Wolemba Daniel Immerwahr, Novembala 30, 2020
kuchokera Nation
Smwadzidzidzi mliri wa Covid-19 utagunda ku United States, mtolankhani adafunsa a Donald Trump ngati tsopano akudziyesa ngati Purezidenti wa nthawi yankhondo. “Ndimatero. Ndikutero, ”adayankha. Kutupa ndi cholinga, adatsegula zokambirana poyankhula za izi. "Kunena zowona, tili pankhondo," adatero. Komabe atolankhani ndi akatswiri amapukusa maso awo. “Purezidenti wankhondo?” ananyozedwa The New York Times. "Sizikudziwika ngati ovota ambiri angavomereze lingaliro lake ngati mtsogoleri wankhondo." "Kuyesera kwake kuti atenge gulu lankhondo kunadzutsa mphwayi zochepa," inatero NPR. Zomwe ochepa adaziwona panthawiyo ndikuti Trump, inde anali Purezidenti wa nthawi yankhondo, osati mofanizira. Adatsogolera - ndipo akuchitabe mpaka pano - pamisasa iwiri yomwe ikuchitika, Operation Freedom's Sentinel ku Afghanistan ndi Operation Inherent Resolve ku Iraq ndi Syria. Mwa bata kwambiri, asitikali ankhondo aku US masauzande ambiri amayenda mu Africa ndipo m'zaka zaposachedwa apirira zovulala ku Chad, Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, ndi South Sudan. Ndege zaku US ndi ma drones, pakadali pano, akudzaza mlengalenga ndipo kuyambira 2015 yapha anthu opitilira 5,000 (ndipo mwina ochuluka ngati 12,000) ku Afghanistan, Pakistan, Somalia, ndi Yemen.
Chifukwa chiyani ndikosavuta kufotokoza izi? Chiwerengero chochepa kwambiri cha ovulala ku US chimagwira gawo lodziwikiratu. Chomwe chimakhala chofunikira kwambiri ndikuti kutaya pang'onopang'ono pakufalitsa nkhani ndikosalekeza. United States yakhala ikulimbana m'malo ambiri, pazifukwa zambiri zomveka, kuti ndizosavuta kuti ena aiwale nkhondo yonse ndikufunsa ngati kachilombo kamapangitsa Trump kukhala mtsogoleri wankhondo. M'makangano awiri apurezidenti, palibe amene adatchulapo zakuti United States ili pankhondo.
Koma ndizo, ndipo ndizosokoneza kulingalira za kutalika kwa dzikoli. Ophunzira omwe adalowa kukoleji kugwa uku akhala moyo wawo wonse pa nthawi ya Nkhondo Yadziko Lonse Yachigawenga komanso omenyera omwe adamutsata. Zaka khumi zisanachitike izi zidatumizidwa ku America ku Gulf War, nkhondo zaku Balkan, Haiti, Macedonia, ndi Somalia. M'malo mwake, kuyambira 1945, pomwe Washington idadzipulumutsa ngati mlonda wapadziko lonse lapansi, nkhondo yakhala njira yamoyo. Kugawa magulu ankhondo zitha kukhala zovuta, koma motsimikiza pakhala zaka ziwiri zokha mzaka makumi asanu ndi awiri ndi theka zapitazi — 1977 ndi 1979 - pomwe United States sinali kuwukira kapena kumenya nkhondo kudziko lina lakunja.
Funso ndi chifukwa chake. Kodi ndichinthu chozama kwambiri pachikhalidwe? Opanga malamulo m'thumba lazida zamagulu ankhondo? Purezidenti wosalamulirika? Zachidziwikire kuti onse atengapo gawo. Buku latsopano lovumbulutsidwa ndi David Vine, The United States of War, amatchula chinthu china chofunikira, chomwe nthawi zambiri chimanyalanyazidwa: magulu ankhondo. Chiyambireni zaka zoyambirira, United States yakhala ikugwira ntchito kumayiko ena. Awa ali ndi njira yoitanira nkhondo, mwa kusungitsa mkwiyo ku United States komanso kulimbikitsa atsogoleri aku US kuti achitepo kanthu mwamphamvu. Pamene mikangano ikuchulukirachulukira, asitikali amamanga zambiri, ndikupangitsa gulu loipa. Maziko amapanga nkhondo, zomwe zimapanga maziko, ndi zina zotero. Masiku ano, Washington imayang'anira mabwalo ena 750 m'maiko akunja ndi madera akunja.
