Wolemba Nick Buxton, Bungwe la Transnational, October 12, 2021
Pali zofuna zandale zachitetezo cha nyengo monga yankho pazochulukirachulukira zakusintha kwanyengo, koma kusanthula pang'ono pamtundu wa chitetezo chomwe amapereka komanso kwa ndani. Izi zikuwonetsa kutsutsana - kuwonetsa udindo wankhondo pakuyambitsa mavuto azanyengo, kuopsa kwawo komwe kumapereka mayankho ankhondo pazovuta zanyengo, mabungwe omwe amapindula nawo, zomwe zimakhudza omwe ali pachiwopsezo chachikulu, ndi malingaliro ena a 'chitetezo' kutengera chilungamo.
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1. Kodi chitetezo cha nyengo ndi chiyani?
Chitetezo cha nyengo ndi njira yandale komanso mfundo zomwe zimawunikira momwe kusintha kwanyengo kukukhudzira chitetezo. Zikuyembekeza kuti nyengo yoipa kwambiri komanso kusakhazikika kwanyengo chifukwa chokwera kwa mpweya wowonjezera kutentha (GHGs) zitha kusokoneza machitidwe azachuma, chikhalidwe ndi chilengedwe - motero kusokoneza chitetezo. Mafunso ndi awa: chitetezo ichi chikukhudza ndani komanso mtundu wanji?
Chofunikira kwambiri pakufuna 'chitetezo cha nyengo' kumachokera ku chitetezo champhamvu chamayiko ndi zida zankhondo, makamaka mayiko olemera. Izi zikutanthauza kuti chitetezo chimadziwika malinga ndi 'ziwopsezo' zomwe zimachitika pamagulu awo ankhondo ndi 'chitetezo cha dziko', mawu ophatikizira onse omwe kwenikweni amatanthauza mphamvu zachuma komanso ndale zadziko.
M'njira imeneyi, chitetezo cha nyengo chimayang'ana zomwe zikuwoneka mwachindunji kuopseza chitetezo cha dziko, monga momwe zimakhudzira magulu ankhondo - mwachitsanzo, kukwera kwa nyanja kumakhudza magulu ankhondo kapena kutentha kwambiri kumalepheretsa gulu lankhondo. Imayang'ananso pa mosadziwika zoopseza, kapena momwe kusintha kwa nyengo kungakulitsire mikangano yomwe ilipo, mikangano ndi ziwawa zomwe zitha kufalikira kapena kuwononga mayiko ena. Izi zikuphatikiza kuyambika kwa 'zisudzo' zatsopano zankhondo, monga ku Arctic komwe kusungunuka kwa ayezi kumatsegulira chuma chatsopano ndikulimbana kwakukulu pakati pamaulamuliro akulu. Kusintha kwanyengo kumatanthauzidwa ngati 'kuchulukitsa chiwopsezo' kapena 'chothandizira mikangano'. Nkhani zachitetezo cha nyengo nthawi zambiri zimayembekezera, malinga ndi lingaliro la US department of Defense, 'nthawi yakumenyana kosalekeza ... malo achitetezo okhala ndi zovuta zambiri komanso osadalirika kuposa momwe zidachitikira pa Cold War'.
Chitetezo cha nyengo chakhala chikuphatikizidwa munjira zachitetezo cha dziko, ndipo chalandiridwa kwambiri ndi mabungwe apadziko lonse lapansi monga United Nations ndi mabungwe ake apadera, komanso mabungwe aboma, maphunziro ndi atolankhani. Mu 2021 mokha, Purezidenti Biden yalengeza zakusintha kwanyengo kukhala patsogolo pachitetezo cha dziko, NATO idapanga dongosolo lachitetezo cha nyengo ndi chitetezo, UK idalengeza kuti ikupita ku 'chitetezo chokonzekera nyengo', United Nations Security Council idachita zokambirana pamilingo yayikulu pankhani zanyengo ndi chitetezo, ndipo chitetezo cha nyengo chikuyembekezeka kukhala chinthu chofunikira kwambiri pamsonkhano wa COP26 mu Novembala.
Pomwe izi zikuwunika, kukhazikitsa zovuta zanyengo ngati vuto lachitetezo ndizovuta kwambiri chifukwa zimalimbitsa njira zankhondo pakusintha kwanyengo zomwe zitha kukulitsa kupanda chilungamo kwa iwo omwe akhudzidwa kwambiri ndivuto lomwe likubweralo. Kuopsa kwa mayankho achitetezo ndikuti, mwakutanthauzira, amafuna kupeza zomwe zilipo - zosavomerezeka. Kuyankha kwachitetezo kumawoneka ngati 'kuopseza' aliyense amene angasokoneze zomwe zikuchitika, monga othawa kwawo, kapena omwe amatsutsa izi, monga olimbikitsa nyengo. Zimaperekanso njira zina zothandizirana pakusakhazikika. Chilungamo chanyengo, mosiyana ndi izi chimafuna kuti titembenukire ndikusintha machitidwe azachuma omwe adayambitsa kusintha kwanyengo, ndikuika patsogolo madera omwe amakhala patsogolo pamavuto ndikuyika mayankho awo patsogolo.
2. Kodi chitetezo chanyengo chakhala bwanji patsogolo pankhani zandale?
Chitetezo cha nyengo chimakhala ndi mbiri yayitali yakukambirana zachitetezo cha chilengedwe m'maphunziro ndi kupanga mfundo, zomwe kuyambira zaka za m'ma 1970 ndi 1980 zawunikanso kulumikizana kwachilengedwe ndi mikangano ndipo nthawi zina zimakakamiza ochita zisankho kuti aphatikize zovuta zachilengedwe munjira zachitetezo.
Chitetezo cha nyengo chidalowa mgululi - komanso chitetezo chamayiko - mu 2003, ndi kafukufuku wopangidwa ndi Pentagon wolemba Peter Schwartz, wokonza mapulani a Royal Dutch Shell, ndi Doug Randall waku California-based Global Business Network. Iwo anachenjeza kuti kusintha kwa nyengo kungayambitse Mibadwo Yamdima yatsopano: 'Pamene njala, matenda, ndi masoka okhudzana ndi nyengo akuchitika chifukwa cha kusintha kwanyengo mwadzidzidzi, zosowa zamayiko ambiri zipitilira mphamvu zawo. Izi zitha kupanga kukhumudwa, komwe kumatha kuyambitsa chisokonezo kuti tibwezeretse bata ... Zisokonezo ndi mikangano ndizomwe zitha kukhala m'moyo '. Chaka chomwecho, osalankhula mopanda tanthauzo, European Union (EU) 'European Security Strategy' idalimbikitsa kusintha kwanyengo ngati nkhani yachitetezo.
Kuyambira pamenepo chitetezo cha nyengo chakhala chikuphatikizidwa pakupanga zodzitchinjiriza, kuwunika kwaukazitape, ndi mapulani aukadaulo a mayiko ochulukirachulukira kuphatikiza US, UK, Australia, Canada, Germany, New Zealand ndi Sweden komanso EU. Zimasiyana ndi mapulani amachitidwe akumayiko akumayiko ena omwe akuyang'ana kwambiri zankhondo komanso zachitetezo cha dziko.
Kwa mabungwe ankhondo ndi achitetezo achitetezo, kusintha kwanyengo kumawonetsera chikhulupiliro chakuti wokonza mapulani aliwonse amatha kuwona kuti zikukulirakulira ndipo zikhudza gawo lawo. Asitikali ndi amodzi mwamabungwe omwe amachita kukonzekera kwanthawi yayitali, kuwonetsetsa kuti ikupitilizabe kuchita nawo mikangano, ndikukhala okonzeka kusintha komwe akuchita. Amakondanso kuwunika zochitika zomwe sizingachitike - zomwe zingakhale zopindulitsa pankhani yokhudza kusintha kwa nyengo.
Secretary of Defense wa US a Lloyd Austin adafotokozera mwachidule mgwirizano wankhondo waku US pankhani zakusintha kwanyengo mu 2021: 'Tikukumana ndi vuto lakukula kwanyengo lomwe likuwopseza mautumiki, malingaliro, ndi kuthekera kwathu. Kuchokera pakuwonjezereka kwa mpikisano ku Arctic mpaka kusamuka kwakukulu ku Africa ndi Central America, kusintha kwanyengo kumapangitsa kuti pakhale kusakhazikika ndikutiyendetsa kumishoni yatsopano '.
Zowonadi, kusintha kwanyengo kwakhudza kale asitikali. Lipoti la Pentagon la 2018 lidawulula kuti theka la malo ankhondo a 3,500 anali kukumana ndi zovuta zisanu ndi chimodzi zam'magulu azanyengo, monga kuwomba kwamkuntho, moto wolusa komanso chilala.
Izi zomwe zimachitika pakusintha kwanyengo komanso kukonzekera kwakanthawi kwatsekereza chitetezo chamayiko pamikangano yambiri ndikukana zakusintha kwanyengo. Zinatanthawuza kuti ngakhale panthawi ya utsogoleri wa a Trump, asitikali adapitilizabe ndi mapulani ake achitetezo chanyengo kwinaku akuseweretsa izi pagulu, kuti asakhale ndodo ya mphezi kwa okana.
Cholinga cha chitetezo chadziko pokhudzana ndi kusintha kwa nyengo chikuyendetsedwanso ndikutsimikiza mtima kwake kuti athe kuwongolera zoopsa ndi zoopsa zilizonse, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti ikufuna kuphatikiza mbali zonse zachitetezo cha boma kuti ichite izi. Izi zapangitsa kuti kuwonjezeka kwa ndalama zothandizira kukakamiza konse kwa boma kwa zaka makumi angapo. Katswiri wazachitetezo Paul Rogers, Pulofesa wa Emeritus wa Peace Study ku University of Bradford, akuti njirayi 'liddism(ndiye kuti, kusunga chivundikiro pazinthu) - njira yomwe ili 'yofalikira komanso yophatikizika, yophatikizira kuyesetsa mwamphamvu kukhazikitsa njira zatsopano ndi matekinoloje omwe angathetsere mavuto ndikuwachepetsa'. Izi zikuyenda bwino kuyambira 9/11 ndikuwonekera kwa ukadaulo waluso, zalimbikitsa mabungwe achitetezo mdziko lonse kuti ayang'anire, kuyembekezera komanso kuwongolera zochitika zonse.
Ngakhale mabungwe achitetezo adziko akutsogolera zokambiranazi ndikukhazikitsa mfundo zachitetezo cha nyengo, palinso kuchuluka kwamabungwe omwe si asirikali komanso mabungwe azachikhalidwe omwe amalimbikitsa chidwi chachitetezo cha nyengo. Izi zikuphatikiza malingaliro amayiko akunja monga Brookings Institute ndi Council on Foreign Relations (US), International Institute for Strategic Study ndi Chatham House (UK), Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Clingendael (Netherlands), French Institute for International and Strategic Affairs, Adelphi (Germany) ndi Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Yemwe akutsogolera kuteteza zanyengo padziko lonse lapansi ndi US-Center of Climate and Security (CCS), bungwe lofufuzira lomwe limalumikizana kwambiri ndi gulu lankhondo ndi chitetezo komanso chipani cha Democratic. Ambiri mwa mabungwewa adalumikizana ndi akuluakulu ankhondo kuti apange International Military Council on Climate and Security ku 2019.
Chithunzi chojambulidwa Ntchito ya boma ya National Guard / United Nations
Mawerengedwe Anthawi a Njira Zotetezera Nyengo
- 2003: Kusintha Kwadzidzidzi Kwanyengo ndi Zomwe Zimakhudza Chitetezo Cha Dziko la United States. Pepala loyambirira la Pentagon lomwe limaneneratu zochitika zakusintha kwanyengo komanso momwe zingakhudzire chitetezo chadziko. Zikuwoneka ngati zikulephera koma kuyika malingaliro amnjira zamtsogolo.
- 2007: Zaka Zotsatira: Ndondomeko Zakunja ndi Kutetezedwa Kwadziko Pazosintha Kwanyengo Padziko Lonse. Lipoti lotsogola, lopangidwa ndi akatswiri ankhondo komanso otsogola, akatswiri azamayiko akunja komanso omwe amakhala mkati mwa Democratic, omwe adafotokozera zomwe zingachitike chifukwa chakuchepa kwa kutentha kwapadziko lonse kwa 1.3 ° C, 2.6 ° C, ndi 5.6 ° C.
- 2008: Kusintha Kwanyengo ndi Chitetezo Padziko Lonse. EU ikutsatira kutsogolera kwa US pakulengeza zakusintha kwanyengo ngati 'zochulukitsa zoopsa' zomwe ziziwonjezera mikangano ndi mikangano komanso kusakhazikika komwe kumabweretsa mavuto andale ndi chitetezo omwe amakhudza zofuna za Europe.
