Chinsinsi, Sayansi, ndi National Chotchedwa Security State

Wolemba Cliff Conner, Sayansi kwa Anthu, April 12, 2023

Mawu oti "chitetezo cha dziko" adziwika bwino ngati njira yodziwira zenizeni zandale za United States masiku ano. Zikutanthauza kuti kufunika kusunga owopsa chinsinsi cha chidziwitso chakhala ntchito yofunikira ya mphamvu yolamulira. Mawuwo amatha kuwoneka ngati osamveka, koma machitidwe, malingaliro, ndi malamulo amatanthawuza kusokoneza kwambiri miyoyo ya munthu aliyense padziko lapansi. Padakali pano, kuyesayesa kusunga zinsinsi za boma kwa anthu kwayendera limodzi ndi kuwukira mwadongosolo kwa zinsinsi za munthu payekha pofuna kuletsa nzika kusunga zinsinsi za boma.

Sitingathe kumvetsetsa zandale zomwe tili nazo popanda kudziwa komwe zidachokera komanso chitukuko cha zida zachinsinsi za boma la US. Ilo—kwambiri, lakhala chaputala chosinthidwanso m’mabuku a mbiri yakale aku America, chopereŵera chimene wolemba mbiri Alex Wellerstein molimba mtima ndiponso molimba mtima anafuna kuchithetsa. Zambiri Zoletsedwa: The History of Nuclear Secrecy ku United States.

Katswiri wamaphunziro a Wellerstein ndi mbiri ya sayansi. Izi ndizoyenera chifukwa chidziwitso chowopsa chopangidwa ndi akatswiri a sayansi ya zida za nyukiliya ku Manhattan Project pa Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse chinayenera kuchitidwa mobisa kuposa zomwe zidadziwika kale.¹

Kodi anthu aku America alola bwanji kukula kwa zinsinsi zokhazikitsidwa mozama motere? Gawo limodzi panthawi, ndipo gawo loyamba lidatsimikizidwa ngati kuli kofunikira kuti Germany ya Nazi isapange zida zanyukiliya. Zinali "chinsinsi chonse, chasayansi chomwe bomba la atomiki lidawoneka kuti likufuna" zomwe zimapangitsa mbiri yakale yachitetezo cha dziko lamakono kukhala mbiri yachinsinsi cha nyukiliya (tsamba 3).

Mawu akuti "Restricted Data" anali mawu oyambirira okhudza zinsinsi za nyukiliya. Anayenera kusungidwa mobisa kotero kuti ngakhale kukhalapo kwawo sikunayenera kuvomerezedwa, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti mawu omveka ngati "Deta Yoletsedwa" inali yofunikira kuti abise zomwe zili.

Ubale pakati pa sayansi ndi anthu womwe mbiriyi ikuwulula ndi wofanana komanso wolimbikitsana. Kuphatikiza pa kuwonetsa momwe sayansi yobisika yakhudzira chikhalidwe cha anthu, ikuwonetsanso momwe boma lachitetezo cha dziko lathandizira chitukuko cha sayansi ku United States pazaka makumi asanu ndi atatu zapitazi. Kumeneko sikunakhale chitukuko chabwino; zachititsa kugonjera kwa sayansi ya ku America ku chisonkhezero chosakhutiritsidwa cha ulamuliro wankhondo wadziko lonse.

Zitheka Bwanji Kulemba Mbiri Yachinsinsi Yachinsinsi?

Ngati pali zinsinsi zoti zisungidwe, ndani amene amaloledwa kukhala “mu izo”? Alex Wellerstein ndithudi sanali. Izi zitha kuwoneka ngati zododometsa zomwe zingasokoneze kufunsa kwake kuyambira pachiyambi. Kodi wolemba mbiri yemwe amaletsedwa kuwona zinsinsi zomwe amafufuza anganene chilichonse?

Wellerstein akuvomereza “zopereŵera za kuyesera kulemba mbiri yokhala ndi mbiri yosungidwa nthaŵi zambiri yosungidwa bwino.” Komabe, iye “sanapemphe kapena kufuna chilolezo chachitetezo cha boma.” Kukhala ndi chilolezo, akuwonjezera kuti, sikuthandiza kwenikweni, ndipo kumapatsa boma ufulu wofufuza zomwe zimasindikizidwa. "Ngati sindingathe kuuza aliyense zomwe ndikudziwa, ndiye kuti ndikudziwa bwanji?" (tsamba 9). Ndipotu, pokhala ndi chidziŵitso chochuluka chosadziwika bwino chimene chilipo, monga momwe magwero ochuluka zedi amanenera m’buku lake, Wellerstein amakhoza kupereka nkhani yodabwitsa ndi yomveka bwino ya chiyambi cha chinsinsi cha nyukiliya.

