Wolemba Peter van den Dungen, World BEYOND War, January 23, 2022
Ndemanga ya Buku: Chifukwa Chiyani Nkhondo? ndi Christopher Coker, London, Hurst, 2021, 256 pp., £20 (Hardback), ISBN 9781787383890
Yankho lalifupi, lakuthwa kwa Why War? zomwe owerenga achikazi angafotokoze ndi 'chifukwa cha amuna!' Yankho lina lingakhale 'chifukwa cha malingaliro olembedwa m'mabuku ngati awa!' Christopher Coker akunena za 'chinsinsi cha nkhondo' (4) ndipo akunena kuti 'Anthu ndi achiwawa osathawika' (7); ‘Nkhondo ndi imene imatipangitsa kukhala anthu’ (20); “Sitidzathawa nkhondo chifukwa pali malire a momwe tingasinthire chiyambi chathu kumbuyo kwathu” (43). Ngakhale Chifukwa Chiyani Nkhondo? Nthawi yomweyo amakumbukiranso makalata omwe ali ndi mutu womwewo pakati pa Albert Einstein ndi Sigmund Freud,1 wofalitsidwa mu 1933 ndi International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations, Coker sakunena za izi. Palibe kutchulidwa konse kwa CEM Joad's Why War? (1939). Lingaliro la Joad (losiyana ndi la Coker) linanenedwa molimba mtima pachikuto cha Penguin Special ya 1939 iyi: 'Mlandu wanga ndikuti nkhondo si chinthu chosapeŵeka, koma ndi zotsatira za zochitika zina zopangidwa ndi anthu; kuti munthu akhoza kuwathetsa, monga anathetsa mikhalidwe imene mliri unakula’. Chodabwitsanso ndichakuti palibe zofotokozera za mutu wa Kenneth N. Waltz's Man, State and War ([1959] 2018). Katswiri wodziwika bwino wa ubale wapadziko lonse lapansi adayandikira funsoli pozindikira 'zithunzi' zitatu zopikisana zankhondo, kupeza vutoli m'magawo ofunikira amunthu, boma, ndi dongosolo lapadziko lonse lapansi, motsatana. Waltz adamaliza, monga Rousseau asanakhalepo, kuti nkhondo pakati pa mayiko zimachitika chifukwa palibe chomwe chingawalepheretse (kusiyana ndi mtendere womwe uli mkati mwa mayiko chifukwa cha boma lapakati, ndi chipwirikiti chomwe chilipo pakati pawo chifukwa chosowa dongosolo ulamuliro wa dziko lonse). Kuyambira m’zaka za m’ma 19, kukula kwa kudalirana kwa mayiko komanso kuwononga kwambiri nkhondo kwachititsa kuti anthu ayesetse kuchepetsa kuyambika kwa nkhondo mwa kukhazikitsa mabungwe olamulira dziko lonse, makamaka bungwe la League of Nations pambuyo pa nkhondo yoyamba ya padziko lonse ndi United Nations. Mayiko pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yadziko II. Ku Ulaya, njira zakale zogonjetsa nkhondo zinakwaniritsidwa (osachepera mbali) m'kati mwa njira yomwe inachititsa kuti European Union iyambe ndipo yalimbikitsa kuwonekera kwa mabungwe ena am'madera. M'malo modabwitsa kwa pulofesa yemwe wapuma pantchito posachedwa pa LSE, kufotokozera kwa Coker za nkhondo kumanyalanyaza udindo wa boma ndi zofooka za utsogoleri wa mayiko ndikungoganizira za munthu.