- 2008: Zochitika Padziko Lonse 2025: Dziko Losinthidwa (DNI). National Intelligence Council imazindikira kusintha kwa nyengo, komanso kusintha kwa maiko, kuchuluka kwa anthu komanso kusintha kwa mphamvu, ngati zomwe zimapangitsa dziko lakusowa ndi kusakhazikika.
- 2010 ndi 2014: Kubwereza Quadrennial Defense. QDR ya 2010 idazindikira 'chitetezo champhamvu ndikusintha kwanyengo' ngati imodzi mwazinthu zinayi zomwe zikufunika kuchitapo kanthu, ponena kuti kusintha kwanyengo kudzakhala ngati `` kuthamanga kwachisokonezo kapena mikangano, kuyika cholemetsa kuyankha mabungwe azankhondo komanso ankhondo padziko lonse lapansi ''.
- 2015: UK Njira Yachitetezo Cha Dziko ndi Kukonzekera Kwachitetezo ndi Chitetezo. Imayitanitsa kusintha kwanyengo dalaivala wosakhazikika.
- 2016: White Paper pa Germany Security Policy komanso Tsogolo la Bundeswehr.
- 2016: Pepala Loyimira Chitetezo ku Australia akuti kusintha kwa nyengo kumachulukitsa chiopsezo ndipo kumaneneratu kusakhazikika m'maiko aku South Pacific.
- 2018: Ndondomeko Yoteteza Ku New Zealand.
- 2020: EU Kusintha Kwanyengo ndi Njira Zachitetezo. Imawunika momwe ntchito za EU zingagwiritsire ntchito nyengo ikakhala yovuta ndipo zimalimbikitsa kuphatikiza kophatikizana pakusintha kwanyengo ndi zochitika zachilengedwe pakukonzekera ndikukwaniritsa utumwi wa EU.
- 2021: Unduna wa Zachitetezo ku UK Kusintha Kwanyengo ndi Njira Zokhazikika. Wopangidwa ngati gawo lazodzikweza la pre-COP26 la boma la UK, limalimbikitsa mabungwe achitetezo aku UK kuti azitenga nawo gawo pothana ndi kusintha kwanyengo komanso ngozi.
- 2021: NATO Kusintha Kwanyengo ndi Ntchito Yachitetezo. Akupanga njira zowunikira kuwonongeka kwa nyengo ndikukonzekera chuma ndi momwe zingagwiritsire ntchito kusintha kwa nyengo, komanso malonjezo ofooka othetsa mpweya wa asitikali ankhondo.
3. Kodi mabungwe achitetezo akukonzekera bwanji ndikusintha nyengo?
Mabungwe achitetezo adziko, makamaka ankhondo ndi akazitape, a mayiko olemera otukuka akukonzekera kusintha kwanyengo m'njira ziwiri zikuluzikulu: kufufuza ndikulosera zamtsogolo zowopsa ndi zoopseza kutengera zochitika zosiyanasiyana zakutentha; ndikukwaniritsa zolinga zakusintha kwanyengo yankhondo. US ikukhazikitsa njira zakukonzekera zachitetezo cha nyengo, chifukwa cha kukula kwake ndi ulamuliro wake (US amawononga ndalama zambiri podzitchinjiriza kuposa mayiko 10 otsatira akuphatikizidwa).
1. Kufufuza ndi kuneneratu zamtsogolo
Izi zikuphatikiza mabungwe onse achitetezo, makamaka ankhondo ndi anzeru, kuti awunikire zomwe zingachitike ndi zomwe zikuyembekezeredwa pamphamvu zankhondo zadziko, zomangamanga ndi momwe zinthu zilili mdziko muno. Chakumapeto kwa udindo wake mu 2016, Purezidenti Obama adapita patsogolo kulangiza madipatimenti ake onse ndi mabungwe ake 'kuwonetsetsa kuti zovuta zokhudzana ndi kusintha kwa nyengo zikuwunikiridwa mokwanira pakukhazikitsa chiphunzitso chachitetezo cha dziko, mfundo zake, ndi mapulani ake'. Mwanjira ina, kupangitsa dongosolo lachitetezo cha dziko kukhala lofunikira pakapangidwe kake konse kanyengo. Izi zidabwezedwanso ndi a Trump, koma Biden adatenga pomwe Obama adasiyira, ndikuuza Pentagon kuti igwirizane ndi department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, Director of National Intelligence, Office of Science Ndondomeko ya Ukadaulo ndi mabungwe ena kuti apange Kalingaliridwe Kowopsa Kwanyengo.
Zipangizo zosiyanasiyana zimagwiritsidwa ntchito, koma pakukonzekera kwakanthawi, asitikali akhala akudalira kwanthawi yayitali pogwiritsa ntchito zitsanzo kuwunika zamtsogolo mosiyanasiyana ndikuwunika ngati dzikolo lingathe kuthana ndi zovuta zosiyanasiyana. Mphamvu ya 2008 Zaka Zotsatira: Ndondomeko Zakunja ndi Kutetezedwa Kwadziko Pazosintha Kwanyengo Padziko Lonse lipotilo ndi chitsanzo pofotokozera zochitika zitatu pazomwe zingakhudze chitetezo cha dziko la US kutengera kuwonjezeka kwa kutentha kwapadziko lonse kwa 1.3 ° C, 2.6 ° C, ndi 5.6 ° C. Zochitika izi zimakhudza kafukufuku wamaphunziro - monga Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ya sayansi ya nyengo - komanso malipoti anzeru. Kutengera ndi izi, asitikali amakonza mapulani ndi njira ndipo akuyamba Phatikizani kusintha kwanyengo muzitsanzo zake, kuyerekezera komanso masewera amasewera pankhondo. Mwachitsanzo, US European Command ikukonzekera kulumikizana kwandale komanso mikangano yomwe ingachitike ku Arctic pamene madzi oundana asungunuka, kulola kuboola mafuta ndikutumiza maiko akunja kuderali kukwera. Ku Middle East, US Central Command yakhazikitsa kusowa kwa madzi mu mapulani ake amtsogolo.
Maiko ena olemera atsatiranso zomwezo, kutsatira malingaliro aku US pakuwona kusintha kwanyengo ngati 'kowonjezera kuopseza' kwinaku akugogomezera mbali zosiyanasiyana. Mwachitsanzo, EU, yomwe ilibe lamulo loteteza mayiko ake 27, ikugogomezera kufunikira kofufuzira, kuwunika ndi kusanthula, kuphatikiza njira zam'madera ndi mapulani azokambirana ndi oyandikana nawo, kulimbikitsa kuthana ndi mavuto komanso kuyankha pakagwa masoka maluso, ndikulimbikitsa kasamalidwe ka kusamuka. Ndondomeko ya Unduna wa Zachitetezo ku UK 2021 yakhazikitsa cholinga chake chachikulu 'kuti athe kumenya nkhondo ndikupambana m'malo okhala ankhanza komanso osakhululukirana', komanso akufunitsitsa kutsindika mgwirizano ndi mgwirizano wapadziko lonse lapansi.
2. Kukonzekera gulu lankhondo kuti lisinthe nyengo
Monga gawo lakukonzekera kwake, asitikali akufunanso kuwonetsetsa kuti ikuyenda bwino mtsogolomo chifukwa cha nyengo yoipa komanso kukwera kwamadzi. Ichi sichinthu chaching'ono. Asitikali aku US yapeza mabwalo 1,774 omwe akukwera chifukwa cha kukwera kwamadzi. Malo amodzi, Norfolk Naval Station ku Virginia, ndi amodzi mwamalo akuluakulu achitetezo apadziko lonse lapansi ndipo amasefukira chaka chilichonse.
Komanso kufuna kusintha malo ake, US ndi asitikali ankhondo ena mumgwirizano wa NATO nawonso afunitsitsa kuwonetsa kudzipereka kwawo ku 'kuyatsa' malo ndi ntchito zawo. Izi zapangitsa kuti pakhale kuyika kwakukulu kwamagetsi oyendetsera dzuwa kuma bwalo ankhondo, mafuta ena otumizira ndi zida zamagetsi zomwe zingagwiritsidwenso ntchito. Boma la Britain lati lakhazikitsa zolinga za 50% 'zoponya' kuchokera pamafuta osatha a ndege zonse zankhondo ndipo ladzipereka ku Unduna wa Zachitetezo kuti 'zisawononge zero pofika 2050'.
Koma ngakhale kuyesayesa uku kumalizidwa lipenga ngati zisonyezo kuti gulu lankhondo 'likudzibalira' (malipoti ena amawoneka ngati kusamba kwamakampani), chomwe chimalimbikitsa kwambiri kutsatira zomwe zingayambitsidwenso ndi chiwopsezo chomwe chimadalira mafuta wapanga gulu lankhondo. Kutumiza mafutawa kuti azisungunuka, matanki, zombo ndi ma jets akuyenda ndi chimodzi mwa mitu yayikulu kwambiri kwa asitikali aku US ndipo zidawopsa pachiwopsezo ku Afghanistan pomwe sitima zamagalimoto zomwe zimapereka asitikali aku US zimamenyedwa pafupipafupi ndi a Taliban magulu ankhondo. US Kafukufuku wankhondo apeza ngozi imodzi pamayendedwe 39 amafuta ku Iraq komanso m'modzi mwa magalimoto 24 ku Afghanistan. M'kupita kwanthawi, kugwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zamagetsi, utsi wamafuta ena, mayunitsi olumikizirana ndi dzuwa ndi matekinoloje omwe amatha kuwonjezekanso akuwonetsa chiyembekezo cha gulu lankhondo locheperako, losasunthika komanso lothandiza kwambiri. Mlembi wakale wa US Navy a Ray Mabus kunena mosabisa: 'Tikusunthira pamafuta ena mu Navy ndi Marine Corps pachifukwa chimodzi chachikulu, ndikuti atipange omenyera nkhondo'.
Komabe, kwakhala kovuta kwambiri kuti m'malo mwa mafuta agwiritsidwe ntchito zonyamula asitikali (mpweya, navy, magalimoto apansi) omwe amapanga zida zambiri zamafuta. Mu 2009, US Navy yalengeza zake 'Great Green Fleet', kudzipereka pacholinga chofuna kuchepetsa mphamvu zake kuzinthu zomwe sizinali mafuta zakale pofika chaka cha 2020. Koma kanthu posakhalitsa chatsegulidwa, monga zinawonekeratu kuti sipangakhale zofunikira za agrofuel ngakhale atakhala ndi ndalama zambiri zankhondo zokulitsira bizinesiyo. Pakati pazowononga ndalama komanso otsutsa andale, izi zidaphedwa. Ngakhale zitakhala kuti zidapambana, pali umboni wochuluka wosonyeza kuti Kugwiritsa ntchito biofuel kumawononga chilengedwe komanso chikhalidwe (monga kukwera kwa mitengo yazakudya) zomwe zimasokoneza malingaliro ake akuti ndi 'wobiriwira' m'malo mwa mafuta.
Kupitilira kuchita nawo zankhondo, njira zachitetezo zadziko zimathandizanso kutumizidwa kwa 'mphamvu zofewa' - zokambirana, mabungwe apadziko lonse lapansi ndi mgwirizano, ntchito zothandiza. Chifukwa chake chitetezo chamayiko ambiri Njira zimagwiritsanso ntchito chilankhulo chachitetezo cha anthu monga gawo la zolinga zawo ndikukambirana njira zodzitetezera, kupewa mikangano ndi zina zotero. Njira yachitetezo cha dziko la UK 2015, mwachitsanzo, imalankhula zakufunika kothana ndi zomwe zimayambitsa kusatetezeka: 'Cholinga chathu cha nthawi yayitali ndikulimbikitsa kulimba mtima kwa mayiko osauka komanso osalimba pakagwa masoka, zadzidzidzi komanso kusintha kwa nyengo. Izi zipulumutsa miyoyo ndikuchepetsa chiopsezo chokhazikika. Ndikofunikanso kwambiri kuti ndalama ziziwonongedwa pokonzekera tsoka ndikulimba mtima kuposa kuyankha pambuyo pa mwambowu '. Awa ndi mawu anzeru, koma sakuwonekera momwe chuma chimasokonezedwera. Mu 2021, boma la UK lidadula ndalama zakunja kwa 4 biliyoni kuchoka pa 0.7% ya ndalama zake zapadziko lonse (GNI) mpaka 0.5%, poganiza kuti ndi kwakanthawi kuti achepetse kuchuluka kwa ngongole kuti athe kuthana ndi COVID-19 zovuta - koma atangowonjezera ndalama zankhondo ndi $ 16.5 biliyoni (kuchuluka kwa 10% pachaka).