Nthawi Zitatu za Mbiri Yachinsinsi cha Nyukiliya

Kuti tifotokoze momwe tidachokera ku United States komwe kunalibe zida zachinsinsi za boma - palibe zotetezedwa mwalamulo za "Zachinsinsi," "Zachinsinsi," kapena "Chinsinsi Chapamwamba" - mpaka kuchitetezo chadziko lonse masiku ano, Wellerstein amatanthauzira nthawi zitatu. Yoyamba inali kuchokera ku Manhattan Project panthawi ya Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse mpaka kuuka kwa Cold War; yachiŵiri inafalikira kupyola m’Nkhondo Yamaukulu kwambiri kufikira chapakati pa ma 1960; ndipo chachitatu chinali kuyambira Nkhondo ya Vietnam mpaka pano.

Nthawi yoyamba inali yodziwika ndi kusatsimikizika, kutsutsana, ndi kuyesa. Ngakhale kuti mikangano pa nthawiyo nthawi zambiri inali yobisika komanso yovuta, kulimbana pachinsinsi kuyambira nthawi imeneyo kukhoza kuonedwa ngati bipolar, ndi malingaliro awiri otsutsana omwe akufotokozedwa kuti.

lingaliro la "idealistic" ("wokondedwa kwa asayansi") kuti ntchito ya sayansi inkafuna kufufuza cholinga cha chilengedwe ndi kufalitsa chidziwitso popanda zoletsa, ndi "zankhondo kapena dziko" maganizo, omwe ankati nkhondo zamtsogolo zinali zosapeŵeka komanso kuti udindo wa dziko la United States wosunga usilikali wamphamvu kwambiri (tsamba 85).

Chidziwitso cha Spoiler: Ndondomeko za "zankhondo kapena zadziko" zidakhalapo, ndipo iyi ndi mbiri yachitetezo cha dziko mwachidule.

Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse isanachitike, lingaliro lachinsinsi lasayansi lokhazikitsidwa ndi boma likadakhala lovuta kwambiri kugulitsa, kwa asayansi komanso kwa anthu. Asayansi ankawopa kuti kuwonjezera pa kulepheretsa kufufuza kwawo kukupita patsogolo, kuika zinthu zosokoneza za boma pa sayansi kungapangitse anthu ochita zisankho osadziŵa zambiri mwasayansi ndi nkhani yapoyera yodzala ndi malingaliro, nkhaŵa, ndi mantha. Zizoloŵezi zamwambo za kumasuka kwa sayansi ndi kugwirizana, komabe, zinathedwa nzeru ndi mantha aakulu a bomba la nyukiliya la Nazi.

Kugonjetsedwa kwa maulamuliro a Axis mu 1945 kunabweretsa kusintha kwa mfundo zokhudzana ndi mdani wamkulu yemwe zinsinsi za nyukiliya ziyenera kusungidwa. M'malo mwa Germany, mdaniyo adzakhala mnzake wakale, Soviet Union. Izi zinapangitsa kuti anthu ambiri ayambe kudana ndi chikomyunizimu pa Cold War, ndipo zotsatira zake zinali kukhazikitsidwa kwa dongosolo lalikulu lachinsinsi pazochitika za sayansi ku United States.

Lerolino, Wellerstein akutero, “zaka zoposa makumi asanu ndi aŵiri pambuyo pa kutha kwa Nkhondo Yadziko II, ndi zaka makumi atatu kuchokera pamene Soviet Union inagwa,” timapeza kuti “zida za nyukiliya, chinsinsi cha nyukiliya, ndi mantha a nyukiliya zimasonyeza kuoneka kulikonse kukhala kosatha. mbali ya dziko lathu lino, kumlingo umene kwa ambiri nkosatheka kuulingalira mwanjira ina” (p. 3). Koma momwe kodi izi zidachitika? Nthawi zitatu zomwe tatchulazi zikupereka maziko a nkhaniyi.