Amapeza kuti ntchito ya katswiri wa chikhalidwe cha Chidatchi, Niko Tinbergen ('amene simungamumvepo') - 'munthu amene ankayang'ana nyanja zamchere' (Tinbergen [1953] 1989), yemwe anachita chidwi ndi khalidwe lawo laukali - amapereka njira yabwino yoperekera yankho la Why War? (7). M’bukuli muli mawu ofotokoza mmene nyama zambirimbiri zimakhalira. Komabe, Coker akulemba kuti nkhondo siidziwika mu zinyama ndipo, pogwira mawu Thucydides, nkhondo ndi 'chinthu chaumunthu'. Wolembayo akutsatira 'Njira ya Tinbergen' (Tinbergen 1963) yomwe ili ndi kufunsa mafunso anayi okhudza khalidwe: Kodi magwero ake ndi otani? ndi ndondomeko ziti zomwe zimapangitsa kuti zitheke? ndi ontogeny yake (mbiri yakale evolution)? ndipo ntchito yake ndi yotani? (11). Mutu uli ndi mutu uliwonse wa mafunsowa ndi mutu womaliza (wosangalatsa kwambiri) wofotokoza zomwe zidzachitike mtsogolo. Zikanakhala zoyenera komanso zobala zipatso ngati Coker adazindikira ntchito ya mchimwene wake wa Niko Jan (yemwe adagawana nawo mphoto yoyamba ya Nobel mu zachuma ku 1969; Niko adagawana nawo mphoto mu physiology kapena mankhwala mu 1973). Ngati Coker adamvapo za m'modzi mwa akatswiri azachuma padziko lonse lapansi omwe anali mlangizi wa League of Nations m'zaka za m'ma 1930 komanso woyimira mwamphamvu boma ladziko lonse lapansi, palibe kutchulidwa. Ntchito yayitali komanso yodziwika ya Jan idaperekedwa kuthandiza kusintha anthu, kuphatikiza kupewa ndi kuthetsa nkhondo. M'buku lake lomwe adalemba nawo, Warfare and welfare (1987), Jan Tinbergen adatsutsa kusagwirizana kwaumoyo ndi chitetezo. Network of European Peace Scientists yatchula msonkhano wawo wapachaka pambuyo pake (kope la 20 mu 2021). Ndizoyeneranso kunena kuti mnzake wa Niko Tinbergen, katswiri wodziwika bwino wa ethologist Robert Hinde, yemwe adatumikira ku RAF pa Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse, anali purezidenti wa gulu la Britain Pugwash ndi Movement for the Abolition of War.
Coker akulemba kuti, 'Pali chifukwa chenicheni chomwe ndalembera bukuli. M’maiko a azungu, sitikonzekeretsa ana athu kunkhondo’ (24). Izi ndi zokayikitsa, ndipo pamene ena angavomereze kuti izi ndi zolephera, ena angayankhe kuti, 'komanso tiyenera kuphunzitsa zamtendere, osati nkhondo'. Iye akufotokoza njira za chikhalidwe zomwe zimathandiza kuti nkhondo ikhalebebe ndipo akufunsa kuti, 'Kodi sitinayese kubisa kuipa kwa nkhondo . . . ndipo kodi chimenecho si chimodzi mwa zinthu zomwe zimayendetsa? Kodi sitikudziletsabe mpaka kufa pogwiritsa ntchito mawu akuti “Akugwa”?' (104). Zili choncho, koma akuwoneka kuti sakufuna kuvomereza kuti zinthu zoterezi sizingasinthe. Coker mwiniyo sangakhale wopanda cholakwa pamene akunena kuti, 'palibe chotsutsana ndi nkhondo. Palibe lamulo lopezeka motsutsa izo m’Malamulo Khumi’ (73) – kutanthauza kuti ‘Usaphe’ sikutanthauza kupha pankhondo. Kwa Harry Patch (1898-2009), msilikali womaliza wa ku Britain yemwe adapulumuka pa nkhondo yoyamba ya padziko lonse, 'Nkhondo ndi kuphana mwadongosolo, ndipo palibe china'2; kwa Leo Tolstoy, 'asilikali ndi akupha mu yunifolomu'. Pali maumboni angapo onena za Nkhondo ndi Mtendere (Tolstoy 1869) koma palibe zolemba zake zamtsogolo, zosiyana kwambiri pamutuwu (Tolstoy 1894, 1968).