China, mosiyanitsa, ili ndi malo amodzi akunja, ku Djibouti. Ndipo nkhondo zake zankhondo kuyambira ma 1970 zakhala zikucheperachepera pakumvana kwamalire ndi zolimbana pazilumba zazing'ono. Ngakhale ikukula ndi gulu lankhondo lalikulu, ochepa akuda nkhawa zachiwawa, komanso osowa adani ambiri, China idangotulutsa kumene mzaka makumi angapo osataya gulu lankhondo lomwe likugwira ntchito. Kwa United States, yomwe inali kumenya nkhondo chaka chilichonse nthawi imeneyi, mtendere wotere ndi wosatheka. Funso ndiloti, pobweza maziko ake, lingadzichiritse lokha la nkhondoyi.
INdizosavuta kusaganizira zazoyambira. Yang'anani pa mapu a United States, ndipo muwona zigawo 50 zokha; simudzawona masamba enanso mazana omwe mbendera ya US ikuuluka. Kwa iwo omwe sanatumikire kunkhondo, timadontho tating'onoting'ono timawoneka. Ndipo ndizocheperako: Sakanizani maziko onse akunja omwe boma la US livomereza kuwongolera, ndipo mungakhale ndi malo osakulirapo kuposa Houston.
Komabe ngakhale gawo limodzi la nthaka lolamulidwa ndi gulu lankhondo lachilendo, limatha kukhala lokwiyitsa kwambiri, ngati mchenga wa oyisitara. Mu 2007, Rafael Correa adanenanso izi pomwe, monga Purezidenti wa Ecuador, adakumana ndi zovuta zakubwezeretsanso renti ku US mdziko lake. Anauza atolankhani kuti avomereze pamfundo imodzi: kuti amulole kuyika maziko ku Miami. "Ngati palibe vuto kukhala ndi asitikali akunja m'dziko," adatero, "atilola tikhale ndi malo ku Ecuador ku United States." Inde, palibe Purezidenti waku US angavomereze izi. Asitikali akunja omwe amakhala ku Florida kapena kwina kulikonse ku United States angakhale okwiya.
Monga Vine akunenera, chinali mkwiyo wamtunduwu womwe udalimbikitsa United States koyambirira. Korona waku Britain sikuti amangolemetsa atsamunda ake ndi misonkho; zinawakwiyitsa kwambiri poyika zovala zofiira kumadera akumenyera nkhondo ndi France. M'zaka za m'ma 1760 ndi 70s, malipoti odabwitsa a kuzunzidwa, kuzunzidwa, kuba, ndi kugwiriridwa ndi asirikali anali wamba. Olemba a Declaration of Independence adadzudzula mfumuyi chifukwa cholemba "magulu akuluakulu ankhondo pakati pathu" ndikuwamasula ku malamulo akumaloko. Sizowopsa kuti Kusintha Kwachitatu kwa Malamulo oyendetsera dziko - kubwera kuyimilira ufulu wokhudza kuweruzidwa mwachilungamo komanso kumasulidwa mosafunikira - ndi ufulu kuti asakhale ndi ankhondo pagulu lamtendere.
Dziko lomwe limadana ndi magulu ankhondo komabe linayamba kumanga lokha. Buku la Vine likuwonetsa momwe aliri pakati pa mbiri ya US. Nyimbo ya fuko, akutero, ikufotokoza nkhani ya gulu lankhondo, Fort McHenry kunja kwa Baltimore, mozunguliridwa ndi zombo zaku Britain mu Nkhondo ya 1812. Chitetezo cham'mbali ku US chidasunga ma rockets oyaka moto aku Britain osayandikira, kotero kuti ngakhale panali mazana a "mabomba akuphulika m'malere," kumapeto kwa nkhondoyi, "mbendera yathu idakalipo."