Chithunzi chojambulidwa Cpl Neil Bryden RAF / Korona Copyright 2014 (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
4. Mavuto akulu ndi ati pofotokoza kusintha kwa nyengo ngati nkhani yachitetezo?
Vuto lalikulu pakupanga kusintha kwanyengo kukhala nkhani yachitetezo ndikuti limayankha pamavuto omwe amadza chifukwa cha kupanda chilungamo ndi mayankho a 'chitetezo', okhazikika m'malingaliro ndi mabungwe omwe apangidwa kuti azilamulira ndikupitiliza. Panthawi yochepetsa kusintha kwa nyengo ndikuonetsetsa kuti kusintha kwachilungamo kumafunikira kugawa kwamphamvu ndi chuma, njira yachitetezo ikufuna kupitilizabe momwe zinthu ziliri. Pochita izi, chitetezo cha nyengo chili ndi zovuta zazikulu zisanu ndi chimodzi.
1. Amawona kapena kupatutsa chidwi pazomwe zimayambitsa kusintha kwa nyengo, kutsekereza kusintha komwe sikufunika. Poyang'ana kwambiri mayankho pazovuta zakusintha kwanyengo ndi njira zachitetezo zomwe zingafunike, amasintha chidwi chawo pazomwe zimayambitsa zovuta zanyengo - mphamvu zamabungwe ndi maiko omwe athandizapo kwambiri pakuyambitsa kusintha kwanyengo, udindo wankhondo womwe ndi amodzi mwazomwe zimapereka bungwe la GHG, komanso mfundo zachuma monga mapangano azamalonda aulere omwe apangitsa anthu ambiri kukhala pachiwopsezo chachikulu pakusintha kwanyengo. Amanyalanyaza zachiwawa zomwe zili munthawi yazachuma, amaganiza ndikuthandizira kupitilizabe kwa chuma ndi chuma, ndikuyesetsa kuthetsa mikangano komanso 'kusowa chitetezo'. Iwo sakukayikiranso gawo la mabungwe achitetezo pakuthandizira njira zopanda chilungamo - chifukwa chake ngakhale akatswiri azachitetezo zanyengo atha kunena zakufunika kothetsa mpweya wa GHG, izi sizikutanthauza kuti atseke zida zankhondo kapena kuchepetsa kwambiri asitikali ndi chitetezo Bajeti kuti athe kulipira zomwe zaperekedwa kale kuti apereke ndalama zanyengo kumayiko omwe akutukuka kuti agwiritse ntchito mapulogalamu ena monga Global Green New Deal.
2. Imalimbikitsa zida zankhondo zomwe zikuyenda bwino komanso chitetezo ndi mafakitale omwe apeza kale chuma ndi mphamvu zomwe sizinachitikepo pambuyo pa 9/11. Kusatetezeka kwanyengo komwe kunanenedweratu kwakhala njira yatsopano yothetsera ndalama zankhondo ndi chitetezo komanso njira zadzidzidzi zomwe zimadutsa demokalase. Pafupifupi njira iliyonse yachitetezo cha nyengo imapereka chithunzi cha kusakhazikika komwe kukukulirakulira, komwe kumafunikira chitetezo. Monga Admiral Woyang'anira Kumbuyo David Titley adayika: 'Zili ngati kulowa nawo nkhondo yomwe yatenga zaka 100'. Adakhazikitsa izi ngati malo oti nyengo ichitike, komanso ndizokhazikitsanso ndalama zowonongera zankhondo komanso zachitetezo. Mwanjira imeneyi, zimatsata njira yayitali yankhondo kufunafuna zifukwa zatsopano zankhondo, kuphatikizapo kuthana ndi kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala osokoneza bongo, uchigawenga, owononga anzawo ndi zina zambiri, zomwe zadzetsa ndalama zomwe zikuchulukirachulukira pakugwiritsa ntchito zankhondo komanso zachitetezo padziko lonse lapansi. Boma likuyitanitsa chitetezo, chopezeka mchilankhulo cha adani ndikuwopseza, chimagwiritsidwanso ntchito kuthana ndi zochitika zadzidzidzi, monga kutumizidwa kwa asitikali ndikupanga malamulo azadzidzidzi omwe amapyola matupi a demokalase ndikuletsa ufulu wachibadwidwe.
3. Amasinthira omwe akhudzidwa ndi kusintha kwa nyengo kwa omwe akhudzidwa ndi kusintha kwa nyengo, ndikuwaponya ngati "zoopsa" kapena "zoopseza". Poganizira kusakhazikika komwe kumachitika chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo, olimbikitsa zachitetezo akuchenjeza za kuopsa kwa mayiko kukhazikika, malo okhala, ndi anthu kukhala achiwawa kapena osamuka. Pochita izi, iwo omwe sakhala ndi vuto lochepa pakusintha kwanyengo sikuti ndiomwe amakhudzidwa kwambiri ndi izi, komanso amawoneka ngati 'owopseza'. Ndi kupanda chilungamo katatu. Ndipo zimatsatira miyambo yayitali yonena zachitetezo komwe mdani amakhala kwina kulikonse. Monga katswiri Robyn Eckersley ananenera, 'kuwopseza chilengedwe ndi zomwe alendo amachita kwa anthu aku America kapena ku America', ndipo sizomwe zimayambitsidwa ndi malamulo aku US kapena aku Western.
4.Kulimbikitsanso zofuna zamakampani. M'nthawi ya atsamunda, ndipo nthawi zina m'mbuyomu, chitetezo chadziko chimadziwika ndi kuteteza mabungwe. Mu 1840, Secretary Secretary Wachilendo ku UK Lord Palmerston sananene mosapita m'mbali kuti: 'Ndi ntchito yaboma kutsegula ndi kuteteza misewu ya wamalonda'. Njirayi ikutsogolera mfundo zakunja kwamayiko ambiri masiku ano - ndipo ikulimbikitsidwa ndi mphamvu zomwe zikukula m'maboma, maphunziro, mabungwe andale komanso mabungwe osiyanasiyana monga UN kapena World Bank. Zikuwonekera pamachitidwe ambiri okhudzana ndi nyengo yachitetezo cha dziko omwe amafotokoza nkhawa zake zakusintha kwanyengo munjira zonyamula anthu, maunyolo ogulitsa, komanso zovuta zakuthambo pamaofesi azachuma. Chitetezo chamakampani akuluakulu apadziko lonse lapansi (TNCs) chimamasuliridwa ngati chitetezo cha dziko lonse, ngakhale ma TNC omwewo, monga makampani amafuta, atha kukhala omwe akutenga nawo gawo pachitetezo.
5. Zimayambitsa kusatetezeka. Kutumiza kwa achitetezo kumabweretsa mavuto kwa ena. Izi zikuwonekeratu, mwachitsanzo, mzaka 20 zotsogozedwa ndi asitikali ankhondo aku US komanso kulandidwa ndi NATO ndikugwira Afghanistan, zomwe zidakhazikitsidwa ndikulonjeza chitetezo ku uchigawenga, komabe zidatha kuyambitsa nkhondo, mikangano, kubwerera kwa a Taliban komanso kuthekera kokulira kwa magulu achigawenga atsopano. Momwemonso, apolisi ku US ndi kwina Nthawi zambiri zakhala zikuchulukitsa chitetezo cha anthu omwe ali m'maboma omwe amasalidwa, kuyang'aniridwa komanso kuphedwa kuti apulumutse anthu olemera. Mapulogalamu oteteza nyengo otsogozedwa ndi achitetezo sangapewe izi. Monga Mark Neocleous mwachidule: 'Chitetezo chonse chimafotokozedwera pokhudzana ndi kusatetezeka. Sikuti kuyitanidwa kulikonse kuchitetezo kumangotengera tanthauzo la mantha omwe amayambitsa, koma mantha awa (kusakhazikika) amafuna kuti njira zotsutsana (chitetezo) zilepheretse, kuchotsa kapena kukakamiza munthu, gulu, chinthu kapena zomwe zimayambitsa mantha '.
6. Imasokoneza njira zina zothanirana ndi zovuta zanyengo. Chitetezo chikangokhazikitsidwa, funso nthawi zonse limakhala losatetezeka, mpaka pati, komanso njira zachitetezo zomwe zitha kugwira ntchito - ngakhale ngati chitetezo sichingakhale njira yofananira. Vutoli limayambika pachiwopsezo chachitetezo motsutsana ndi chitetezo, chomwe chimafunikira kulowererapo kwa boma ndipo nthawi zambiri chimalungamitsa zochita zapadera zomwe sizigwirizana ndi demokalase. Izi zimaletsa njira zina - monga zomwe zimayang'ana pazinthu zina zadongosolo, kapena zoganizira zosiyana (monga chilungamo, ulamuliro wodziwika, kulumikizana kwachilengedwe, chilungamo chobwezeretsa), kapena kutengera mabungwe ndi njira zosiyanasiyana (monga utsogoleri wa zaumoyo , njira zothandizirana kapena zokomera anthu). Imaponderezanso mayendedwe omwe akuyitanitsa njirazi ndi njira zotsutsana zomwe zimalimbikitsa kusintha kwa nyengo.
Onaninso: Dalby, S. (2009) Chitetezo ndi Kusintha KwachilengedwePolity. https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Security+and+Environmental+Change-p-9780745642918
Amuna achikulire komanso chitetezo cha nyengo
Pogwiritsa ntchito njira zankhondo zachitetezo cha nyengo pamakhala dongosolo lakale lomwe lasintha njira zankhondo kuti athetse kusamvana komanso kusakhazikika. Amuna achikulire ali mokhazikika muntchito zankhondo komanso zachitetezo. Zikuwonekera bwino mu utsogoleri wamwamuna ndi kuwongolera magulu ankhondo ndi asitikali ankhondo, koma ndizofunikanso momwe chitetezo chimaganizidwira, mwayi woperekedwa kwa asitikali ndi andale, komanso momwe ndalama zogwirira ntchito ndi mayankho ake ndizochepa amafunsidwa ngakhale atalephera kukwaniritsa malonjezo ake.
Amayi ndi anthu a LGBT + amakhudzidwa kwambiri ndimagulu ankhondo komanso mayankho ankhondo pamavuto. Amakhalanso ndi katundu wambiri wothana ndi zovuta monga kusintha kwa nyengo.
Amayi amakhalanso patsogolo pa kayendedwe ka nyengo ndi mtendere. Ichi ndichifukwa chake timafunikira lingaliro lachikazi lachitetezo cha nyengo ndikuyang'ana mayankho achikazi. Monga a Ray Acheson ndi Madeleine Rees a Women's International League for Peace and Freedom akunena kuti, 'Podziwa kuti nkhondo ndiye njira yothetsera kusowa kwaumunthu, olimbikitsa ufulu wa akazi amalimbikitsa mayankho okhalitsa pamikangano ndikuthandizira mtendere ndi chitetezo chomwe chimateteza anthu onse' .
Onaninso: Acheson R. ndi Rees M. (2020). 'Njira yachikazi yothanirana ndi asitikali ochulukirapo
kuwononga 'mu Kuganizira Zowononga Magulu Osasunthika, Mapepala a UNODA Osiyanasiyana Na. 35, pp 39-56 https://front.un-arm.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/op-35-web.pdf
Amayi omwe athawidwa atanyamula katundu wawo amafika ku Bossangoa, Central African Republic, atathawa chiwawa. Ngongole yazithunzi: UNHCR / B. Kutentha (CC BY-NC 2.0)
5. Chifukwa chiyani mabungwe aboma komanso magulu azachilengedwe amalimbikitsa kuteteza nyengo?
Ngakhale zili ndi nkhawa izi, magulu angapo azachilengedwe komanso magulu ena atsata mfundo zachitetezo cha nyengo, monga World Wildlife Fund, Environmental Defense Fund ndi Nature Conservancy (US) ndi E3G ku Europe. Gulu lotsogola lotsogola lotchedwa Extinction Rebelli Netherlands linapemphanso mtsogoleri wamkulu wankhondo waku Dutch kuti alembe zachitetezo cha nyengo m'buku lawo la 'opanduka'.
Ndikofunikira kudziwa pano kuti matanthauzidwe osiyanasiyana okhudzana ndi chitetezo cha nyengo amatanthauza kuti magulu ena sangakhale akufotokoza masomphenya ofanana ndi mabungwe achitetezo adziko. Katswiri wazandale a Matt McDonald adazindikira masomphenya anayi osiyanasiyana okhudzana ndi chitetezo cha nyengo, omwe amasiyanasiyana potengera chitetezo chawo; 'chilengedwe' (chitetezo chachilengedwe). Kuphatikizana ndi kusakaniza kwa masomphenya awa ndi mapulogalamu omwe akutuluka a machitidwe oteteza nyengo, Kuyesera kupanga mapu ndi kufotokoza malingaliro omwe angateteze chitetezo cha anthu ndikupewa mikangano.