Pazojambula, njira ina ya chikhalidwe imene Coker amaganizira, iye anati: 'Ambiri ojambula zithunzi . . . sanawonepo bwalo lankhondo, motero sanapentepo kuchokera pazomwe adakumana nazo. . . ntchito yawo inakhalabe yopanda mkwiyo kapena ukali, kapena ngakhale chifundo chenicheni kwa ozunzidwa ndi nkhondo. Sanasankhe kulankhula m’malo mwa anthu amene akhala opanda mawu mpaka kalekale’ (107). Ichi ndi chinthu chinanso chomwe chimapangitsa kuti pakhale nkhondo yomwe, komabe, ingasinthe komanso zomwe zotsatira zake, kachiwiri, amanyalanyaza. Komanso, amanyalanyaza ntchito za ena mwa ojambula kwambiri amasiku ano monga Russian Vasily Vereshchagin. William T. Sherman, mkulu wa asilikali a ku America wa asilikali a Union panthaŵi ya Nkhondo Yachiŵeniŵeni ya U.S., analengeza kuti iye anali ‘wojambula wamkulu koposa wa zowopsya za nkhondo zimene zinakhalako’. Vereshchagin anakhala msilikali kuti adziwe nkhondo kuchokera pazomwe adakumana nazo ndipo adafera pa sitima yapamadzi pa nthawi ya nkhondo ya Russo-Japanese. M'mayiko angapo, asilikali analetsedwa kuyendera ziwonetsero za (zotsutsa-) zojambula za nkhondo. Bukhu lake lonena za ndawala yowopsa ya Napoleon yaku Russia (Verestchagin 1899) idaletsedwa ku France. Ayeneranso kutchulidwa za Iri ndi Toshi Maruki, ojambula achi Japan a mapanelo a Hiroshima. Kodi pali mawu okhudza mkwiyo kapena mkwiyo kuposa Picasso's Guernica? Coker amatanthauza koma sanatchule kuti mawonekedwe azithunzi omwe mpaka posachedwapa adawonetsedwa mu nyumba ya UN ku New York anali (mu) wotchuka kwambiri mu February 2003, pamene Mlembi wa boma wa US Colin Powell anatsutsa mlandu wotsutsana ndi Iraq. 3
Ngakhale Coker akulemba kuti ndi Nkhondo Yadziko Lonse yokha yomwe ojambula adajambula zithunzi 'zomwe zikanayenera kufooketsa aliyense amene akuganiza kuti alowe nawo mitundu' (108), sakhala chete pa njira zosiyanasiyana zomwe akuluakulu aboma amagwiritsa ntchito pofuna kupewa kukhumudwa kotereku. Zimaphatikizapo kuwunika, kuletsa ndi kuwotcha ntchito zotere - osati, mwachitsanzo, ku Nazi-Germany komanso ku US ndi UK mpaka pano. Kunama, kupondereza, ndi kusokoneza chowonadi, nkhondo isanayambe, isanachitike komanso itatha zidalembedwa bwino m'mabuku akale a, mwachitsanzo, Arthur Ponsonby (1928) ndi Philip Knightly ([1975] 2004) ndipo, posachedwa, mu The Pentagon Papers ( Vietnam War), 4 The Iraq Inquiry (Chilcot) Report, 5 ndi Craig Whitlock's The Afghanistan Papers (Whitlock 2021). Momwemonso, kuyambira pachiyambi, zida za nyukiliya zazunguliridwa ndi chinsinsi, kufufuza ndi mabodza, kuphatikizapo zotsatira za kuphulika kwa mabomba ku Hiroshima ndi Nagasaki mu August 1945. zinakonzedwa mu Smithsonian ku Washington DC; idathetsedwa ndipo wotsogolera nyumba yosungiramo zinthu zakale adathamangitsa ntchito bwino. Makanema oyambilira a kuwonongedwa kwa mizinda iwiriyi adalandidwa ndikuponderezedwa ndi US (onani, mwachitsanzo Mitchell 50; onaninso ndemanga ya Loretz [1995]) pomwe BBC idaletsa kuwonetsa pawailesi yakanema ya The War Game, filimu yomwe inali nayo. anauzidwa za zotsatira za kuponya bomba la nyukiliya ku London. Linaganiza zosiya kuulutsa filimuyi poopa kuti likhoza kulimbikitsa gulu lolimbana ndi zida za nyukiliya. Oyimba mluzu olimba mtima monga a Daniel Ellsberg, Edward Snowden ndi a Julian Assange aimbidwa mlandu ndikulangidwa chifukwa chowonetsa chinyengo, milandu yankhondo zankhanza, komanso milandu yankhondo.