A Britain sanatengere Fort McHenry, koma asitikali aku US panthawi yankhondoyo adalanda malo ku Canada ndi Florida. Andrew Jackson, yemwe asitikali ake adapambana nkhondo yomaliza yomenyera (adamenya, mochititsa manyazi, patatha milungu iwiri mgwirizano wamtendere utasainidwa), adatsata mtendere pomanga malo ena akum'mwera, komwe adachita kampeni zowononga motsutsana ndi Amitundu.
Mutha kunena nkhani yofananayo yokhudza Nkhondo Yapachiweniweni. Zinayamba ndikuukira kwa Confederate ku Fort Sumter, gulu lankhondo kunja kwa Charleston, SC Ndipo sikuti inali Fort Sumter yokha yankhondo, monga zimachitikira. Monga momwe zinachitikira mu Nkhondo ya 1812, Asitikali adagwiritsa ntchito Civil War ngati mwayi wopitilira kumayiko aku India. Magulu awo odzipereka ndi magulu ankhondo ena sanachite nkhondo ku Georgia ndi Virginia komanso ku Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, ndi Utah. Mu Marichi 1864 Asitikali adakakamiza a Navajos pafupifupi 8,000 kuti ayende mtunda wa makilomita 300 kupita ku Fort Sumter ku New Mexico, komwe adawatsekera zaka zinayi; osachepera kotala anafa ndi njala. Zaka mkati ndi pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yapachiweniweni, Vine akuwonetsa, adawona nyumba zambiri kumadzulo kwa Mississippi.
Fort McHenry, Fort Sumter — awa ndi mayina odziwika, ndipo sizovuta kuganiza za ena ku United States, monga Fort Knox, Fort Lauderdale, Fort Wayne, ndi Fort Worth. “Chifukwa chiyani pali malo ambiri otchedwa Fort?” Vine akufunsa.
Yankho lake ndi lodziwikiratu koma lochititsa mantha: Anali magulu ankhondo. Zina, monga Fort Sumter ku South Carolina, zidamangidwa pagombe ndipo zidapangidwa kuti ziziteteza. Komabe, monga Fort Sumter ku New Mexico, adayikidwa mkati, pafupi ndi Native mayiko. Sanapangidwe kutetezedwa koma cholakwa — chomenyera, kuchita nawo malonda, komanso kupolisi andale aku India. Masiku ano ku United States kuli malo opitilira 400 a anthu omwe dzina lawo lili ndi mawu oti "fort".
Kupezeka kwa mipanda sikunali kokha ku North America. Pamene United States idatenga madera akunja, idamanganso malo ena, monga Fort Shafter ku Hawaii, Fort McKinley ku Philippines, ndi malo apanyanja ku Guantánamo Bay ku Cuba. Apanso, bwalo loipalo lidagwira. Ponseponse pazilumba zaku Philippines, asitikali adamanga mipanda ndi misasa kuti athe kufikira, ndipo maziko amenewo adakhala ziyeso zokopa, monga pomwe gulu la anthu 500 okhala ku Balangiga adalanda msasa wankhondo mu 1899 ndikupha asitikali a 45 kumeneko. Kuukira kumeneku kunayambitsa kupha anthu, ndipo asitikali aku US atalamulidwa kuti aphe mwamuna aliyense waku Philippines wazaka zopitilira 10 yemwe sanadzipereke kuboma.
Zaka makumi anayi pambuyo pake, zomwe zidachitikazo zidapitilira. Japan idayambitsa ziwonetsero zingapo zaku US ku Pacific, kotchuka kwambiri Pearl Harbor ku Hawaii. United States idayankha pomenya nawo nkhondo yachiwiri yapadziko lonse, ndikupukuta mizinda yambiri yaku Japan, ndikuponya bomba ziwiri za atomiki.
