komanso kufananizira ndiukadaulo wankhondo wanyukiliya kuli kophunzitsa. Komabe ndikofunikira kudziwa kuti ma drones amadziwika kuti ndi zida zankhondo, kuphatikiza pazifukwa zamalamulo ndi zamakhalidwe, pomwe zida za nyukiliya zikugwiritsidwa ntchito ngati zosagwiritsidwa ntchito kupatula momwe tingaganizire kuti zitha kupulumuka. Zomwe zakhala zikuchitika posachedwa zikuwonjezera kukambirana zakuphwanya njira zosagwiritsika ntchito zida zanyukiliya pakupanga ndi kukonza zida zanyukiliya zomwe zingagwiritsidwe ntchito polimbana ndi zida za nyukiliya zapansi kapena magulu apanyanja.
Chidziwitso chakumapeto
Mizere inayi yomaliza ikuchokera pakuwunika konseku kwakukhudzidwa kwa nkhondo zankhondo za drone, monga zikuchitidwira ndi United States, pamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi. Choyamba, sizomveka kuchotsa ma drones kunkhondo bola chitetezo cha mayiko chikhazikike munkhondo yodzithandizira. Monga zida zankhondo, popatsidwa ziwopsezo zomwe zimachitika ndi omwe siaboma komanso zokumbukira za 9/11, ma drones amatengedwa ngati zida zofunika. Mulimonsemo, mphamvu zamakono ndi zolimbikitsa zamalonda ndizochuluka kwambiri kuti zisaimitse kupanga ndi kufalikira kwa ma drones.[37] Zotsatira zake, malamulo oyambilira apadziko lonse lapansi omwe amaletsa ngati ma drones osagwirizana ndi zida zachilengedwe komanso zamankhwala, komanso malingaliro okhudzana ndi zida za nyukiliya, sizomveka.
Chachiwiri, zokambirana pazovomerezeka zankhondo yankhondo ya drone zakhala zikuchitika mdziko la America momwe kuwopsa kokhazikitsira zoyambilira komanso kuopsa kwakutsogolo kwamatekinoloje sikunayang'anitsidwe kwenikweni. Mtsutsowu udapeputsidwa chifukwa chochitidwa makamaka pakati pa omwe angaike pambali malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi iwo omwe amawatambasula kuti asinthe kusintha kwazitetezo zadziko pamalingaliro akunja aku America. Mwanjira ina, zoletsa zalamulo zimayikidwa pambali kapena zimamasuliridwa kuti zilole kuti drone igwiritsidwe ntchito ngati zida 'zovomerezeka'.
Chachitatu, kutsutsana pa ma drones kumawoneka ngati konyalanyaza kukula kwadziko lapansi pakupanga nkhondo yapadziko lonse ndikukakamiza kuvomereza kwa maboma akunja. Zomwe zidakhazikitsidwa zikuyenera kudaliridwa ndi ochita zisankho mtsogolo kuti akwaniritse zolinga zotsutsana ndi kukhazikitsa malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. Tekinoloje ya Drone yafalikira kale kumayiko ambiri ngati 100 komanso ochita zisanachitike.
Chachinayi, kukumbatirana kwa zigawenga zakumenyera nkhondo anthu omwe siaboma kumapangitsa nkhondo kukhala mtundu wamantha, ndipo zimapangitsa kuti malire onse azioneka ngati oponderezana, kapena opanda pake.
Ndi pazomwezi kuti zotsutsana zotsutsana zimayikidwa patsogolo kuti nkhondo ya drone ndi, ndipo ikuyenera kukhala yowononga kwambiri malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi komanso dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi kuposa nkhondo yankhondo. Kukangana koteroko sikutanthauza kuti kudalira zida za nyukiliya kungakhale kwabwino mtsogolo mwa anthu kuposa kuvomereza lingaliro la kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwa ma drone. Kungonena kuti pakadali pano, mulimonsemo, malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ndi dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi zatha kupeza maboma ogwirizana a zoletsa zida zanyukiliya zomwe zasunga mtendere, koma sanathe kutero chifukwa cha ma drones, ndi sizingatheke kutero malinga ngati lingaliro lankhondo lankhondo zonyansa likuloledwa kuwongolera kukhazikitsidwa kwa mfundo zachitetezo zadziko ku United States ndi kwina kulikonse. Tachedwa kwambiri, ndipo mwina sizinali zopanda pake nthawi zonse, kulingalira za boma lomwe silinali kuchuluka kwa ukadaulo wa drone.