Zofuna zamagulu amtundu wa anthu zimawonetsa masomphenya osiyanasiyana ndipo nthawi zambiri amakhudzidwa ndi chitetezo cha anthu, koma ena amafuna kulowa usilikali ngati othandizana nawo ndipo ali ofunitsitsa kugwiritsa ntchito 'chitetezo cha dziko' kuti akwaniritse izi. Izi zikuwoneka kuti zachokera pakukhulupirira kuti mgwirizano wotere ungathe kuchepetsa kutulutsa kwa GHG yankhondo, kuthandizira kupeza chithandizo chandale kuchokera kwa andale omwe nthawi zambiri amakhala osamala kuti achitepo kanthu nyengo, ndikulimbikitsa kusintha kwa nyengo kulowa madera amphamvu 'achitetezo' amagetsi pomwe adzaikidwe patsogolo moyenera.
Nthawi zina, akuluakulu aboma, makamaka boma la Blair ku UK (1997-2007) ndi oyang'anira a Obama ku US (2008-2016) nawonso adawona nkhani za 'chitetezo' ngati njira yothandizira kuchitapo kanthu kwanyengo kuchokera kwa omwe akuchita nawo ziwonetserozi. Monga Mlembi Wachilendo ku UK Margaret Beckett anatsutsana mu 2007 pomwe adakonza zokambirana zoyamba zachitetezo cha nyengo ku UN Security Council, "anthu akamalankhula za zovuta zachitetezo amatero mosiyanasiyana ndi vuto lina lililonse. Chitetezo chimawoneka ngati chofunikira osati chosankha. … Kukuwonetsa chitetezo pokhudzana ndi kusintha kwa nyengo kuli ndi gawo lolimbikitsa maboma omwe akuyenera kuchitapo kanthu. ”
Komabe pochita izi, masomphenya osiyana kwambiri achitetezo amasokonekera ndikuphatikizidwa. Ndipo atapatsidwa mphamvu ndi zida zankhondo komanso zachitetezo cha dziko, zomwe zimaposa zina zilizonse, izi zimathera pakulimbikitsa nkhani yachitetezo chadziko - nthawi zambiri ngakhale kupereka chintchito chazandale 'zothandiza' kapena 'zachilengedwe' panjira yankhondo ndi chitetezo monga komanso zofuna zamakampani zomwe amafuna kuteteza ndi kuteteza.
6. Ndi malingaliro ati ovuta omwe mapulani achitetezo zanyengo amatenga?
Ndondomeko zachitetezo cha nyengo yankhondo zimaphatikizira malingaliro ofunikira omwe amapanga mfundo ndi mapulogalamu awo. Chimodzi mwaziganizo zomwe zimapezeka munjira zambiri zachitetezo cha nyengo ndikuti kusintha kwanyengo kudzayambitsa kusowa, kuti izi zingayambitse mikangano, ndikuti mayankho achitetezo adzafunika. M'dongosolo la ku Malthusian, anthu osauka kwambiri padziko lapansi, makamaka omwe amakhala m'malo otentha monga madera ambiri akumwera kwa Sahara ku Africa, ndi omwe amayambitsa mikangano. Scarcity> Conflict> Paradigm yachitetezo imawonekera munjira zosawerengeka, zosadabwitsa kuti bungwe lomwe lapangidwa kuti liwone dziko lapansi mwa ziwopsezo. Zotsatira zake, komabe, ndi ulusi wolimba waku dystopian pakukonzekera zachitetezo chadziko. Chizolowezi Kanema wophunzitsira wa Pentagon amachenjeza za dziko la 'zoopseza za haibridi' lomwe likuwonekera kuchokera kumidima yamizinda yomwe magulu ankhondo sangakwanitse kuwongolera. Izi zikuchitikanso, monga momwe zidachitikira ku New Orleans kutachitika mphepo yamkuntho Katrina, pomwe anthu omwe amayesa kupulumuka atakumana ndi mavuto kutengedwa ngati omenya nkhondo ndikuwombera ndikuwapha m'malo mopulumutsidwa.
Monga ananenera Betsy Hartmann, izi ikugwirizana ndi mbiri yayitali yatsamunda komanso tsankho zomwe zasokoneza anthu mwadala komanso makontinenti onse - ndipo ndizosangalala kuchita izi mtsogolomo kuti zithandizire kulandidwa kwawo ndikukhalapo kunkhondo. Zimathetsa mwayi wina monga kusowa kolimbikitsa mgwirizano kapena kusamvana kuthetsedwe pandale. Komanso, monga tanena kale, amapewa dala kuyang'ana njira zomwe kusowa, ngakhale munthawi zosakhazikika kwanyengo, kumayambitsidwa ndi zochitika za anthu ndikuwonetsa kufalikira kwazinthu m'malo movutikira. Ndipo zimatsimikizira kuponderezedwa kwa mayendedwe omwe Amafuna ndikulimbikitsa kusintha kwa machitidwe ngati chiwopsezo, chifukwa imaganiza kuti aliyense amene akutsutsana ndi kayendetsedwe kazachuma ikubweretsa ngozi pothandiza kuti pakhale kusakhazikika.
Onaninso: Deudney, D. (1990) 'Mlandu wotsutsana ndi kuwononga kuwonongeka kwa chilengedwe ndi chitetezo cha dziko', Zakachikwi: Journal of International Study. https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298900190031001
7. Kodi zovuta zanyengo zimayambitsa mikangano?
Lingaliro loti kusintha kwanyengo kudzabweretsa mikangano kuli muzolemba zachitetezo cha dziko. Kuunika kwa US department of Defense ku 2014, mwachitsanzo, akuti zomwe zimachitika pakusintha kwanyengo '… ndizowonjezera zomwe zingawonjezere mavuto kudziko lina monga umphawi, kuwonongeka kwa chilengedwe, kusakhazikika pazandale, komanso mikangano pakati pa anthu - zomwe zitha kuthandiza zigawenga ndi zina mitundu yachiwawa '.
Maonekedwe akunja akuwonetsa kulumikizana: Maiko 12 mwa 20 omwe ali pachiwopsezo chachikulu pakusintha kwanyengo pakadali pano akumenya nkhondo. Ngakhale kulumikizana sikuli kofanana ndi chifukwa, kafukufuku wopitilira Kafukufuku 55 pankhaniyi ndi aprofesa aku California Burke, Hsiang ndi Miguel adayesa kuwonetsa zolumikizana, akunena za kuwonjezeka kulikonse kwa 1 ° C kutentha, kusamvana pakati pa anthu kukuwonjezeka ndi 2.4% ndikusokoneza mikangano ndi 11.3%. Njira zawo zakhala popeza zakhala zikutsutsidwa kwambiri. A 2019 lozani Nature anamaliza: 'Kusintha kwanyengo ndi / kapena kusintha kuli kotsika pamndandanda wazomwe zimayambitsa mikangano pazomwe zakhala zikuchitika mpaka pano, ndipo akatswiri amati ndizosatsimikizika kwenikweni pakukhudzidwa'.
Mwakutero, ndizovuta kusudzula kusintha kwanyengo kuzinthu zina zomwe zimayambitsa mikangano, ndipo palibe umboni wochepa wosonyeza kuti zovuta zakusintha kwanyengo zithandizira kuti anthu azichita zachiwawa. Zowonadi, nthawi zina kusowa kumachepetsa ziwawa popeza anthu amakakamizidwa kuti agwirizane. Kafukufuku mdera lowuma la Chigawo cha Marsabit kumpoto kwa Kenya, mwachitsanzo, adapeza kuti nthawi ya chilala ndi kusowa kwa madzi nkhanza sizinkachitika kawirikawiri chifukwa anthu osauka omwe ankaweta ziweto sankafuna kuyambitsa mikangano nthawi ngati imeneyi, komanso anali ndi maboma olimba koma osinthasintha olamulira katundu madzi omwe amathandiza anthu kuzolowera kusowa kwake.
Chodziwikiratu ndichakuti chomwe chimatsimikiza kuti kuphulika kwa mikangano ndizomwe zimapangitsa kuti pakhale kusiyana pakati pa anthu padziko lonse lapansi (cholowa cha Cold War komanso kudalirana kwapadziko lonse lapansi) komanso mayankho ovuta andale pamavuto. Mayankho olimbikitsidwa ndi Ham kapena opusitsidwa ndi osankhika nthawi zambiri ndi ena mwazifukwa zomwe zovuta zimasanduka mikangano ndipo pamapeto pake zimakhala nkhondo. An Kafukufuku wothandizidwa ndi EU wa mikangano ku Mediterranean, Sahel ndi Middle East adawonetsa, mwachitsanzo, zomwe zimayambitsa mikangano kuderali sizomwe zimachitika chifukwa cha nyengo, koma kuchepa kwa demokalase, kusokonekera komanso chitukuko chopanda chilungamo komanso zoyesayesa zolakwika pakusintha kwanyengo komwe kumatha kukulitsa mavuto.
Siriya ndi nkhani inanso pankhaniyi. Akuluakulu ankhondo ambiri akusimba momwe chilala m'derali chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo chidadzetsa kusamukira kumidzi- komanso m'matauni apachiweniweni. Komabe awo omwe aphunzira mozama za vutoli awonetsa kuti zinali njira za Assad zoperekera ndalama zochepetsera ndalama zaulimi zidakhudza kwambiri chilala chomwe chidapangitsa kusamukira kumidzi. Komabe mudzapanikizika kuti mupeze katswiri wazankhondo yemwe akuimba mlandu nkhondoyi. Kuphatikiza apo, palibe umboni kuti kusamuka kunali ndi gawo lililonse pankhondo yapachiweniweni. Othawa kwawo ochokera kudera lomwe lakhudzidwa ndi chilala sanatenge nawo gawo pachionetsero cha mchaka cha 2011 ndipo palibe zomwe otsutsawo amafuna zokhudzana ndi chilala kapena kusamuka. Lidali lingaliro la Assad kusankha kuponderezedwa pakusintha zinthu poyankha kuyitanidwa kwa demokalase komanso udindo wa otenga mbali akunja kuphatikiza US yomwe idasintha ziwonetsero zamtendere kukhala nkhondo yapachiweniweni.
Palinso umboni woti kulimbikitsa kulimbana kwa nyengo-kumawonjezera mwayi wakusamvana. Zimathandizira kuyendetsa zida zankhondo, kuchoka pazinthu zina zomwe zimayambitsa mikangano, ndikuwononga njira zina zothetsera kusamvana. Njira ikukula ku Zonena komanso zankhondo zankhondo ndi boma zokhudzana ndi kuyenda kwamadzi pakati pa India ndi China, mwachitsanzo, kwawononga njira zomwe zilipo kale zogawana madzi ndikupanga mikangano mderali.
Onaninso: 'Kuganizira Kusintha Kwanyengo, Kusamvana ndi Chitetezo', Ma geopolitics, Nkhani Yapadera, 19 (4). https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/fgeo20/19/4
Dabelko, G. (2009) 'Pewani kukokomeza, kuwonjezera zinthu pakagwa nyengo ndi chitetezo', Bulletin ya Atomic Scientists, 24 Ogasiti 2009.
Chithunzi chojambulidwa Christiaan Triebert (CC NDI 2.0)
8. Kodi zotsatira zakutetezedwa kwanyengo kumalire ndi kusamuka ndi ziti?
Zolemba pachitetezo cha nyengo zimayang'aniridwa ndi zomwe zimawopsezedwa kuti ndi `` kusamuka kwa anthu ambiri. Lipoti lodziwika bwino la 2007 US, Zaka Zotsatira: Ndondomeko Zakunja ndi Kutetezedwa Kwadziko Pazosintha Kwanyengo Padziko Lonse, ikufotokoza kusamuka kwakukulu ngati 'mwina vuto lalikulu kwambiri lomwe limakhudzana ndi kutentha kwanyengo ndi kuchuluka kwa nyanja', kuchenjeza kuti 'kuyambitsa zovuta zazikulu zachitetezo ndikumangika kwanyengo'. Ripoti la EU la 2008 Kusintha kwanyengo ndi chitetezo chamayiko adatinso kusamuka kwanyengo ndichinthu chachinayi chofunikira kwambiri pazachitetezo (pambuyo pa mikangano pazachuma, kuwonongeka kwachuma m'mizinda / m'mphepete mwa nyanja, komanso mikangano yamagawo). Linafunika kuti 'kupititsa patsogolo mfundo zakusamuka ku Europe' poganizira za 'kusokonekera kwachilengedwe' komwe kumayambitsa kusamukira kwina.