Nkhondoyo, pomaliza pake, inali itanena kuti United States ndi "dziko lamphamvu kwambiri, mwina m'mbiri yonse," monga Purezidenti Harry Truman adalankhula muwayilesi mu 1945. Poyerekeza m'mabwalo, izi zidalidi zowona. Chiwerengero cha malo omwe United States adamanga pankhondo yachiwiri yapadziko lonse "sichikuganiza kwenikweni," katswiri wina wamayiko ena analemba panthawiyo. Kuwerengedwa kambiri kumayika kusanja kwakunyanja yaku US kumayikidwe a 30,000 m'malo a 2,000 kumapeto kwa nkhondo. Asitikali omwe adawatumizira adalowererapo chifukwa chofika kwawo mwadzidzidzi kumakona onse adziko lapansi mwakuti adadza ndi cholemba, "Kilroy anali pano," kuti anyadire malo ambiri osatheka kuti akhale. Anthu okhala m'maiko oyandikana ndi mayiko ena anali ndi mawu ena akuti: "Yankee, pita kwanu!"
WKodi ma Yankee amayenera kupita kwawo kumapeto kwa nkhondo yachiwiri yapadziko lonse? Mwina. Maulamuliro a Axis anali ataphwanyidwa, osasiya mwayi woti ungayambirenso. Mphamvu yokha yomwe ingawopseze United States inali Soviet Union. Koma mayiko awiriwa adamenya nkhondo limodzi, ndipo ngati atapitilizabe kulolerana, dziko lomwe lakhala likuvulazidwa ndi nkhondo likhoza kukhala mwamtendere.
Mtendere sunabwere, komabe, ndipo chifukwa chake sichinali chakuti maulamuliro awiriwa adaphunzira kutanthauzirana ngati ziwopsezo zomwe zilipo. Mbiri nthawi zambiri imagogomezera ntchito ya kazembe George Kennan pakukhazikitsa mantha aku US. Kumayambiriro kwa chaka cha 1946 adatumiza chingwe chodziwika bwino chotsutsa motalika kuti "malingaliro achitetezo achikhalidwe komanso achibadwa aku Russia" sangalole mtendere. Anatinso Moscow inali yowopsa, ndipo zochita zake ziyenera kutsutsidwa mwadongosolo.
Zochepa zimamvekanso za mbali ya Soviet. Telegalamu yayitali itagwidwa ndi a Kennan, Stalin adalamula kazembe wake ku Washington, Nikolai Novikov, kuti akonzekere kuwunika kofananako, komwe kudalembedwa ndi a Vyacheslav Molotov, nduna yakunja ya Soviet. Molotov amakhulupirira kuti United States inali yofuna "kulamulira dziko lapansi" ndikukonzekera "nkhondo yamtsogolo" ndi Soviet Union. Umboni? Adanenanso za mazana akumayiko akunja omwe Washington idasungidwa komanso mazana omwe amafunafuna.
Ndicho chinthu chokhudza maziko, Vine akutsutsa. Pamaso pa atsogoleri aku US, amawoneka osalakwa. Koma kwa iwo omwe amakhala mumthunzi wawo, nthawi zambiri amakhala owopsa. Khrushchev amatha kunena izi, akapita kutchuthi pa Nyanja Yakuda, popatsa alendo ake oonera patali ndi kuwafunsa zomwe awona. Atayankha kuti sakuwona kalikonse, Khrushchev adabweza ma binoculars kubwerera, ndikuyang'ana kutali, nati, "I onani zida zaku US ku Turkey, zolunjika ku dacha wanga. "
Sanali yekhayo amene amaopa kuukira kwa US. CIA itayesa kulephera kulanda boma la Socialist ku Fidel Castro ku Cuba, Castro adayang'ana ku Soviet Union kuti amuteteze. Khrushchev adapereka kuti apereke zida ku Soviet Union ku Cuba. Kupatula kuteteza mnzake, Khrushchev adawona iyi ngati njira yopatsa omutsutsa "kulawa pang'ono mankhwala awo." Monga momwe anafotokozera pambuyo pake, "anthu aku America adazungulira dziko lathu ndi magulu ankhondo ndikutiwopseza ndi zida za nyukiliya, ndipo tsopano aphunzira momwe zimakhalira ndi mivi ya adani ikuloza."
Iwo anaphunziradi, ndipo anachita mantha. A John F. Kennedy anadandaula kuti zinali "ngati kuti mwadzidzidzi tidayamba kuyika zida zazikulu ku MRBMs [zida zankhondo zapakatikati] ku Turkey." "Chabwino, tidatero, Purezidenti," mlangizi wake wachitetezo cha dziko adamukumbutsa. M'malo mwake, Kennedy ndiye yemwe adatumiza zida za Jupiter kumabwalo aku America aku Turkey. Pambuyo pa masiku 13 - "oyandikira kwambiri padziko lapansi afika pa Armagedo ya nyukiliya," a Vine alemba - a Kennedy ndi a Khrushchev adavomera kuwononga zida zawo.