Cholinga chachikulu cha zida zachinsinsi zamasiku ano ndikubisa kukula ndi kukula kwa "nkhondo zosatha" za US komanso milandu yolimbana ndi anthu.

M’nthaŵi yoyamba, kufunika kosunga zinsinsi za nyukiliya “kunafalitsidwa poyambirira ndi asayansi amene ankaona kuti chinsinsi chawo n’chonyansa chifukwa cha zofuna zawo.” Kuyesera koyambirira kodziyesa "kunasintha, modabwitsa, kukhala dongosolo la kayendetsedwe ka boma pazofalitsa zasayansi, ndipo kuyambira pamenepo kulamulira boma pafupifupi. onse chidziwitso chokhudzana ndi kafukufuku wa atomiki. " Unali nkhani yachikale ya naïveté yandale ndi zotsatira zosayembekezereka. “Pamene akatswiri a sayansi ya zida za nyukiliya anayambitsa kuyitanitsa chinsinsi, anaganiza kuti kukakhala kwakanthawi, ndikulamulidwa ndi iwo. Analakwitsa” (tsamba 15).

Malingaliro ankhondo a troglodyte ankaganiza kuti chitetezo chitha kupezeka mwa kungoyika zidziwitso zonse za nyukiliya zokhoma ndi kiyi ndikuwopseza zilango zowopsa kwa aliyense amene angayerekeze kuwulula, koma kusakwanira kwa njirayo kudawonekera. Chochititsa chidwi kwambiri, "chinsinsi" chofunikira cha momwe angapangire bomba la atomiki inali nkhani ya mfundo zazikuluzikulu za sayansi ya sayansi zomwe zinali zodziwika kale kapena zopezeka mosavuta.

Apo anali Chidziwitso chimodzi chofunikira kwambiri chosadziwika - "chinsinsi" chenicheni - 1945 isanafike: ngati kuphulika kwamphamvu kwa nyukiliya kungathe kuchitidwa kapena ayi. Kuyesa kwa atomiki ya Utatu kwa July 16, 1945 ku Los Alamos, New Mexico, kunapereka chinsinsi chimenechi ku dziko, ndipo kukayikira kulikonse kumene kunalipo kunachotsedwa milungu itatu pambuyo pake ndi kuwonongedwa kwa Hiroshima ndi Nagasaki. Funsoli litathetsedwa, zochitika zoopsa zidachitika: Dziko lililonse padziko lapansi litha kupanga bomba la atomiki lomwe lingathe kuwononga mzinda uliwonse Padziko Lapansi ndi kugunda kumodzi.

Koma mfundo sizinali zofanana ndi zenizeni. Kukhala ndi chinsinsi cha kupanga mabomba a atomiki sikunali kokwanira. Kuti apange bomba lakuthupi pamafunika uranium yaiwisi komanso njira zamafakitale zoyeretsera matani ambiri kukhala zinthu zotha kugawanika. Motero, lingaliro lina linati chinsinsi cha chitetezo cha nyukiliya sichinali kusunga chidziwitso, koma kupeza ndi kusunga mphamvu zakuthupi za uranium padziko lonse lapansi. Njira imeneyi kapena zoyesayesa zosautsa zoletsa kufalikira kwa chidziwitso cha sayansi sizinathandize kuti dziko la United States likhale ndi zida zanyukiliya kwa nthawi yaitali.

Kulamulirako kunatenga zaka zinayi zokha, mpaka mu August 1949, pamene Soviet Union inaphulitsa bomba lake loyamba la atomiki. Asilikali ankhondo ndi ogwirizana nawo a Congression adadzudzula azondi-zachisoni komanso zodziwika bwino, Julius ndi Ethel Rosenberg - chifukwa chakuba chinsinsi ndikuchipereka ku USSR. Ngakhale kuti imeneyo inali nkhani yabodza, mwatsoka inapeza ulamuliro pa zokambirana za dziko ndipo inatsegula njira ya kukula kosalekeza kwa chitetezo cha dziko.²