Machenjezo awa alimbikitsa mphamvu ndi mphamvu mokomera nkhondo yankhondo kuti ngakhale popanda machenjezo a nyengo anali atakhala okhwima m'malamulo amalire padziko lonse lapansi. Mayankho ankhanza kwambiri osamukira kudziko lina atsogolera kuwonongedwa kwadongosolo kwa ufulu wapadziko lonse wopempha chitetezo, ndipo zadzetsa mavuto osaneneka komanso nkhanza kwa anthu omwe achoka kwawo omwe akukumana ndi maulendo owopsa akuthawa kwawo kuti akapulumuke, komanso 'amwano' 'madera akapambana.
Kuopa owopsa 'osamukira kunyengo' kwagwirizananso ndi Nkhondo Yadziko Lonse Yokhudza Ziwopsezo zomwe zalimbikitsa ndi kukhazikitsa kukhazikitsidwa kosalekeza kwa njira zachitetezo zaboma ndi momwe amagwiritsira ntchito ndalama. Zowonadi, njira zambiri zodzitchinjiriza nyengo zimafanizira kusamuka ndi uchigawenga, ponena kuti osamukira ku Asia, Africa, Latin America ndi Europe adzakhala malo abwino okhwimitsa mphamvu ndikulemba anthu magulu owopsa. Ndipo amalimbikitsanso nkhani za osamukirawo ngati ziwopsezo, ndikuwonetsa kuti kusamuka kutha kuyanjana ndi mikangano, ziwawa komanso uchigawenga komanso kuti izi zithandizira mayiko ndi zipwirikiti zomwe mayiko olemera adzayenera kudzitchinjiriza.
Amalephera kunena kuti kusintha kwanyengo kumatha kuletsa m'malo mochititsa kusamuka, chifukwa nyengo zam'mlengalenga zimawononga ngakhale zinthu zofunika pamoyo. Amalephera kuyang'ananso pazomwe zimayambitsa kusamuka komanso udindo wamayiko ambiri olemera kwambiri padziko lapansi okakamiza anthu kuti asamuke. Nkhondo ndi mikangano ndichimodzi mwazomwe zimayambitsa kusamuka komanso kusalinganizana kwachuma. Komabe njira zachitetezo cha nyengo zimapewa kukambirana pamgwirizano wazachuma komanso wamalonda womwe umayambitsa kusowa kwa ntchito komanso kutayika kwa chakudya, monga NAFTA ku Mexico, nkhondo zomwe zidamenyera nkhondo zamfumu (komanso zamalonda) monga ku Libya, kapena kuwonongeka kwa madera ndi chilengedwe choyambitsidwa ndi ma TNC, monga makampani aku migodi aku Canada ku Central ndi South America - zonse zomwe zimapangitsa kusamuka. Amalephera kuwunikiranso momwe mayiko omwe ali ndi chuma chambiri amalandiranso othawa kwawo ochepa. Mwa mayiko khumi apamwamba omwe amalandira othawa kwawo mofanana, limodzi lokha, Sweden, ndi dziko lolemera.
Lingaliro lakuyang'ana njira zothetsera asitikali m'malo mosintha mwanjira zina kapena mwachifundo zadzetsa ndalama zochulukirapo komanso kumenya nkhondo m'malire padziko lonse kuyembekezera kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwakusamuka kwanyengo. Ndalama zaku malire ndi zosamukira ku US zachoka pa $ 9.2 biliyoni kufika pa $ 26 biliyoni pakati pa 2003 ndi 2021. Bungwe loyang'anira malire ku EU Ndalama za Frontex zakula kuchokera pa € 5.2 miliyoni mu 2005 mpaka € 460 miliyoni mu 2020 ndi € 5.6 biliyoni yosungidwa ndi bungweli pakati pa 2021 ndi 2027. Malire tsopano 'amatetezedwa' ndi Makoma 63 padziko lonse lapansi.
ndipo Asitikali ankhondo amatanganidwa kwambiri ndi kuyankha osamukira onse kumalire adziko ndikuwonjezeka kupitilira kunyumba. Ma US nthawi zambiri amatumiza zombo zapanyanja komanso oyang'anira nyanja yaku US kuti aziyang'anira nyanja ya Caribbean, EU kuyambira 2005 yakhazikitsa mabungwe ake akumalire, Frontex, kuti agwire ntchito ndi asitikali am'mayiko ena komanso mayiko oyandikana nawo kuyang'anira nyanja ya Mediterranean, ndipo Australia yagwiritsa ntchito gulu lake lankhondo mphamvu zoletsa othawa kwawo kuti afike m'mbali mwake. India yatumiza owerengeka owonjezera a Indian Border Security Force (BSF) omwe amaloledwa kugwiritsa ntchito nkhanza kumalire ake akum'mawa ndi Bangladesh zomwe zimapangitsa kuti akhale amodzi mwa anthu ophedwa kwambiri padziko lapansi.
Onaninso: Mndandanda wa ma TNI pankhani zankhondo zakumalire ndi makampani achitetezo kumalire: Border Wars https://www.tni.org/en/topic/border-wars
Boas, I. (2015) Kusuntha Kwanyengo ndi Chitetezo: Kutetezedwa ngati Njira Yandale Yandale. Njira. Chidwi.
9. Kodi gulu lankhondo ndi lotani pakupanga zovuta zanyengo?
M'malo moyang'ana gulu lankhondo ngati yankho pamavuto azanyengo, ndikofunikira kuti tiwunikire momwe akutithandizira kuthana ndi mavuto azanyengo chifukwa cha kuchuluka kwa mpweya wa GHG komanso gawo lake lofunikira pothandizira chuma chamakedzedwe.
Malinga ndi lipoti la US DRM, Pentagon ndiye wogwiritsa ntchito mafuta m'mafuta m'modzi m'modzi mdziko lapansi, komabe pansi pa malamulo apano sakufunika kuchita chilichonse chokhwima kuti achepetse mpweya mogwirizana ndi chidziwitso cha sayansi. A phunzirani mu 2019 akuganiza kuti zotulutsa za Pentagon za GHG zinali matani 59 miliyoni, zazikulu kuposa zotulutsa zonse mu 2017 ndi Denmark, Finland ndi Sweden. Asayansi a Udindo Wapadziko Lonse awerengera mpweya waku UK kukhala matani 11 miliyoni, wofanana ndi magalimoto 6 miliyoni, ndipo mpweya wa EU ndi matani 24.8 miliyoni pomwe France yathandizira gawo limodzi mwa magawo atatu a ndalama zonse. Maphunzirowa onse ndiowerengera mosamala chifukwa chakusowa kwa chidziwitso chowonekera. Makampani asanu omenyera zida okhala kumayiko mamembala a EU (Airbus, Leonardo, PGZ, Rheinmetall, ndi Thales) adapezedwanso kuti onse atulutsa ma tonnes a 1.02 miliyoni a GHG.
Kutulutsa kwapamwamba kwa asitikali a GHG kumachitika chifukwa chakuchepa kwa zomangamanga (nthawi zambiri asitikali ndiomwe amakhala ndi malo ambiri m'maiko ambiri), kufalikira kwakukulu padziko lonse lapansi - makamaka ku US, komwe kuli magulu ankhondo opitilira 800 padziko lonse lapansi, ambiri omwe akuchita nawo ntchito zotsutsana ndi mafuta - komanso mafuta ambiri omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito popanga zida zankhondo. Ndege imodzi yankhondo yankhondo F-15, mwachitsanzo imawotchera migolo 342 (malita 14,400) yamafuta ola limodzi, ndipo ndizosatheka kusinthana ndi njira zamagetsi zowonjezeredwa. Zida zankhondo monga ndege ndi zombo zimakhala ndi nthawi yayitali, yotseka mpweya wa mpweya kwa zaka zambiri zikubwerazi.
Zomwe zimakhudza kwambiri mpweya, ndiye cholinga chachikulu cha asitikali omwe akuteteza dziko lawo kupeza zothandizira, Kuonetsetsa kuti ndalama zikuyenda bwino ndikuwongolera kusakhazikika komanso kusakhazikika komwe kumayambitsa. Izi zapangitsa kuti magulu ankhondo olemera monga Middle East ndi Gulf States, komanso mayendedwe azombo kuzungulira China, apanganso gulu lankhondo lokakamiza lomwe limapangidwa pogwiritsa ntchito mafuta ndi kudzipereka kopanda malire kukula kwachuma.
Pomaliza, asitikali amakhudza kusintha kwanyengo kudzera mu mwayi wogwiritsira ntchito ndalama zankhondo m'malo moika ndalama popewa kuwonongeka kwa nyengo. Ndalama zankhondo zachulukitsa pafupifupi kawiri kuyambira kumapeto kwa Cold War ngakhale sizipereka mayankho pamavuto akulu amakono monga kusintha kwa nyengo, miliri, kusalingana komanso umphawi. Panthawi yomwe pulaneti likufunika ndalama zazikulu kwambiri pakusintha kwachuma kuti muchepetse kusintha kwa nyengo, anthu amauzidwa kawirikawiri kuti kulibe chuma chochitira zomwe sayansi ya nyengo ikufuna. Mwachitsanzo, ku Canada Prime Minister Trudeau adadzitamandira pazodzipereka zake zanyengo, komabe boma lake lidawononga $ 27 biliyoni ku department of National Defense, koma $ 1.9 biliyoni yokha ku department of Environment & Climate Change mu 2020. Zaka makumi awiri zapitazo, Canada idawononga ndalama $ 9.6 biliyoni podzitchinjiriza ndi $ 730 miliyoni okha zachilengedwe & kusintha kwa nyengo. Chifukwa chake kwazaka makumi awiri zapitazi mavuto azanyengo akuchulukirachulukira, mayiko akuwononga ndalama zambiri pazankhondo zawo ndi zida zawo kuposa kuchitapo kanthu popewa kusintha kwa nyengo koopsa komanso kuteteza dziko lapansi.
Onaninso: Lorincz, T. (2014), Demilitarization ya decarbonisation yakuya, IPB pa.
Meulewater, C. et al. (2020) Zankhondo ndi Zovuta Zachilengedwe: chiwonetsero chofunikira, Malo Delas. http://centredelas.org/publicacions/miiltarismandenvironmentalcrisis/?lang=en
10. Kodi gulu lankhondo ndi mikangano limalumikizidwa bwanji ndi mafuta komanso chuma chambiri?
M'mbuyomu, nthawi zambiri nkhondo imachokera pakulimbana kwa osankhika kuti athetse mphamvu zamagetsi. Izi ndizowona makamaka pankhani yamafuta ndi zotsalira zomwe zadzetsa nkhondo zapadziko lonse lapansi, nkhondo zapachiweniweni, kuchuluka kwa magulu ankhondo ndi zigawenga, mikangano yonyamula katundu kapena mapaipi, komanso mikangano yayikulu yazandale m'madera ofunikira kuyambira Middle East mpaka pano nyanja ya Arctic (momwe kusungunuka kwa madzi oundana kumatsegulira mwayi wamafuta atsopano amafuta ndi misewu yotumizira).
Kafukufuku wina akuwonetsa kuti pakati pa kotala ndi theka la nkhondo zapakati Chiyambireni zaka zomwe zimatchedwa kuti mafuta masiku ano mu 1973 zinali zokhudzana ndi mafuta, pomwe kuukira kwa Iraq ku 2003 ndi Iraq ndi chitsanzo chabwino. Mafuta nawonso - kwenikweni komanso mofanizira - afewetsa makampani opanga zida, ndikupereka zonse zofunikira komanso chifukwa choti mayiko ambiri azigwiritsa ntchito zida zankhondo. Inde alipo umboni wosonyeza kuti kugulitsa zida zankhondo kumagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi mayiko kuthandizira kupeza ndi kupeza mafuta. Mgwirizano waukulu kwambiri ku UK - 'Mgwirizano wa zida za Al-Yamamah' - adagwirizana mu 1985, zogwirizana UK ikupereka zida kwazaka zambiri ku Saudi Arabia - osalemekeza ufulu wachibadwidwe - pobweza migolo ya 600,000 yamafuta osakonzeka patsiku. BAE Systems idapeza mabiliyoni makumi kuchokera pazogulitsazi, zomwe zimathandizira kupereka ndalama zogulira zida ku UK.