Ali mwana, Coker ankakonda kusewera ndi asilikali achidole ndipo ali wachinyamata ankakonda kuchita nawo masewera ankhondo. Anadzipereka ku gulu la cadet la sukulu ndipo ankakonda kuwerenga za Trojan War ndi ngwazi zake ndipo adakondwera ndi mbiri ya akuluakulu akuluakulu monga Alexander ndi Julius Caesar. Womalizayo anali 'm'modzi mwa olanda akapolo opambana nthawi zonse. Atachita kampeni kwa zaka zisanu ndi ziŵiri anabwerera ku Roma ali ndi akaidi 134 miliyoni amene anagulitsidwa muukapolo, mwakutero . . . kumupanga kukhala bilionea usiku umodzi' (500). M'mbiri yonse, nkhondo ndi ankhondo akhala akugwirizana ndi ulendo ndi chisangalalo, komanso ulemerero ndi kulimba mtima. Malingaliro omalizawa ndi zikhulupiriro zakale zimaperekedwa ndi boma, sukulu ndi tchalitchi. Coker sananene kuti kufunikira kwa maphunziro amtundu wina, ngwazi ndi mbiri yakale idakambidwa kale zaka XNUMX zapitazo (pamene nkhondo ndi zida zinali zakale poyerekeza ndi masiku ano) ndi otsogolera anthu (ndi otsutsa boma, sukulu ndi tchalitchi) monga Erasmus ndi Vives omwenso anali oyambitsa maphunziro amakono. Vives adayika kufunikira kwakukulu pakulemba ndi kuphunzitsa mbiri yakale ndikudzudzula ziphuphu zake, kunena kuti 'Zingakhale zowona kutchula Herodotus (yemwe Coker amamutchula mobwerezabwereza kuti wonena bwino nkhani zankhondo) atate wa mabodza kuposa mbiri yakale'. Vives anatsutsanso kuyamikira Julius Caesar chifukwa chotumiza amuna zikwizikwi kukupha mwachiwawa pankhondo. Erasmus anali wotsutsa kwambiri Papa Julius II (wosirira winanso wa Kaisara amene, monga papa, anatenga dzina lake) amene mwachidziŵikire anathera nthaŵi yochuluka pabwalo lankhondo kuposa ku Vatican.
Palibe kutchulidwa za zofuna zambiri zomwe zimagwirizanitsidwa ndi, ndi zolimbikitsa, nkhondo, choyamba ndi ntchito zankhondo, opanga zida ndi ogulitsa zida (aka 'amalonda a imfa'). Msilikali wa ku America wotchuka komanso wokongoletsedwa kwambiri, Major General Smedley D. Butler, adanena kuti Nkhondo ndi Racket (1935) yomwe ochepa amapindula ndipo ambiri amalipira ndalama. M'mawu ake otsanzikana ndi anthu a ku America (1961), Purezidenti Dwight Eisenhower, mkulu wina wa asilikali a ku United States wokongoletsedwa kwambiri, anachenjeza mwaulosi za kuopsa kwa kukula kwa magulu ankhondo ndi mafakitale. Njira yomwe ikuphatikizidwa pakupanga zisankho zotsogola kunkhondo, komanso m'mayendedwe ake ndi malipoti, zimalembedwa bwino (kuphatikiza m'mabuku omwe atchulidwa pamwambapa). Pali nkhani zambiri zokhutiritsa zomwe zimawunikira magwero ndi chikhalidwe cha nkhondo zingapo zamasiku ano komanso zomwe zimapereka mayankho omveka bwino komanso odetsa nkhawa pafunso loti Chifukwa Chiyani Nkhondo? Zochita za mbalamezi zimawoneka ngati zopanda ntchito. Maphunziro otengera umboni woterewa sapanga gawo la kafukufuku wa Coker. Sipanapezekenso m'mabuku ochititsa chidwi a ca. Maina a 350 ndi mabuku ophunzirira zamtendere, kuthetsa mikangano ndi kupewa nkhondo. Zowonadi, liwu loti 'mtendere' silikupezeka m'mabuku olembedwa; kutchulidwa kawirikawiri kumachitika pamutu wa buku lodziwika bwino la Tolstoy. Owerenga