Mu gawo lachiwiri, nkhaniyo idasinthiratu kumbali ya Cold Warriors, pomwe anthu aku America adagonja ku Reds-Under-the-Bed obsessions of McCarthyism. Zovutazo zidakwezedwa mazana angapo pomwe mkanganowo udasintha kuchoka pakupangana mpaka kuphatikizika. Ndi Soviet Union yokhoza kupanga mabomba a nyukiliya, nkhani inakhala ngati United States iyenera kutsata kufunafuna kwa sayansi kwa "bomba lapamwamba" - kutanthauza bomba la thermonuclear, kapena hydrogen. Ambiri mwa akatswiri a sayansi ya nyukiliya, omwe anali J. Robert Oppenheimer kutsogolera, anatsutsa mwamphamvu lingaliroli, akutsutsa kuti bomba la thermonuclear lingakhale lopanda ntchito ngati chida chomenyera nkhondo ndipo lingangogwira ntchito zowononga fuko.

Apanso, komabe, zotsutsana za alangizi a sayansi omwe amatenthetsa kwambiri, kuphatikizapo Edward Teller ndi Ernest O. Lawrence, adapambana, ndipo Purezidenti Truman adalamula kuti kafukufuku wa superbomb apitirire. Mwatsoka, izo zinali zopambana mwasayansi. Mu November 1952, dziko la United States linatulutsa kuphulika kwamphamvu kuwirikiza mazana asanu ndi aŵiri kuposa kumene kunawononga Hiroshima, ndipo mu November 1955 Soviet Union inasonyeza kuti nayonso, ingayankhe mofananamo. Mpikisano wa zida za zida za thermonuclear unalipo.

Nthawi yachitatu ya mbiriyi idayamba m'ma 1960, makamaka chifukwa cha kudzutsidwa kwa anthu ku nkhanza komanso kugwiritsa ntchito molakwika chidziwitso chambiri pankhondo yaku US ku Southeast Asia. Iyi inali nthawi yokankhira anthu kumbuyo motsutsana ndi kukhazikitsidwa kwachinsinsi. Inatulutsa zipambano zina, kuphatikizapo kufalitsa The Pentagon Papers ndi kuperekedwa kwa Freedom of Information Act.

Kuvomereza uku, komabe, kunalephera kukhutiritsa otsutsa chinsinsi cha boma ndipo kunayambitsa "mchitidwe watsopano wotsutsa chinsinsi," momwe otsutsawo adafalitsa dala chidziwitso chodziwika bwino monga "mtundu wa ndale," ndipo adapempha zitsimikizo za First Amendment. pa ufulu wa atolankhani "ngati chida champhamvu chotsutsana ndi mabungwe achinsinsi" (pp. 336-337).

Olimba mtima omenyera chinsinsi adapambana pang'ono, koma m'kupita kwanthawi boma lachitetezo chadziko lidakhala lofala komanso losayankha kuposa kale. Monga momwe Wellerstein akudandaula, “pali mafunso ozama ponena za kuyenera kwa zonena za boma zolamulira chidziŵitso m’dzina la chisungiko cha dziko. . . . ndipo komabe, chinsinsicho chikupitilirabe” (p. 399).

Pambuyo pa Wellerstein

Ngakhale kuti mbiri ya Wellerstein ya kubadwa kwa dziko lachitetezo ndi yokwanira, yomveka bwino, komanso yogwirizana ndi chikumbumtima, n'zomvetsa chisoni kuti ikufotokoza za momwe tinafikira pavutoli. Atawona kuti boma la Obama, "zokhumudwitsa ambiri mwa omwe amawatsatira," linali "limodzi mwamilandu kwambiri pankhani yoimba mlandu anthu odukizadukiza ndi oyimba," Wellerstein akulemba motero, "Ndikukayika kuyesera kuwonjezera nkhaniyi kupitilira. mfundo iyi” (tsamba 394).

Kupyola pa mfundo imeneyi kukanamupangitsa kuti apitirire pa zimene zili zovomerezeka m’nkhani za onse. Ndemanga yapano yalowa kale m'dera lachilendoli podzudzula kusakhutira kwa United States pa kulamulira kwankhondo padziko lonse lapansi. Kukankhira mafunsowa kungafunike kusanthula mozama za chinsinsi cha boma chomwe Wellerstein amangotchula pochitika, zomwe ndi mavumbulutso a Edward Snowden okhudza National Security Agency (NSA), komanso koposa zonse, WikiLeaks ndi mlandu wa Julian Assange.