Padziko lonse lapansi, kufunikira kwa zinthu zoyambirira kwadzetsa Kukula kwachuma chambiri kumadera ndi madera atsopano. Izi zawopseza kukhalapo komanso ulamuliro wa maderawo motero kutsogolera kukana ndi mikangano. Kawirikawiri, kuyankha kwakhala kupondereza koopsa kwa apolisi komanso nkhanza zankhondo, zomwe m'maiko ambiri zimagwirira ntchito limodzi ndi mabizinesi akomweko komanso akunja. Ku Peru, mwachitsanzo, Ufulu Wadziko Lapansi (ERI) yakhazikitsa mapangano 138 omwe adasainidwa pakati pa makampani opanga ndi apolisi munthawi ya 1995 mpaka 2018 'yomwe imalola apolisi kupereka zachitetezo chazokha mmaofesi ndi madera ena… a ntchito zowonjezerapo phindu'. Mlandu wophedwa kwa womenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe ku Honduras Berta Cáceres ndi ma paramilitaries olumikizidwa ndi boma omwe akugwira ntchito ndi kampani yamadamu ya Desa, ndiimodzi mwazinthu zambiri padziko lonse lapansi pomwe mgwirizano wa capitalism wapadziko lonse lapansi, mafakitale owonjezera komanso ziwawa zandale zikupanga malo owopsa kwa omenyera ufulu ndi anthu ammudzi omwe angayerekeze kukana. Global Witness yakhala ikutsatira kuchuluka kwachiwawa uku padziko lonse lapansi - idanenanso kuti anthu 212 oteteza malo ndi zachilengedwe adaphedwa mu 2019 - pafupifupi oposa anayi pa sabata.
Onaninso: Orellana, A. (2021) Neoextractivism ndi ziwawa zaboma: Kuteteza omenyera ufulu ku Latin America, Boma la Mphamvu 2021. Amsterdam: Bungwe la Transnational Institute.
Chithunzi chojambulidwa chikuku / flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)
Nkhondo ndi mafuta ku Nigeria
Mwina paliponse pomwe kulumikizana kwamafuta, zankhondo komanso kuponderezana kukuwonekera kwambiri kuposa ku Nigeria. Maboma olamulira atsamunda komanso maboma motsatizana kuyambira pomwe ufulu unkagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu poonetsetsa kuti mafuta ndi chuma chapita kwa anthu ochepa ochepa. Mu 1895, gulu lankhondo laku Britain lidawotcha Brass kuti liwonetsetse kuti kampani ya Royal Niger ikulamulira pamsika wamafuta amanjedza mumtsinje wa Niger. Anthu pafupifupi 2,000 adataya miyoyo yawo. Posachedwa, mu 1994 boma la Nigeria lidakhazikitsa gulu la Rivers State Internal Security Task Force kuti lipondereze ziwonetsero zamtendere ku Ogoniland motsutsana ndi zinthu zowononga za Shell Petroleum Development Company (SPDC). Zochita zawo zankhanza ku Ogoniland zokha zidapangitsa kuti anthu opitilira 2,000 aphedwe ndikukwapulidwa, kugwiriridwa komanso kuphwanya ufulu wa anthu ambiri.
Mafuta adalimbikitsa ziwawa ku Nigeria, choyamba popereka zida zantchito zankhondo ndi maulamuliro kuti atenge mphamvu ndi mgwirizano wamafuta apadziko lonse lapansi. Monga mkulu wina ku Nigerian Shell adati, 'Kwa kampani yamalonda yomwe ikuyesera kupanga ndalama, muyenera kukhala ndi malo okhazikika ... Olamulira olamulira mwankhanza akhoza kukupatsirani'. Uwu ndi ubale wofanizira: makampani amathawa kuyang'aniridwa ndi demokalase, ndipo asitikali amalimbikitsidwa ndikupatsidwa mphamvu ndikupereka chitetezo. Chachiwiri, zapangitsa kuti pakhale mkangano wogawana ndalama za mafuta komanso zotsutsana ndi kuwonongeka kwa chilengedwe komwe makampani amafuta adachita. Izi zidaphulika ndikumenyana ku Ogoniland komanso kuyankha mwankhanza komanso wankhanza.
Ngakhale mtendere wosalimba wakhala ukulipo kuyambira 2009 pomwe boma la Nigeria lidavomera kulipira omwe anali zigawenga mwezi uliwonse, mikhalidwe yoyambitsanso mikangano idakalipo ndipo ikuchitikadi kumadera ena ku Nigeria.
Izi zachokera ku Bassey, N. (2015) 'Tidaganiza kuti ndi mafuta, koma anali magazi: Kukana ukwati wapabungwe-wankhondo ku Nigeria ndi Beyond', pamndandanda wa zolemba zomwe zidatsagana ndi N. Buxton ndi B. Hayes (Eds.) (2015) Otetezeka ndi Olandidwa: Momwe Asitikali ndi Mabungwe Akupangidwira Dziko Lomwe Lasintha Nyengo. Pluto Press ndi TNI.
Kuwononga mafuta m'dera la Niger Delta. Chithunzi chojambula: Ucheke / Wikimedia (CC NDI-SA 4.0)
11. Kodi nkhondo ndi nkhondo zimakhudza bwanji chilengedwe?
Chikhalidwe cha nkhondo ndi nkhondo ndikuti chimayika patsogolo zolinga zachitetezo chadziko kupatula china chilichonse, ndipo zimadza ndi mawonekedwe ena apadera omwe amatanthauza kuti asirikali amapatsidwa ufulu samanyalanyaza ngakhale malamulo ochepa ndi zoletsa kuteteza zachilengedwe. Zotsatira zake, magulu ankhondo komanso nkhondo zasiya cholowa chowononga chilengedwe. Sikuti asitikali anangogwiritsa ntchito mafuta ochulukirapo, agwiritsanso ntchito zida za poizoni komanso zowononga zida zankhondo, zida zomenyera (mafuta, mafakitale, zimbudzi ndi zina zotero) zowononga zachilengedwe mosalekeza komanso malo osiyidwa okhala ndi poizoni wophulika komanso wophulika ndi zida.
Mbiri yakukondera kwa America ndiyonso yowononga zachilengedwe kuphatikizapo kuipitsidwa kwa zida za nyukiliya ku Marshall Islands, kutumizidwa kwa Agent Orange ku Vietnam komanso kugwiritsa ntchito uranium yomwe yatha ku Iraq ndi Yugoslavia wakale. Malo ambiri oipitsidwa kwambiri ku US ndi malo ankhondo ndipo adatchulidwa pamndandanda wa National Priority Super Fund wa National Protection Agency.
Mayiko omwe akhudzidwa ndi nkhondo ndi mikangano amakhudzidwanso kwakanthawi chifukwa chakuwonongeka kwa maboma komwe kumawononga malamulo azachilengedwe, kumapangitsa anthu kuwononga madera awo kuti apulumuke, komanso kumalimbikitsa magulu azankhondo omwe nthawi zambiri amatenga zinthu (mafuta, mchere ndi zina zambiri) pogwiritsa ntchito zowononga kwambiri zachilengedwe ndikuphwanya ufulu wa anthu. N'zosadabwitsa kuti nthawi zina nkhondo amatchedwa 'chitukuko chokhazikika mmbuyo'.
12. Kodi gulu lankhondo silofunikira pakuthandizira anthu?
Chifukwa chachikulu chodzipangira asitikali munthawi yamavuto azanyengo ndikuti adzafunika kuthana ndi mavuto okhudzana ndi nyengo, ndipo mayiko ambiri akutumiza asitikali motere. Pambuyo pa Mkuntho wa Haiyan womwe udawononga ku Philippines mu Novembala 2013, asitikali aku US kutumizidwa pachimake, Ndege zankhondo 66 ndi zombo zapamadzi 12 komanso pafupifupi asitikali 1,000 kuchotsa misewu, kunyamula ogwira ntchito zothandiza, kugawa zopereka ndi kuthandiza anthu. Munthawi yamadzi osefukira ku Germany mu Julayi 2021, asitikali aku Germany [Bundeswehr] adathandizira kulimbikitsa chitetezo chamadzi, kupulumutsa anthu ndikuyeretsa pomwe madzi adaphwera. M'mayiko ambiri, makamaka m'maiko omwe amalandira ndalama zochepa komanso apakatikati, pakadali pano asitikali ndiokhayo omwe angathe kuthana ndi zoopsa.
Zowona kuti asitikali atha kugwira ntchito zothandiza sizitanthauza kuti ndiye njira yabwino kwambiri pantchitoyi. Atsogoleri ena ankhondo amatsutsa magulu ankhondo omwe akuchita nawo zachiwawa pokhulupirira kuti zimasokonekera pokonzekera nkhondo. Ngakhale atavomereza ntchitoyi, pamakhala zoopsa zakuti asitikali azitha kuyankha, makamaka pakakhala mikangano kapena pomwe mayankho achithandizo agwirizana ndi zolinga zankhondo. Monga katswiri waku US zakunja Erik Battenberg avomereza poyera m'magazini yamalamulo, Hill kuti 'chithandizo chotsogozedwa ndi asirikali sichofunikira pothandiza anthu chabe - chitha kuthandizanso monga gawo lamalamulo akunja aku US'.
Izi zikutanthauza kuti thandizo laumunthu limabwera ndi zolinga zobisika - osagwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zochepa koma nthawi zambiri amafuna kupanga madera ndi mayiko kuti athandizire dziko lamphamvu ngakhale demokalase ndi ufulu wa anthu. US idakhala ndi mbiri yakalekale yogwiritsa ntchito thandizo ngati gawo limodzi lodana ndi zigawenga 'nkhondo zonyansa' zingapo ku Latin America, Africa ndi Asia kale, nthawi ya Cold War. M'zaka makumi awiri zapitazi, asitikali aku US ndi NATO akhala akuchita nawo zankhondo zankhondo zaku Afghanistan ndi Iraq zomwe zimagwiritsa ntchito zida zankhondo ndikugwira ntchito yothandizira ndi kumanganso. Izi nthawi zambiri zawatsogolera kuti achite zosiyana ndi ntchito zothandiza anthu. Ku Iraq, zidadzetsa nkhanza zankhondo monga kuzunzidwa kwakukulu kwa omangidwa kundende ya Bagram ku Iraq. Ngakhale kunyumba, kutumizidwa kwa asitikali ku New Orleans idawatsogolera kuti awombere okhala mosimidwa zimasonkhezeredwa ndi tsankho komanso mantha.
Kulowerera usitikali kumatha kupeputsanso ufulu wodziyimira pawokha, kusalowerera ndale komanso chitetezo cha ogwira ntchito zothandiza anthu, kuwapangitsa kukhala otetezedwa ndi magulu ankhondo. Thandizo lankhondo nthawi zambiri limakhala lotsika mtengo kuposa ntchito zothandiza anthu, kupatutsa chuma chochepa chaboma kupita kunkhondo. Pulogalamu ya chikhalidwe chadzetsa nkhawa yayikulu mwa mabungwe monga Red Cross / Crescent ndi Madokotala opanda malire.
Komabe, asitikali amaganiza zothandiza kwambiri pantchito yovuta yanyengo. Ripoti la 2010 la Center for Naval Analysis, Kusintha Kwanyengo: Zomwe Zingachitike Pakufunidwa Kothandizidwa ndi Gulu Lankhondo Laku US ndi Kuyankha Masoka, akunena kuti kusinthasintha kwanyengo sikungofuna thandizo lankhondo lankhondo lokha, komanso kufunikira kuti ilowererepo pokhazikitsa bata mayiko. Kusintha kwanyengo kwakhala chifukwa chatsopano chankhondo yokhazikika.
Palibe kukayika kuti mayiko adzafunika magulu othandiza pakagwa masoka komanso mgwirizano wapadziko lonse lapansi. Koma sizoyenera kumangiriridwa kunkhondo, koma m'malo mwake kungaphatikizepo gulu lolimbikitsidwa kapena latsopano lankhondo lomwe lingokhala ndi cholinga chothandizira anthu chomwe sichikutsutsana. Mwachitsanzo, Cuba, yokhala ndi zochepa zochepa komanso pansi pazoletsa, ili nayo idakhazikitsa dongosolo lachitetezo chachitetezo chothandiza kwambiri Ophatikizidwa mdera lililonse kuphatikiza kuphatikiza kulumikizana kwaboma ndi upangiri waukadaulo kwathandizanso kupulumuka mphepo zamkuntho zambiri zovulala zochepa komanso kumwalira kuposa oyandikana nawo olemera. Mphepo yamkuntho Sandy itagunda Cuba ndi US ku 2012, ndi anthu 11 okha omwe adamwalira ku Cuba komabe 157 adamwalira ku US. Germany ilinso ndi boma, Malingaliro a kampani Hilfswerk / THW) (Federal Agency for technical Relief) ambiri amakhala ndi odzipereka omwe nthawi zambiri amagwiritsidwa ntchito kuthana ndi tsoka.