[*] Mutu wosinthidwa wofalitsidwa ku Marjorie Cohn, ed., Drones ndi Kupha Woteledwa (Northampton, MA, 2015).
[1] Koma onani kafukufuku womaliza yemwe akuwonetsa motsimikiza kuti kupewa nkhondo ya zida za nyukiliya inali nkhani yamwayi kuposa kudziletsa. Martin J. Sherwin, Wachinyamata Kutchova juga ndi Aramagedo: Nuclear Roulette kuchokera ku Hiroshima kupita ku Combo Chaku Cuba
Mavuto, 1945-1962 (Knopf, 2020).
[2] Pogwira ntchito yapadziko lonse lapansi, onani Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: Kafukufuku wa dongosolo mu ndale zadziko lonse (Columbia Univ. Press, 2nd Mkonzi., 1995); Robert O. Keohane, Pambuyo pa Hegemony: Mgwirizano ndi kusamvana pazachuma padziko lonse lapansi (Princeton Univ. Press, 1984); dongosolo lolunjika padziko lonse lapansi likuwonetsa kusalingana kwa mayiko, komanso gawo lapadera lomwe mayiko ambiri akuchita; Mzere wopingasa umaphatikizapo kukhazikitsidwa kwa chilungamo pakati pa mayiko omwe ndiwo maziko amalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi. Zoletsa zoyambilira zitha kuphatikizira kuletsa zida za nyukiliya komanso njira zotsimikizira zida zomwe zimachotsa zida za nyukiliya. Pazifukwa zakulephera kwa zokambirana kuti zitheke zovuta zoyambirira, onani Richard Falk & David Krieger, Njira Yopita ku Zero: zokambirana pazowopsa za nyukiliya (Paradigm, 2012); Richard Falk & Robert Jay Lifton, Zida Zosadziwika: Mlandu wamaganizidwe ndi ndale wotsutsana ndi zida za zida zankhondo (Basic Books, 1982); Jonathan Schell, Tsogolo la Dziko Lapansi (Knopf, 1982); EP Thompson, Beyond the Cold War: Mpikisano watsopano wamiyendo ndikuwononga kwanyukiliya (Pantheon, 1982). Onaninso Stefan Andersson, ed., Pa Zida za Nyukiliya: Denuclearization, Demilitarization and Disarmament: Writing Writing of Richard Falk (Cambridge University Press, 2019).
[3] Pazikhulupiriro zoyeserera zomwe zidatenga gawo pa Cold War, ngakhale malinga ndi a John Mearsheimer, kuletsa nkhondo yachitatu yapadziko lonse. Za malingaliro apadziko lonse omwe amavomereza zowona zandale zoterezi, onani Mearsheimer, Tsoka la ndale zazikulu zamphamvu (Norton, 2001); onaninso Matendawa, Back kuti M'tsogolo, Chitetezo Chadziko Lonse 15 (Na. 1): 5-56 (1990). Ndizowona kuti kumadera ena akutali ndi apakatikati, zida za nyukiliya zitha kugwira ntchito yofananira ndikukhazikitsa gawo ladziko lapansi. Palinso gawo lomwe zida zanyukiliya zidachita poopseza zokambirana zomwe akatswiri ambiri adazifufuza. Onani Alexander George & Willima Simons, eds., Malire a Zokakamiza Zokakamiza, (Westview Press, 2nd Mkonzi., 1994). Olemba ena adakankhira kuzinthu zowopsya zoopsa kuti apeze njira zopezera mwayi wopambana waku America pazida zanyukiliya. Onani Henry Kissinger, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy (Doubleday, 1958); Herman Kahn, Pa Thermonuclear War (Princeton Univ. Press, 1960).