Mawu motsutsana ndi Zochita

Chinthu chachikulu kwambiri choposa Wellerstein m'mbiri ya zinsinsi za boma chimafuna kuzindikira kusiyana kwakukulu pakati pa "chinsinsi cha mawu" ndi "chinsinsi cha ntchito." Poyang'ana kwambiri zolemba zamagulu, Wellerstein amapereka mwayi wolembedwa ndikunyalanyaza zowona zowopsa za dziko lodziwa zonse lomwe lakhala likubisa chinsinsi cha boma.

Kukankhira pagulu motsutsana ndi zinsinsi zomwe Wellerstein akufotokoza zakhala nkhondo yambali imodzi yotsutsana ndi zochita. Nthawi zonse zikawululidwa za kuphwanya kwakukulu kwa chikhulupiliro cha anthu, kuyambira pulogalamu ya FBI COINTELPRO mpaka kuwulula kwa Snowden ku NSA - mabungwe omwe ali ndi mlandu amawonetsa anthu. mea culpa ndipo nthawi yomweyo adabwerera kubizinesi yawo yoyipa monga mwachizolowezi.

Pakadali pano, chitetezo cha dziko "chinsinsi cha ntchito" chapitilirabe popanda chilango. Nkhondo yapamlengalenga yaku US ku Laos kuyambira 1964 mpaka 1973 - momwe matani mamiliyoni awiri ndi theka a mabomba adaponyedwa kudziko laling'ono, losauka - idatchedwa "nkhondo yachinsinsi" komanso "chinthu chobisika kwambiri m'mbiri ya America," chifukwa sizinachitike ndi US Air Force, koma ndi Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).³ Chimenecho chinali chiyambi chachikulu militarizing intelligence, yomwe nthawi zonse imagwira ntchito zachinsinsi zamagulu ankhondo komanso kuwukira kwa drone m'madera ambiri padziko lapansi.

United States yaphulitsa zolinga za anthu wamba; adachita zigawenga zomwe ana adamangidwa ndi manja ndikuwomberedwa m'mutu, kenako adayitanitsa ndege kuti abise zomwe adachita; anapha anthu wamba ndi atolankhani; adatumiza magulu ankhondo apadera "akuda" kuti agwire ndi kupha anthu mopanda chilungamo.

Nthawi zambiri, cholinga chachikulu cha zida zachinsinsi zamasiku ano ndikubisa kukula ndi kukula kwa "nkhondo zosatha" za US ndi milandu yolimbana ndi anthu. Malinga ndi New York Times mu October 2017, oposa 240,000 asilikali US anali osachepera 172 mayiko ndi madera padziko lonse. Zochita zawo zambiri, kuphatikizapo kumenyana, zinali zachinsinsi. Asilikali aku America "adachita nawo mwachangu" osati ku Afghanistan, Iraq, Yemen, ndi Syria, komanso ku Niger, Somalia, Jordan, Thailand, ndi kwina. “Asilikali enanso 37,813 akugwira ntchito zachinsinsi m'malo amene 'osadziwika bwino.' Pentagon sinafotokozenso zina. "⁴

Ngati mabungwe achinsinsi aboma anali odzitchinjiriza koyambirira kwa zaka za zana la makumi awiri ndi chimodzi, kuwukira kwa 9/11 kunawapatsa zida zonse zomwe amafunikira kuti athe kubwezera omwe amawatsutsa ndikupanga boma lachitetezo cha dziko kukhala lachinsinsi komanso losayankha mlandu. Dongosolo la makhothi amilandu obisika omwe amadziwika kuti FISA (Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act) analipo ndipo akugwira ntchito motsatira bungwe lachinsinsi lazamalamulo kuyambira 1978. Komabe, pambuyo pa 9/11, mphamvu ndi kufikira kwa makhothi a FISA zidakula. mokulira. Mtolankhani wina wofufuza milandu anawafotokoza kuti “akhala mwakachetechete kukhala Khoti Lalikulu lofanana ndi lomwelo.”⁵

Ngakhale a NSA, CIA, ndi ena onse anzeru amapeza njira zopititsira patsogolo ntchito zawo zaphokoso ngakhale amawulula mobwerezabwereza mawu omwe amayesa kubisa, sizitanthauza kuti mavumbulutsidwe - kaya ndi kutayikira, mwa whistleblower, kapena kusokoneza - ndi. zopanda phindu. Amakhala ndi mphamvu zambiri pazandale zomwe opanga mfundo akufuna kwambiri kuziletsa. Kulimbana kosalekeza ndikofunikira.