13. Kodi makampani azankhondo ndi achitetezo akufuna kuti apindule bwanji ndi zovuta zanyengo?
'Ndikuganiza [kusintha kwa nyengo] ndi mwayi weniweni kwa mafakitale [owonera zakuthambo ndi zachitetezo]', atero a Lord Drayson ku 1999, pomwe anali Minister of State for Science and Innovation ku UK komanso Minister of State for Strategic Defense Acquisition Reform. Sanalakwe. Makampani azida zachitetezo ndi achitetezo apita patsogolo m'zaka makumi angapo zapitazi. Zogulitsa zonse zamakampani, mwachitsanzo, kuwirikiza pakati pa 2002 ndi 2018, kuchoka pa $ 202 biliyoni kufika pa $ 420 biliyoni, ndi mafakitale akuluakulu ambiri monga Lockheed Martin ndi Airbus akusunthira bizinesi yawo kwambiri m'malo onse achitetezo kuchokera kwa oyang'anira malire kuyang'aniridwa kunyumba. Ndipo makampaniwa akuyembekeza kuti kusintha kwanyengo komanso kusatetezeka komwe kudzapangitse kuti ziwonjezeke. Mu lipoti la Meyi 2021, Makampani ogulitsa misika adaneneratu za phindu lomwe lingapite patsogolo pantchito zachitetezo chakunyumba chifukwa cha 'nyengo yotentha, kuwuka kwa masoka achilengedwe, boma limatsindika mfundo zachitetezo'. Makampani oteteza malire ndi zoyembekezeka kukula chaka chilichonse ndi 7% ndi yotakata Makampani otetezera kwawo ndi 6% pachaka.
Makampaniwa akupindula m'njira zosiyanasiyana. Choyamba, ikufuna kupeza ndalama zoyeserera zamagulu akuluakulu ankhondo kuti apange matekinoloje atsopano omwe samadalira mafuta ndi zomwe zimalimbana ndi zovuta zakusintha kwanyengo. Mwachitsanzo, mu 2010, Boeing adapambana contract ya $ 89 miliyoni kuchokera ku Pentagon kuti apange drone yotchedwa 'SolarEagle', ndi QinetiQ ndi Center for Advanced Electrical Drives aku University of Newcastle ku UK kuti apange ndege yeniyeni - yomwe ili ndi mwayi woti onse awoneke ngati ukadaulo wa 'wobiriwira' komanso kuthekera kotalikirapo chifukwa sikuyenera kutulutsa mafuta. Lockheed Martin ku US ikugwira ntchito ndi Ocean Aero kupanga sitima zapamadzi zoyendetsedwa ndi dzuwa. Monga ma TNC ambiri, makampani opanga zida amafunanso kuti alimbikitse zoyesayesa zawo kuti achepetse zovuta zachilengedwe, malinga ndi malipoti awo apachaka. Popeza kuwonongedwa kwa chilengedwe chifukwa cha kusamvana, kusamba kwawoko kumakhala kopitilira muyeso ndi Pentagon mu 2013 pakuika ndalama $ 5 miliyoni kuti apange zipolopolo zopanda lead kuti m'mawu a wolankhulira asitikali aku US 'atha kukupha kapena kuti ukhoza kuwombera chandamale ndipo sichowononga chilengedwe'.
Chachiwiri, ikuyembekeza mapangano atsopano chifukwa cha maboma omwe akuchulukirachulukira poyembekezera kusowa chitetezo chamtsogolo chifukwa chazovuta zanyengo. Izi zithandizira kugulitsa zida, malire ndi zida zoyang'anira, apolisi ndi zinthu zachitetezo chakunyumba. Mu 2011, msonkhano wachiwiri wa Energy Environmental Defense and Security (E2DS) ku Washington, DC, udakondwera ndi mwayi wochita bizinesi wokulitsa ntchito zachitetezo mumisika yazachilengedwe, ponena kuti inali yochulukirapo kasanu ndi kasanu ndi msika wachitetezo, ndikuti 'malo owonera zakuthambo, chitetezo ndi chitetezo akukonzekera kuthana ndi zomwe zikuwoneka kuti zidzakhala msika wapafupi kwambiri kuyambira pomwe bizinesi yaboma / chitetezo chakunyumba yayamba kwazaka pafupifupi khumi zapitazo'. Lockheed Martin mkati lipoti lake lokhazikika la 2018 likulengeza mwayi, akuti 'mabungwe azinsinsi amakhalanso ndi gawo pothana ndi kusakhazikika kwandale komanso zochitika zomwe zingawopseze chuma ndi mabungwe'.
14. Kodi zotsatira zakusungidwa kwanyengo ndizotani mkati komanso apolisi?
Masomphenya achitetezo adziko sikuti amangowopseza akunja, alinso za ziwopsezo zamkati, kuphatikiza pazofunikira zachuma. Mwachitsanzo, British Security Service Act ya 1989, idafotokoza momveka bwino pakulamula achitetezo kuti azigwira ntchito `` yoteteza chuma '' cha dziko; US National Security Education Act ya 1991 mofananamo imagwirizanitsa pakati pa chitetezo cha dziko ndi 'chuma cha United States'. Izi zidapita patsogolo pambuyo pa 9/11 pomwe apolisi adawonedwa ngati gawo loyamba lodzitchinjiriza kwawo.
Izi zamasuliridwa kuti zikutanthauza kusamalira zipolowe za anthu ndikukonzekera kusakhazikika kulikonse, komwe kusintha kwanyengo kumawoneka ngati chinthu chatsopano. Chifukwa chake yakhalanso driver wina wowonjezera ndalama zachitetezo kuyambira apolisi mpaka kundende mpaka olondera m'malire. Izi zathandizidwa ndi mantra yatsopano ya 'kusamalira zovuta' ndi 'kuyanjana', poyesera kuphatikiza mabungwe aboma omwe akutenga nawo mbali pazachitetezo monga bata pagulu komanso 'zipolowe' (apolisi), 'kuzindikira kwanyengo' (luntha kusonkhanitsa), kupirira / kukonzekera (kukonzekera anthu) ndi kuyankha mwadzidzidzi (kuphatikiza oyankha oyamba, zotsutsana ndi uchigawenga; chitetezo chamankhwala, zachilengedwe, ma radiation ndi zida za nyukiliya; chitetezo chazinthu zofunikira, kukonzekera asitikali, ndi zina zotero) pansi pa lamulo latsopano 'nyumba.
Popeza izi zakhala zikuphatikizidwa ndi kuchuluka kwa asitikali achitetezo amkati, izi zatanthawuza kuti mphamvu yokakamiza ikulowera mkati molingana ndi kunja. Ku US, mwachitsanzo, department of Defense has anasamutsa ndalama zoposa $ 1.6 biliyoni zotsala ku madipatimenti mdziko lonselo kuyambira 9/11, kudzera mu pulogalamu yake ya 1033. Zipangizazi zikuphatikiza magalimoto opitilira mgodi 1,114 osagonjetsedwa, okhala ndi zida zankhondo, kapena ma MRAP. Apolisi agulanso zida zowunikira zochulukirapo kuphatikiza ma drones, Ndege zowonera, Ukadaulo wotsata foni yam'manja.
Asitikaliwa amayankhidwa ndi apolisi. Ma SWAT omwe apolisi ku US achita atadutsa rocket kuchokera 3000 pachaka m'ma 1980 mpaka 80,000 pachaka mu 2015, makamaka kwa kusaka mankhwala osokoneza bongo komanso anthu amtundu wakuda mosasunthika. Padziko lonse lapansi, monga momwe apolisi akale ndi mabungwe achitetezo akale amafufuza nthawi zambiri amapondereza ndikupha omenyera ufulu wawo. Zowona kuti nkhondo ikulimbana kwambiri ndi omenyera ufulu wa nyengo ndi zachilengedwe, odzipereka kuti athetse kusintha kwanyengo, ikutsindika momwe njira zachitetezo zimalephera kuthana ndi zomwe zimayambitsa koma zitha kukulitsa zovuta zanyengo.
Nkhondo imeneyi ilowanso munthawi yadzidzidzi. Dipatimenti Yachitetezo Chawo ndalama zothandizira 'kukonzekera uchigawenga' mu 2020 imalola kuti ndalama zomwezo zigwiritsidwe ntchito 'kukonzekera kukonzekera zoopsa zina zosagwirizana ndi uchigawenga'. Pulogalamu ya European Program for Critical Infrastructure Protection (EPCIP) imagwiritsanso ntchito njira yake yotetezera zomangamanga ku zovuta zakusintha kwanyengo motsogozedwa ndi 'uchigawenga'. Kuyambira koyambirira kwa 2000s, mayiko ambiri olemera adutsa zochitika zamagetsi zadzidzidzi zomwe zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito pakagwa masoka achilengedwe komanso omwe amakhala ochulukirapo komanso ochepa pakuyankha kwa demokalase. Mwachitsanzo, 2004 UK's Civil Contingencies Act 2004, imatanthauzira 'mwadzidzidzi' ngati 'chochitika kapena chochitika' chilichonse chomwe 'chikuwopseza kuwonongeka kwa anthu' kapena 'chilengedwe' cha 'malo ku UK'. Zimapatsa mwayi nduna kuti zidziwitse 'zadzidzidzi' zopanda malire popanda kupita ku nyumba yamalamulo - kuphatikiza kuloleza boma kuletsa misonkhano, kuletsa kuyenda, komanso kuletsa 'ntchito zina'.
15. Kodi ndondomeko yachitetezo cha nyengo ikupanga bwanji mabwalo ena monga chakudya ndi madzi?
Chilankhulo ndi chimango chachitetezo chafika pagawo lililonse lazandale, zachuma komanso chikhalidwe cha anthu, makamaka pokhudzana ndi kayendetsedwe kazinthu zofunikira monga madzi, chakudya ndi mphamvu. Monga chitetezo cha nyengo, chilankhulo chazitetezo chimagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi matanthauzo osiyanasiyana koma chili ndi misampha yofananira. Zimayendetsedwa ndi lingaliro loti kusintha kwanyengo kudzawonjezera chiopsezo chopeza zinthu zofunikira izi ndikuti kupereka 'chitetezo' ndikofunikira kwambiri.
Pali umboni wamphamvu wosonyeza kuti kupezeka kwa chakudya ndi madzi kudzakhudzidwa ndi kusintha kwa nyengo. IPCC ya 2019 lipoti lapadera lakusintha kwanyengo ndi nthaka ikulosera kuwonjezeka kwa anthu 183 miliyoni omwe ali pachiwopsezo cha njala pofika 2050 chifukwa cha kusintha kwa nyengo. Pulogalamu ya Global Water Institute akuneneratu kuti anthu mamiliyoni 700 padziko lonse lapansi atha kusowa pokhala chifukwa cha kusowa kwamadzi kwakukulu pofika chaka cha 2030. Zambiri mwa izi zichitika m'maiko osatentha omwe adzakhudzidwe kwambiri ndi kusintha kwa nyengo.
Komabe, zikuwonekeratu kuti ochita masewera otchuka akuchenjeza za kusatetezeka kwa chakudya, madzi kapena mphamvu fotokozerani zofananira zadziko, zankhondo komanso zamakampani zomwe zimayendetsa mikangano yokhudza chitetezo cha nyengo. Othandizira amateteza kuchepa ndikuchenjeza za kuopsa kwa kusowa kwa mayiko, ndipo nthawi zambiri amalimbikitsa mayankho amakampani omwe amatsogolera pamisika ndipo nthawi zina amateteza kugwiritsa ntchito gulu lankhondo kuti ateteze chitetezo. Njira zawo zothetsera kusatetezeka zimatsata njira yomwe ikukhudzana ndikuwonjezera kupezeka kwa ntchito - kukulitsa kupanga, kulimbikitsa ndalama zapadera ndikugwiritsa ntchito matekinoloje atsopano kuthana ndi zopinga. M'malo azakudya, mwachitsanzo, izi zapangitsa kuti nyengo ya Climate-Smart Agriculture iwoneke pakuwonjezera zokolola pazakusintha kwa kutentha, kumayambitsidwa kudzera m'mgwirizano monga AGRA, momwe mabungwe akuluakulu azamalonda akutsogolera. Kumbali yamadzi, yathandizira kupezetsa ndalama ndikusinthira madzi, pokhulupirira kuti msika ukhazikitsidwa bwino kuti uthetse kusowa ndi kusokonekera.