[4] Ulamuliro woyendetsa zida zankhondo, ngakhale ali ndi malingaliro oyang'anira, wakhala akukana zoletsa zilizonse pazoyesa kunyanyala koyamba, motero amatipatsa kukayikira zamakhalidwe ndi zopereka zothandizirana ndi zoletsa zachiwirizi.
[5] Boma lomwe silikuchulukitsa, lomwe lili mu Pangano la Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) (729 UNTS 10485), ndichofunikira kwambiri pakukhazikika, kulola mayiko okhawo kuti azisunga zida za nyukiliya, ndipo ndiye njira yayikulu yomwe zovuta zachiwiri zidatenga. Ndikofunikira kudziwa kuti Khothi Lachilungamo Padziko Lonse mu Upangiri Wake Wofunika mu 1996 lidapereka lingaliro loti ambiri angagwiritse ntchito zida za nyukiliya movomerezeka, pokhapokha ngati kupulumuka kwa boma kuli pachiwopsezo. Mwa zomwe zikuwoneka ngati zopanda pake oweruza adagwirizana pakukhulupirira kuti zida za zida za nyukiliya zili ndi lamulo lovomerezeka ku Art VI ya NPT kuti azichita nawo zokambirana zachikhulupiriro, posonyeza kuti pakhale lamulo lamalamulo lomwe silikhala ndi vuto lililonse . Zida za nyukiliya, koposa zonse ku United States, zawona mawu odalirika awa onena za kutsatira malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi ngati osafunikira pamalingaliro awo pankhani yazida zanyukiliya mu mfundo zachitetezo cha dziko.
[6] Purezidenti Obama kumayambiriro kwa utsogoleri wake adapereka chiyembekezo kwa iwo omwe anali atafuna kale kuthana ndi zida za nyukiliya pomwe amalankhula za dziko lopanda zida za nyukiliya, koma adabisa mawu ake owonerera ndi ziyeneretso zobisika zomwe zidapangitsa kuti zisapite patali kwambiri. Onani Purezidenti Barack Obama, Ndemanga za Purezidenti Barack Obama ku Prague (Epulo 5, 2009); owona ufulu akuumiriza kuti kulanda zida zanyukiliya ndichinthu chofunikira, koma sikuyenera kuchitika chifukwa cha mikangano yapadziko lonse yomwe sinathe. Sizikudziwikanso kuti ndi nthawi iti yomwe ingakhale yoyenera, yomwe imakhala ndi malingaliro oyenera omwe amalepheretsa mfundo zokakamiza pamalamulo, mwalamulo, komanso ndale pazankhondo zanyukiliya. Pazinthu zofananira zowoneka bwino kwambiri, onani Michael O'Hanlon, Mlandu Wokayikira Nkhani Zanyukiliya (Brookings, 2010).
[7] Mwa zina, onani Robert Jay Lifton, Superpower Syndrome: Nkhondo yaku America yodana ndi dziko lapansi (Nation Books, 2002); kuvomereza monyinyirika zida zanyukiliya, onani Joseph Nye, Nuclear Ethics (Free Press, 1986).
[8] Pali magawo awiri okhudzana ndi zandale zapadziko lonse lapansi - miyambo yaku Kantian yokayikira zamalamulo apadziko lonse lapansi, koma kutsimikiza kwamakhalidwe apadziko lonse lapansi, motsutsana ndi chikhalidwe cha a Machiavelli cha machitidwe owerengera komanso odzikonda omwe amakana zamakhalidwe komanso oyang'anira mwalamulo pakuchita boma ndale. Yemwe anali mtsogoleri wamasiku ano wa Machiavellian anali Henry Kissinger, njira yovomerezeka monyadira ku Kissinger, Dipatimenti Yokambirana (Simon & Schuster, 1994).