amasiyidwa osadziwa zomwe zapezedwa pazifukwa zankhondo chifukwa cha kafukufuku wamtendere ndi maphunziro amtendere omwe adatuluka mu 1950s chifukwa cha nkhawa kuti nkhondo yanthawi ya nyukiliya idawopseza kupulumuka kwa anthu. M'buku la Coker's idiosyncratic ndi losokoneza, maumboni a mabuku ndi mafilimu ambiri amasokoneza tsamba; zinthu zosiyanasiyana zomwe zimaponyedwa muzosakaniza zimapanga chisokonezo. Mwachitsanzo, Clausewitz atangoyambitsidwa ndiye kuti Tolkien akuwonekera (99-100); Homer, Nietzsche, Shakespeare ndi Virginia Woolf (pakati pa ena) akuitanidwa m'masamba angapo otsatirawa.
Coker saganiza kuti titha kukhala ndi nkhondo chifukwa 'dziko lili ndi zida zambiri ndipo mtendere ulibe ndalama zokwanira' (Mlembi Wamkulu wa UN, Ban Ki-moon). Kapena chifukwa timatsogoleredwabe ndi dictum yakale (komanso yonyozeka), Si vis pacem, para bellum (Ngati mukufuna mtendere, konzekerani nkhondo). Zingakhale chifukwa chakuti chinenero chomwe timagwiritsa ntchito chimabisa zenizeni za nkhondo ndipo zaphimbidwa ndi mauphemisms: mautumiki a nkhondo akhala mautumiki a chitetezo, ndipo tsopano chitetezo. Coker samayankha (kapena pongodutsa) kuthana ndi izi, zonse zomwe zitha kuonedwa ngati zikuthandizira kupitilira kwankhondo. Ndi nkhondo ndi ankhondo omwe amalamulira mabuku a mbiri yakale, zipilala, malo osungiramo zinthu zakale, mayina a misewu ndi mabwalo. Zomwe zachitika posachedwa komanso zosintha zaposachedwa pakuchotsa maphunziro ndi mabwalo a anthu, komanso chilungamo ndi kufanana pakati pa mitundu ndi jenda, ziyeneranso kufalikira pakuchotsa usilikali kwa anthu. Mwanjira imeneyi, chikhalidwe chamtendere ndi kusachita chiwawa chingalowe m'malo mwa chikhalidwe chozama kwambiri cha nkhondo ndi chiwawa.
Pokambirana za HG Wells ndi zina 'zopeka zongopeka zamtsogolo', Coker akulemba kuti, 'Kulingalira zam'tsogolo, ndithudi sikutanthauza kulenga' (195-7). Komabe, IF Clarke (1966) wanena kuti nthawi zina nkhani za nkhondo zamtsogolo zimadzutsa ziyembekezo zomwe zimatsimikizira kuti, nkhondo ikadzabwera, zikanakhala zachiwawa kuposa momwe zikanakhalira. Komanso, kulingalira dziko lopanda nkhondo ndilofunika (ngakhale silinakwanire) kuti libweretse. Kufunika kwa chithunzichi pakupanga tsogolo kwatsutsidwa motsimikizika, mwachitsanzo, ndi E. Boulding ndi K. Boulding (1994), apainiya awiri ofufuza zamtendere omwe ena mwa omwe ntchito yawo idauziridwa ndi Fred L. Polak's The Image of the Future. (1961). Chithunzi chokhudza magazi pachikuto cha Why War? akunena zonse. Coker analemba kuti, ‘Kuŵerenga kumatipangadi kukhala anthu osiyana; timakonda kuona moyo moyenera . . . Kuwerenga buku lolimbikitsa lankhondo kumapangitsa kuti titha kukhalabe ndi lingaliro la ubwino waumunthu '(186). Izi zikuwoneka ngati njira yodabwitsa yolimbikitsira ubwino waumunthu.
zolemba
- Chifukwa Chiyani Nkhondo? Einstein kwa Freud, 1932, https://en.unesco.org/courier/may-1985/ why-war-letter-albert-einstein-sigmund-freud Freud to Einstein, 1932, https:// en.unesco.org /courier/marzo-1993/why-war-letter-freud-einstein
- Patch ndi Van Emden (2008); Audiobook, ISBN-13: 9781405504683.