Pochita izi, kupanda chilungamo komwe kulipo mu mphamvu, chakudya ndi madzi zimanyalanyazidwa, osaphunzira kuchokera. Kulephera kwa masiku ano kupeza chakudya ndi madzi sichinthu chochepa kwambiri, ndipo chifukwa chazomwe mabungwe azakudya, madzi ndi mphamvu amayang'anira phindu. Njirayi yalola kuchuluka kwa anthu, kuwononga zachilengedwe, komanso kuwononga ndalama padziko lonse lapansi komwe kumayendetsedwa ndi makampani ochepa omwe akusamalira zosowa za ochepa ndikutsutsa mwayi wopezeka kwa ambiri. Munthawi yamavuto azanyengo, kusowa chilungamo kumeneku sikungathetsere kuchuluka kwachuma chifukwa kungokulitsa kupanda chilungamo. Makampani anayi okha a ADM, Bunge, Cargill ndi Louis Dreyfus mwachitsanzo amayang'anira 75-90% yamalonda apadziko lonse lapansi. Komabe sikuti chakudya chokhazikitsidwa motsogozedwa ndi makampani ngakhale kuti phindu lalikulu limalephera kuthana ndi njala yomwe ikukhudza 680 miliyoni, ndichimodzi mwazomwe zimathandizira kwambiri kutulutsa mpweya, womwe tsopano ukupanga pakati pa 21-37% ya mpweya wathunthu wa GHG.
Kulephera kwa lingaliro lotsogozedwa ndi mabungwe achitetezo kwapangitsa nzika zambiri kuyenda pa chakudya ndi madzi kuyitanitsa chakudya, madzi ndi kudziyimira pawokha, demokalase ndi chilungamo kuti athe kuthana ndi mavuto azakufunika kuti pakhale kufanana kuzinthu zofunikira, makamaka panthawi yovuta kwanyengo. Mwachitsanzo, kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka chakudya kakuyitanitsa ufulu wa anthu kuti apange, kugawa ndi kudya chakudya chotetezeka, chopatsa thanzi komanso chikhalidwe chawo m'njira zodalirika mdera lawo komanso kufupi ndi kwawo - nkhani zonse zomwe zimayang'aniridwa ndi 'chitetezo cha chakudya' komanso zotsutsana kupita kuntchito yapadziko lonse lapansi yopeza phindu.
Onaninso: Borras, S., Franco, J. (2018) Chilungamo cha Agrarian Climate: Kuchita bwino komanso mwayi, Amsterdam: Bungwe la Transnational Institute.
Manja pa Land (2016), Kuziziritsa dziko: Madera akutsogolo akutsogolera nkhondoyi: Mawu ochokera ku Global Convergence of Land and Water Struggles
Chithunzi chojambulidwa Felipe Werneck - Ascom / Ibama (CC NDI 2.0)
16. Kodi titha kupulumutsa mawu oti chitetezo?
Chitetezo ndichinthu chomwe ambiri adzafuna chifukwa chikuwonetsa kufunitsitsa kosamalira ndi kuteteza zinthu zofunika. Kwa anthu ambiri, chitetezo chimatanthauza kukhala ndi ntchito yabwino, kukhala ndi malo okhala, kukhala ndi mwayi wopeza zaumoyo ndi maphunziro, komanso kumva kukhala otetezeka. Chifukwa chake ndikosavuta kumvetsetsa chifukwa chomwe mabungwe aboma akhala akukayikira kusiya mawu oti 'chitetezo', kufunafuna m'malo mofutukula tanthauzo lake kuti muphatikize ndikuika patsogolo zoopseza zenizeni Kukhala bwino kwa anthu komanso zachilengedwe. Ndizomvekanso panthawi yomwe pafupifupi palibe andale omwe akuyankha pamavuto azanyengo mozama momwe akuyenera, kuti akatswiri azachilengedwe adzafuna kupeza mafelemu atsopano ndi anzawo kuti ayesetse kuchitapo kanthu. Ngati titha kusintha kutanthauzira kwachitetezo ndi chitetezo chokhala ndi malingaliro okhudzana ndi chitetezo cha anthu, izi zitha kukhala kupita patsogolo kwakukulu.
Pali magulu omwe akuyesera kuchita izi monga UK Kukhazikitsanso Chitetezo kanthu, Rosa Luxemburg Institute ndi ntchito yake pamawonedwe achitetezo chakumanzere. TNI idachitanso zina pa izi, kufotokozera njira ina yothanirana ndi nkhanza. Komabe ndi malo ovuta kutengera momwe kusowa kwamphamvu kwamphamvu padziko lonse lapansi. Kusoweka kwa tanthauzo pazachitetezo motero nthawi zambiri kumathandizira zofuna za olamulira, ndikutanthauzira kwa magulu ankhondo komanso mabungwe kuthana ndi masomphenya ena monga chitetezo cha anthu komanso zachilengedwe. Monga pulofesa wa ubale wapadziko lonse a Ole Weaver ananenera, 'potchula chitukuko china kukhala vuto lachitetezo, "boma" lingatenge ufulu wapadera, womwe pamapeto pake, ungafotokozeredwe ndi boma komanso otsogola'.
Kapenanso, monga katswiri wotsutsana ndi chitetezo a Mark Neocleous akuti, 'Kufunsitsa mafunso okhudzana ndi zandale komanso zandale kumafooketsa kuloleza boma kuti lichitepo kanthu pazandale pazinthu zomwe zikufunsidwa, kuphatikiza mphamvu zamitundu yomwe ilipo kale yachitetezo, komanso Kulungamitsa kufupika kwazinthu ngakhale njira zochepa kwambiri za demokalase. M'malo moteteza zinthu, tiyenera kuyang'ana njira zandale m'njira zosakhala zachitetezo. Ndikofunika kukumbukira kuti tanthauzo limodzi la "otetezeka" "silingathe kuthawa": tiyenera kupewa kuganizira za mphamvu zaboma komanso katundu waboma kudzera m'magulu omwe atipangitse kuti tithawe '. Mwanjira ina, pali lingaliro lamphamvu kusiya njira zachitetezo kumbuyo ndikulandila njira zomwe zimapereka mayankho okhalitsa pazovuta zanyengo.
Onaninso: Neocleous, M. ndi Rigakos, GS eds., 2011. Anti-chitetezo. Mabuku a Red Quill.
17. Kodi njira zina zotetezera nyengo ndi ziti?
Zikuwonekeratu kuti popanda kusintha, zovuta zakusintha kwanyengo zitha kupangidwa ndi zomwezi zomwe zidayambitsa zovuta zanyengo poyamba: mphamvu yayikulu yamakampani ndikulandidwa, gulu lankhondo lomwe likuchulukirachulukira, dziko lotetezera lomwe likuchulukirachulukira, kukulira umphawi ndi kusalinganika, kufooketsa mitundu ya demokalase ndi malingaliro andale omwe amapatsa mphotho umbombo, kudzikonda komanso kugula. Ngati izi zipitiliza kulamulira mfundo, zovuta zakusintha kwanyengo zizikhala zopanda chilungamo komanso zopanda chilungamo. Pofuna kuteteza aliyense amene akukumana ndi mavuto azanyengo, makamaka omwe ali pachiwopsezo, kungakhale kwanzeru kulimbana m'malo molimbitsa mphamvuzi. Ichi ndichifukwa chake magulu ambiri azikhalidwe amatanthauza chilungamo cha nyengo osati chitetezo cha nyengo, chifukwa zomwe zimafunikira ndikusintha kwadongosolo - osati kungopeza zenizeni zopanda chilungamo kuti zipitirire mtsogolo.
Koposa zonse, chilungamo chidzafuna pulogalamu yothanirana ndi mayiko olemera komanso oipitsa kwambiri panjira ya Green New Deal kapena Eco-Social Pact, yomwe imazindikira ngongole yomwe ili nayo kumayiko ndi madera aku Global South. Zingafune kugawidwa kwachuma kwakukulu pamayiko ndi mayiko ena ndikuyika patsogolo omwe ali pachiwopsezo chazovuta zakusintha kwanyengo. Ndalama zanyengo zachuma zomwe mayiko olemera kwambiri alonjeza (koma kuti apereka) kumayiko omwe amalandira ndalama zochepa komanso osakwanira sikokwanira pantchitoyi. Ndalama zidachotsedwa pakadali pano $ 1,981 biliyoni ndalama zapadziko lonse lapansi zankhondo likhala gawo loyamba labwino pobweretsa kuyanjana molingana ndi zovuta zakusintha kwanyengo. Momwemonso, msonkho pamakampani omwe amapeza phindu kumayiko ena atha kupeza $ 200- $ 600 biliyoni pachaka pothandiza madera osatetezeka omwe akhudzidwa kwambiri ndi kusintha kwa nyengo.
Kupitilira kugawa kwadziko, tikufunika kuti tiyambe kuthana ndi mavuto omwe akukhudzidwa ndi mavuto azachuma padziko lonse lapansi omwe atha kupangitsa kuti madera azikhala pachiwopsezo pakuchulukirachulukira kwanyengo. Michael Lewis ndi Pat Conaty Fotokozerani zinthu zisanu ndi ziwiri zofunika kupangitsa gulu kukhala lolimba: kusiyanasiyana, ndalama zachitukuko, malo okhala athanzi, luso, mgwirizano, machitidwe apafupipafupi oyankhira, komanso kusinthasintha (izi zikutanthauza kupanga dongosolo lomwe ngati chinthu chimodzi chaphwanya, sichichita zimakhudza china chilichonse). Kafukufuku wina wasonyeza kuti mabungwe omwe ali ofanana kwambiri amakhalanso olimba mtima nthawi yamavuto. Zonsezi zikuwonetsa kufunikira kofunafuna kusintha kwakukulu pachuma chapadziko lonse lapansi.
Chilungamo chanyengo chimafuna kuyika omwe angakhudzidwe kwambiri ndi kusakhazikika kwanyengo patsogolo ndi utsogoleri wamayankho. Izi sikungowonetsetsa kuti mayankho awathandiza, komanso chifukwa madera ambiri omwe ali operewera kale ali ndi mayankho pamavuto omwe tonsefe tikukumana nawo. Kusuntha kwa anthu wamba, mwachitsanzo, kudzera munjira zawo zaulimi sikuti amangogwiritsa ntchito njira zopangira zakudya zomwe zikuwoneka kuti ndizolimba kuposa kulima kwa kusintha kwanyengo, akusunganso mpweya wambiri m'nthaka, ndikumanga magulu omwe atha kuyimirira limodzi nthawi zovuta.
Izi zidzafuna demokalase pakupanga zisankho ndikuwonekera kwa mitundu yatsopano yaulamuliro yomwe ingafune kuchepetsa mphamvu ndi kuwongolera asitikali ndi mabungwe ndikuwonjezera mphamvu ndi kuyankha kwa nzika ndi madera.
Pomaliza, chilungamo chanyengo chimafuna kuti pakhale njira yokhazikitsira bata ndi bata komanso njira zopanda nkhanza zothetsera kusamvana. Ndondomeko zachitetezo cha nyengo zimapereka nkhani zamantha komanso dziko lopanda malire komwe kuli gulu linalake lomwe lingakhale ndi moyo. Amakhala ndi mikangano. Chilungamo chanyengo chimayang'ana mayankho omwe amatilola kuti tonse tikule bwino, pomwe mikangano imathetsedwa popanda zachiwawa, komanso omwe ali pachiwopsezo chotetezedwa.
Pazonsezi, titha kukhala ndi chiyembekezo kuti m'mbiri yonse, masoka akhala akubweretsa zabwino kwambiri mwa anthu, ndikupanga magulu ang'onoang'ono, osakhazikika omwe amangidwa molingana ndi mgwirizano, demokalase komanso kuyankha mlandu kuti neoliberalism ndi authoritarianism zachotsa machitidwe andale amakono. Rebecca Solnit adalemba izi Paradaiso ku Gahena momwe adayang'anitsitsa masoka akulu asanu mozama, kuyambira chivomerezi cha 1906 ku San Francisco mpaka kusefukira kwa madzi ku New Orleans mu 2005. Ananenanso kuti ngakhale zochitika zotere sizabwino mwa iwo wokha, atha 'kuwulula zomwe dziko lingakhale - kuwulula mphamvu ya chiyembekezo, kuwolowa manja komanso mgwirizano. Ikuwulula kuthandizana monga njira yosasinthira komanso mabungwe aboma ngati china chomwe chimadikirira m'mapiko pomwe kulibe siteji '.
Onaninso: Kuti mumve zambiri pamitu yonseyi, gulani bukuli: N. Buxton and B. Hayes (Eds.) (2015) Otetezeka ndi Olandidwa: Momwe Asitikali ndi Mabungwe Akupangidwira Dziko Lomwe Lasintha Nyengo. Pluto Press ndi TNI.
Zothokoza: Tithokoze a Simon Dalby, Tamara Lorincz, Josephine Valeske, Niamh Ine Bhriain, Wendela de Vries, Deborah Eade, Ben Hayes.
Zomwe zili mu lipotili zitha kutchulidwa kapena kusindikizidwanso pazifukwa zosachita malonda bola ngati gwero lake latchulidwalo. TNI ndiyamika kulandira kope kapena ulalo wamakalata momwe lipotilo latchulidwapo kapena kugwiritsidwa ntchito.
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