WikiLeaks ndi Julian Assange

Wellerstein akulemba za “mtundu watsopano wa omenyera ufulu . . . amene ankaona kuti chinsinsi cha boma n’choipa chimene chiyenera kutsutsidwa ndi kuchichotsa,” koma sanatchulepo chisonyezero champhamvu ndi chogwira mtima cha chochitika chimenecho: WikiLeaks. WikiLeaks idakhazikitsidwa ku 2006 ndipo mu 2010 idasindikiza mauthenga opitilira 75 zikwizikwi zankhondo ndi akazembe zankhondo yaku US ku Afghanistan, komanso pafupifupi mazana anayi zikwi zambiri zankhondo yaku US ku Iraq.

Kuwulula kwa WikiLeaks za milandu yambirimbiri yolimbana ndi anthu pankhondo zimenezo kunali kodabwitsa komanso kowononga. Zingwe zaukazembe zomwe zidatsikidwazo zinali ndi mawu mabiliyoni awiri omwe akadasindikizidwa m'mavoliyumu pafupifupi 30.⁶ Kuchokera kwa iwo tinaphunzira “kuti United States yaphulitsa zolinga za anthu wamba; adachita zigawenga zomwe ana adamangidwa ndi manja ndikuwomberedwa m'mutu, kenako adayitanitsa ndege kuti abise zomwe adachita; anapha anthu wamba ndi atolankhani; adatumiza magulu ankhondo apadera 'akuda' kuti agwire ndi kupha anthu mopanda chilungamo," komanso, zokhumudwitsa, zina zambiri.⁷

Pentagon, CIA, NSA, ndi US State Department adadzidzimuka komanso kudabwitsidwa ndi mphamvu ya WikiLeaks povumbulutsa milandu yawo yankhondo kuti dziko liwone. Ndizosadabwitsa kuti akufuna kupachika woyambitsa WikiLeaks, a Julian Assange, ngati chitsanzo chowopsa kuwopseza aliyense amene angafune kumutsanzira. Boma la Obama silinapereke milandu kwa Assange chifukwa choopa kuyika chitsanzo choopsa, koma Boma la Trump linamuimba mlandu pansi pa Espionage Act ndi zolakwa zokhala m'ndende zaka 175.

Pamene a Biden adatenga udindo mu Januware 2021, otsutsa ambiri a First Amendment adaganiza kuti atsatira chitsanzo cha Obama ndikuchotsa milandu yomwe Assange akuimba, koma sanatero. Mu Okutobala 2021, mgwirizano wazaka makumi awiri ndi zisanu zaufulu wa atolankhani, ufulu wachibadwidwe, ndi mabungwe omenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe adatumiza kalata kwa Attorney General Merrick Garland yolimbikitsa Unduna wa Zachilungamo kuti usiye zoyesayesa zake zozenga Assange. Iwo ananena kuti mlandu womuimba mlandu “uopseza kwambiri ufulu wa atolankhani ku United States ndi kumayiko ena.”⁸

Mfundo yofunika kwambiri imene ili pachiwopsezo ndi imeneyi kuphwanya malamulo kufalitsa zinsinsi za boma sikugwirizana ndi kukhalapo kwa atolankhani aulere. Zomwe Assange akuimbidwa ndizosiyana ndi zomwe adachita New York Times, ndi Washington Post, ndi mabungwe ena osawerengeka ofalitsa nkhani akhala akugwira ntchito nthawi zonse.⁹ Mfundo sikutanthauza kutsimikizira ufulu wa atolankhani ngati gawo lokhazikika la America yaufulu, koma kuzindikira kuti ndi chikhalidwe chofunikira chomwe chiyenera kumenyedwa nthawi zonse.

Onse omenyera ufulu wachibadwidwe ndi ufulu wa atolankhani ayenera kufunsa kuti milandu yomwe Assange aimbidwayo ichotsedwe nthawi yomweyo, komanso kuti amasulidwe m'ndende mosazengereza. Ngati Assange atha kuimbidwa mlandu ndikutsekeredwa m'ndende chifukwa chofalitsa zidziwitso zowona - "chinsinsi" kapena ayi - zowala zomaliza za atolankhani zaulere zidzazimitsidwa ndipo boma lachitetezo cha dziko lidzalamulira mosatsutsidwa.