- Kuti mudziwe zambiri za ntchito za ojambula otchulidwa, onani War and Art lolembedwa ndi Joanna Bourke ndikuwunikiridwanso m'magazini ino, Vol 37, No.
- Mapepala a Pentagon: https://www.archives.gov/research/pentagon-papers
- The Iraq Inquiry (Chilcot): https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20171123122743/http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/the-report/
Zothandizira
Boulding, E., ndi K Boulding. 1994. Tsogolo: Zithunzi ndi Njira. 1000 Oaks, California: Kusindikiza kwa Sage. ISBN: 9780803957909.
Butler, S. 1935. Nkhondo ndi Racket. 2003 kusindikizidwanso, USA: Feral House. ISBN: 9780922915866.
Clarke, IF 1966. Voices Prophesying War 1763-1984. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Joad, CEM 1939. Chifukwa Chiyani Nkhondo? Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Knightly, P. [1975] 2004. Wovulala Woyamba. 3 ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN: 9780801880308.
Loretz, John. 2020. Ndemanga ya Fallout, Hiroshima Cover-up ndi Reporter Yemwe Adawululira Padziko Lonse, wolemba Lesley MM Blume. Mankhwala, Mikangano ndi Kupulumuka 36 (4): 385-387. doi:10.1080/13623699.2020.1805844
Mitchell, G. 2012. Kuphimba kwa Atomiki. New York, Sinclair Books.
Patch, H., ndi R Van Emden. 2008. The Last Fighting Tommy. London: Bloomsbury.
Polak, FL 1961. Chithunzi cha Tsogolo. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Ponsonby, A. 1928. Zonama mu Nthawi Yankhondo. London: Allen & Unwin.
Tinbergen, Jan, ndi D Fischer. 1987. Nkhondo ndi Ubwino: Kuphatikizira ndondomeko ya chitetezo mu Social-Economic Policy. Brighton: Mabuku a Wheatsheaf.
Tinbergen, N. [1953] 1989. Dziko la Herring Gull: Phunziro la Social Behavior of Birds, New Naturalist Monograph M09. new ed. Lanham, Md: Lyons Press. ISBN: 9781558210493. Tinbergen, N. 1963. "Pa Zolinga ndi Njira za Ethology." Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20: 410-433. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x.
Tolstoy, L. 1869. Nkhondo ndi Mtendere. ISBN: 97801404479349 London: Penguin.
Tolstoy, L. 1894. Ufumu wa Mulungu uli mwa Inu. San Francisco: Internet Archive Open Library Edition No. OL25358735M.
Tolstoy, L. 1968. Zolemba za Tolstoy pa Kusamvera Kwa Anthu ndi Kupanda Chiwawa. London: Peter Owen. Verestchagin, V. 1899. "1812" Napoleon Woyamba ku Russia; ndi Mawu Oyamba a R. Whiteing. 2016 likupezeka ngati Project Gutenberg e-book. London: William Heinemann.
Waltz, Kenneth N. [1959] 2018. Man, State, and War, A Theoretical Analysis. kusinthidwa ed. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN: 9780231188050.
Whitlock, C. 2021. The Afghanistan Papers. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781982159009.
Peter van den Dungen
Bertha Von Suttner Peace Institute, La Haye
petervandendungen1@gmail.com
Nkhaniyi yasindikizidwanso ndi zosintha zazing'ono. Zosinthazi sizikhudza maphunziro a nkhaniyi.
© 2021 Peter van den Dungen
https://doi.org/10.1080/13623699.2021.1982037