Olemba mbiri amatcha chochitika chodabwitsachi kuti Crisis Missile Crisis, koma kodi akuyenera? Dzinalo likuyang'ana kwambiri ku Cuba, ndikuwadzudzula mwamphamvu za chiwonongeko chomwe chili pafupi ndi Castro ndi Khrushchev. Kuyika koyambirira kwa mivi ku Kennedy ku Turkey kumazembera mwakachetechete m'mbuyomu, ngati gawo lachilengedwe. Kupatula apo, United States idalamulira zida zankhondo zambiri kotero kuti Kennedy angaiwale kuti adayikanso zida zake ku Turkey. Kuyitanira mwambowu Crisis Missile Crisis itha kumveketsa bwino mfundo ya Vine: Palibe chachilengedwe chokhudza dziko lokhala ndi zida zambiri zankhondo m'maiko ena.
EPambuyo pomwe mabungwe aku US ku Turkey atatsala pang'ono kuyambitsa nkhondo ya zida za nyukiliya, atsogoleri ankhondo adalimbana kuti amvetsetse momwe maboma angakhalire osakhazikika. Pamene Saddam Hussein adalanda Kuwait mu 1990, United States idasunthira asitikali ankhondo ambiri ku Saudi Arabia, kuphatikiza ku likulu lalikulu la Dhahran pagombe lakum'mawa kwa dzikolo. Lingaliro linali kugwiritsa ntchito maboma aku Saudi kukankhira kumbuyo magulu ankhondo a Hussein, koma mwachizolowezi, kupezeka kwa asitikali aku US kudziko lina kunayambitsa mkwiyo waukulu. "Sizikulola kuti dzikolo likhale dziko laku America lomwe lili ndi asitikali aku America - mapazi awo onyansa akuyenda paliponse," adakwiya wina waku Saudi, Osama bin Laden.
"Vutoli litatha, asitikali athu apita kwawo," ndiye-Secretary of Defense a Dick Cheney adalonjeza boma la Saudi. Koma asitikali adapitilizabe Hussein atagonjetsedwa, ndipo mkwiyo udayaka. Mu 1996 bomba pafupi ndi Dhahran lidapha anthu 19 aku US Air Force. Sizikudziwika bwinobwino kuti ndani anali ndi udindo, ngakhale a Bin Laden adadzinenera. Zaka ziwiri pambuyo pake, patsiku lokumbukira lachisanu ndi chitatu la kubwera kwa asitikali aku US ku Dhahran, Al Qaeda ya bin Laden idaphulitsa bomba kumaofesi a Kazembe aku US ku Kenya ndi Tanzania, ndikupha anthu oposa 200. Pa Seputembara 11, 2001, olanda ndege a Al Qaeda adakwera ndege kupita ku Pentagon ("malo ankhondo," monga a Bin Laden) ndi World Trade Center.
“Chifukwa chiyani amatida?” Katswiri wazachiwembu Richard Clarke adafunsa izi zitachitika. Zifukwa za Bin Laden zinali zingapo, koma zoyambira zinali zazikulu m'malingaliro ake. “Asitikali anu alanda mayiko athu; umafalitsa malo ako ankhondo monsemo; mumawononga mayiko athu, ndipo mumazinga malo athu opatulika, ”adalemba mu" Letter to America "yake.
CUnited States imadzimasula yokha ku nkhondo zake zosatha zomwe zimachitika? Kuchita zachinyengo kapena, monga Vine akunenera, "kutulutsa zinthu zina" sikungakhale kophweka. Pali machitidwe ovuta padziko lonse lapansi achitetezo omangidwa mozungulira magulu ankhondo aku US, pali magulu ena ogwira ntchito zaboma ndi akatswiri azankhondo omwe azolowera kupanga nkhondo, ndipo pali omanga makampani akuluakulu achitetezo omwe ali ndi mphamvu zokakamiza. Palibe imodzi ya izo yomwe idzachoka mosavuta.