Kumasula Assange, komabe, ndi nkhondo yovuta kwambiri pankhondo ya Sisyphean yoteteza ufulu wa anthu motsutsana ndi kuponderezedwa kwakukulu kwa dziko lachitetezo. Ndipo monga kofunika monga kuwulula milandu yankhondo yaku US kulili, tiyenera kuyesetsa kwambiri: ku thandizani Iwo pomanganso gulu lamphamvu lolimbana ndi nkhondo ngati lomwe linachititsa kuti zigawenga zithe ku Vietnam.

Mbiri ya Wellerstein yoyambira kukhazikitsidwa kwachinsinsi ku US ndiyothandiza kwambiri pankhondo yolimbana nayo, koma kupambana komaliza kumafuna - kufotokoza m'mawu ake Wellerstein mwiniwake, monga tafotokozera pamwambapa - "kuwonjezera nkhani kupitilira pamenepo," kuphatikiza kumenyera nkhondo. mtundu watsopano wa anthu ofuna kukwaniritsa zosowa za anthu.

Zambiri Zoletsedwa: The History of Nuclear Secrecy ku United States
Alex Wellerstein
Yunivesite ya Chicago Press
2021
tsamba 528

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Cliff Conner ndi wolemba mbiri ya sayansi. Iye ndi mlembi wa Mavuto A Science America (Mabuku a Haymarket, 2020) ndi Mbiri ya Anthu ya Sayansi (Mabuku a Bold Type, 2005).

zolemba

1. Panali zoyesayesa zam'mbuyomu zoteteza zinsinsi zankhondo (onani Defense Secrets Act ya 1911 ndi Espionage Act ya 1917), koma monga akufotokozera Wellerstein, "zinali zisanagwiritsidwepo kanthu pa chilichonse chachikulu monga momwe bomba la atomiki la America lingakhalire" (tsamba 33).
2. Panali azondi aku Soviet ku Manhattan Project ndipo pambuyo pake, koma ukazitape wawo sunawonetseretu nthawi ya pulogalamu ya zida za nyukiliya ya Soviet.
3. Joshua Kurlanzick, Malo Abwino Okhala Ndi Nkhondo: America ku Laos ndi Kubadwa kwa Gulu Lankhondo la CIA (Simon & Schuster, 2017).
4. New York Times Editorial Board, "America's Forever Wars," New York Times, October 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/opinion/americas-forever-wars.html.
5. Eric Lichtblau, "Mwachinsinsi, Khoti Limakulitsa Mphamvu za NSA," New York Times, July 6, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/07/us/in-secret-court-vastly-broadens-powers-of-nsa.html.
6. Mawu aliwonse kapena onse mabiliyoni awiriwa akupezeka patsamba la WikiLeaks. Nawu ulalo wa WikiLeaks' PlusD, womwe ndi chidule cha "Public Library of US Diplomacy": https://wikileaks.org/plusd.
7. Julian Assange et al., Mafayilo a WikiLeaks: Dziko Lolingana ndi US Empire (London & New York: Verso, 2015), 74-75.
8. "Kalata ya ACLU yopita ku Dipatimenti Yachilungamo ku US," American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), October 15, 2021. https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/assange_letter_on_letterhead.pdf; Onaninso kalata yotseguka yochokera The New York Times, The Guardian, Le Monde, Der Spiegelndipo Dziko (November 8, 2022) akupempha boma la US kuti lisiye milandu yotsutsana ndi Assange: https://www.nytco.com/press/an-open-letter-from-editors-and-publishers-publishing-is-not-a-crime/.
9. Monga momwe katswiri wa zamalamulo Marjorie Cohn akulongosolera, “Palibe woulutsira nkhani kapena mtolankhani amene anaimbidwapo mlandu ndi lamulo la Espionage Act chifukwa chofalitsa nkhani zowona, zomwe zimatetezedwa ku First Amendment. Kulondola, akuwonjezera, ndi "chida chofunikira cha utolankhani." Onani Marjorie Cohn, "Assange Akukumana ndi Kuwonjezeredwa Powonetsa Zolakwa Zankhondo zaku US," Wopanda, Okutobala 11, 2020, https://truthout.org/articles/assange-faces-extradition-for-exposing-us-war-crimes/.