[9] Ngakhale amatenga nawo mbali pazochitika zonse zadziko lonse lapansi, ochita zosagwirizana ndi boma amakhalabe kunja kwa magulu andale aku Westphalian omwe amaletsa mamembala ku United Nations komanso mabungwe ambiri padziko lonse lapansi kukhala mayiko olamulira.
[10] Kwa malingaliro kuti malamulo apadziko lonse lapansi komanso malamulo ankhondo nthawi zambiri amakhala zopatsa chidwi paumoyo wa anthu popeza zimapangitsa nkhondo kukhala bungwe lovomerezeka, onani Richard Wasserstrom, ed., Nkhondo ndi Makhalidwe Abwino (Wadsworth, 1970); onaninso Raymond Aron, Mtendere ndi Nkhondo: Chiphunzitso chamgwirizano wapadziko lonse lapansi (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1966); Richard Falk, Lamulo Lamulo M'dziko Lachiwawa (Princeton Univ. Press, 1968).
[11] Chiaroscuro nthawi zambiri amatanthauzidwa ngati chithandizo cha kuwala ndi mdima penti; M'lingaliro lomwe lagwiritsidwa ntchito pano limatanthawuza kusiyanasiyana kwa kuwala ndi mdima m'malingaliro a gawo lapadziko lonse la America.
[12] Utsogoleri wandale zadziko umavomerezedwa ndi zisankho zaulere, malamulo, dongosolo, chitukuko monga momwe zimayesedwa ndi kuchuluka kwa kukula, ndi luso lotsogola, kuphatikiza kulumikizana ndi anthu, ndipo chachiwiri pokhapokha pakukhulupirika pamalamulo ndi pamakhalidwe. Kuwona koteroko kumakhala kolondola kwambiri akagwiritsa ntchito mfundo zakunja, komanso makamaka, ngati nkhondo ipambana.
[13] Pofotokozera zachikale, onani Reinhold Niebuhr, Ana a Kuunika ndi Ana a Mdima (Scribers, 1960).
[14] Onani Kissinger & Kahn, Dziwani 2, yemwe, mwa ena, adatsutsana mu Cold War ponena kuti zida za nyukiliya ndizofunikira monga cholakwikirira boma la Soviet Union poteteza Europe, ndikuti mtengo wamunthu ndi thupi m'deralo nkhondo ya zida za nyukiliya inali mtengo wovomerezeka kulipira. Izi zikuwonetsera kukokomeza komwe oganiza zenizeni adakonzeka kuti achite m'malo mwa zolinga zabwino.
[15] Purezidenti Barack Obama, Ndemanga za Purezidenti ku National Defense University (Meyi 23, 2013) (zolembedwa zikupezeka pa http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/05/23/remark-president-national -chitetezo-yunivesite).
[16] H. Bruce Franklin, Crash Course: Kuyambira Nkhondo Yabwino Kufikira Nkhondo Yosatha (Rutgers University Press, 2018).
[17] Lisa Hajjar, Kutengera kwa Ndondomeko Yopha Kupha Yaku US, MERIP 264 (2012).
[18] Obama, supra ndemanga 14.
[19] Mwachitsanzo, palibe kulingalira zakusokonekera kwa mafuko, monga ku Pakistan, pogwiritsa ntchito ma drones kapena 'blowback' m'maiko monga Pakistan kuchokera pazomwe zimawoneka kuti ndi kuphwanya ufulu wa mayiko. Pazithunzi zofunikira zakukhudzidwa kwa nkhondo za drone m'magulu amitundu, onani Akbar Ahmed, The Thistle ndi Drone: Momwe nkhondo yaku America yolimbana ndi uchigawenga idasandukira nkhondo yapadziko lonse lapansi pa Chisilamu cha mafuko (Brookings Inst. Press2013); pakuwunika konse kwa mtengo wobwezera kudalira ma drones, onani Scahill, Nkhondo Zakuda: Dziko lapansi ngati bwalo lankhondo (Nation Books, 2013); mofananamo, onani Mark Mazzetti, Njira ya Mpeni: CIA, gulu lankhondo lachinsinsi, komanso nkhondo kumalekezero adziko lapansi (Penguin, 2013).