Komabe pozindikira kulumikizana pakati pazoyambira ndi nkhondo, Vine apeza lever yosavuta komanso yothekera yamphamvu yosunthira magulu akuluakuluwa. Mukufuna mtendere? Tsekani maziko. Maofesi ochepa akutali omwe angatumizidwe angatanthauze kukwiya kwakanthawi kochepa, zochepetsera zochepa, komanso zochepetsera Washington kuti athetse mavuto ake pogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu. Vine sakukhulupirira kuti kuchepa kwa maziko kungateteze nkhondo zaku US kwathunthu, koma mlandu wake kuti kutero ukhoza kukhazikitsanso madziwo ndizovuta kutsutsa.
Kuchepetsa zotsalira zankhondo yaku US kungathandizenso m'njira zina. M'buku lake lakale Base Nation, Vine adawerengetsa kuti maziko akunja amawononga okhometsa misonkho ndalama zoposa $ 70 biliyoni pachaka. Mu United States of War, akunena kuti chiwerengerochi chimachepetsa phindu lawo. Chifukwa chofuna kulimbikitsa nkhondo, kuchepetsa kuchuluka kwa mayiko akunja kungachepetse ndalama zina zankhondo, ndikupanganso ndalama zambiri zamsonkho zaku US zamtengo wapatali $ 1.25 trilioni pachaka. Ndalama zomwe United States yawononga pomenya nkhondo pambuyo pa 9/11, Vine akulemba, akanatha kulipira chithandizo chamankhwala mpaka atakula komanso zaka ziwiri za Head Start kwa aliyense mwa ana 13 miliyoni omwe ali mu umphawi ku United States, komanso monga maphunziro aku koleji pagulu la ophunzira 28 miliyoni, chisamaliro chazaka makumi awiri kwa omenyera nkhondo 1 miliyoni, ndi zaka 10 za malipiro a anthu 4 miliyoni omwe akugwira ntchito zamagetsi zoyera.
Kodi malonda amenewo anali amtengo wapatali? Pakadali pano, achikulire ambiri aku US akuganiza kuti nkhondo zaku Iraq ndi Afghanistan sizinali zoyenera kumenya nawo nkhondo. Ambiri mwa omenyera nkhondo amamvanso choncho. Nanga bwanji za maiko ngati Niger, komwe Vine amawerengera malo asanu ndi atatu aku US komanso komwe asitikali anayi aku US adamwalira atabisala mu 2017? Popeza ma senema ofunikira akuti sanadziwe ngakhale kuti ku Niger kuli asitikali, ndizovuta kulingalira chifukwa chothandizirana ndi mishoni yopanda tanthauzo kumeneko.
Anthu atopa ndi nkhondo ndipo akuwoneka kuti sakukonda kwenikweni - kapena kuzindikira ngakhale - maiko akunja omwe amapititsa patsogolo nkhondoyi. A Trump adawopseza mobwerezabwereza kuti atseka ena mwa iwo kuti agulitse khoma lake. Vine samvera chisoni Purezidenti koma amawona kuwonekera kwa a Trump kwa "malingaliro ampatuko kamodzi" ngati chisonyezo chakusakhutira komwe kukukula ndi zomwe zikuchitika. Funso ndilakuti ngati a Joe Biden, wapampando wazaka zitatu wa Senate Foreign Relations Committee, azindikira ndikuyankha kukhutira kumeneko.
Biden ayenera. Takhala tikudikira kale mfundo zatsopano zakunja zaku US, zomwe zimawona nkhondo ngati chinthu choyipa chomwe chimafuna kulungamitsidwa m'malo mongokhala ngati mbiri yakumbuyo. Trump anali, monga onse omwe adamutsogolera kwa zaka zambiri, anali Purezidenti wankhondo. Tiyeni tiyembekezere zaka zikubwerazi zitibweretsera china chosowa kwambiri: nthawi yamtendere.
Daniel Immerwahr ndi pulofesa wothandizana naye m'mbiri ku Northwestern University. Iye ndi mlembi wa Thinking Small: United States ndi Lure of Community Development ndi Momwe Mungabisire Ufumu.