[20] Pamaso pa Brennan, anali Harold Koh, Mlangizi Wamalamulo kwa Secretary of State, yemwe adakhazikitsa lamulo loti azidalira ma drones mu adilesi yomwe idaperekedwa ku American Society of International Law, Marichi 25, 2010.
[21] John Brennan, Ndondomeko ndi Zochita pa Obama Administration (Seputembara 16, 2012).
[22] Obama, supra ndemanga 14.
[23] Onani Jeremy Scahill pa zomwe sanamuimbire mlandu al-Awlaki, Onani 17.
[24] Obama, supra ndemanga 14.
[25] Supra ndemanga 19.
[26] Kumanani ndi Atolankhani: Dick Cheney (Wailesi yakanema ya NBC Sep. 16, 2001), ilipo http://www.fromthewilderness.com/timeline/2001/meetthepress091601.html.
[27] Zolemba ndi ndemanga zakuzunza panthawi ya purezidenti wa Bush, onani David Cole, ed., Memor The Torture Memos: Kulingalira Zomwe Sizingaganizidwe (New Press, 2009).
[28] Onani Scahill, Onani 17, loc. 1551.
[29] Jane Mayer, Mdima Wamdima (Doubleday, 2008); onaninso Nthawi ya Laleh Khalili mu Shadows: Kuphatikizidwa munthawi zina (Stanford Univ. Press, 2013).
[30] Pachifukwa ichi, tiyenera kudziwa kuti Richard Perle, wanzeru kwambiri mdziko la Philippines la neocons adatchedwa 'kalonga wamdima,' yemwe adamuwona atolankhani ngati gawo loseketsa, gawo lotsutsana, komanso gawo lina ulemu chifukwa cha mphamvu.
[31] Kuti tifufuze motere, onani Sheldon Wolin, Demokalase Yophatikizidwa: Demokalase Yoyendetsedwa ndi Specter of Totalitarianism (Princeton Univ. Press, 2008).
[32] Kuti mumve zambiri, onani Ahmed, Zindikirani 17.
[33] Pambuyo pa milandu ya Tchalitchi ndi Pike DRM m'ma 1970, maulamuliro angapo adaperekedwa ndi purezidenti wotsatizana waku America oletsa kuphedwa kwa mtsogoleri wandale zakunja. Onani Executive Orders 11905 (1976), 12036 (1978), ndi 12333 (1981) kuti ikhazikitsidwe. Kuphedwa kwa Drone kumatengedwa ngati mbali yankhondo m'malo mongophedwa malinga ndi oyang'anira, koma ngati mfundozo ndizogwirizana sizinayankhidwe bwino.
[34] Zowona bwino, kudalira njira yankhondo yomenyera nkhondo ndikubwerera kunkhondo ngati ndale zadziko lonse lisanakhazikitsidwe Kellogg-Briand Pact (yemwenso amadziwika kuti Pact of Paris) ku 1928, yomwe imadziwika kuti " kukana nkhondo ngati chida chogwiritsa ntchito mfundo zadziko. ”
[35] Onani David Cole, Chilolezo Chinsinsi Chakupha, NYR Blog (Sep 19, 2011, 5:30 PM), http://www.nybooks.com/blogs/nyrblog/2011/sep/19/secret-license-kill/.
[36] Kufotokozera, onani Richard Falk, Kuzunzidwa, Nkhondo, ndi Malire Amilandu Ovomerezeka, in United States ndi Kuzunzidwa: Kufunsidwa, Kumangidwa, ndi Kuzunzidwa 119 (Marjorie Cohn ed., NYU Press, 2011).
[37] Zokambirana zothandiza ndi zolembedwa, onani Medea Benjamin, Drone Warfare: Kupha pogwiritsa ntchito njira yakutali (Verso, rev. Ed., 2013).
