nke Joseph Essertier, October 31, 2017
site CounterPunch
“Ma ntụkwasị obi nwoke ma ọ bụ ìgwè mmadụ ma ọ bụ mba a pụrụ ịtụkwasị obi na-eme omume mmadụ ma ọ bụ na-eche echiche dị mma n'okpuru oké egwu.”
- Bertrand Russell, Eserese Na-enweghị Mmasị (1950) [1]
Nsogbu North Korea na-eme ka ndị mmadụ nọrọ n'aka ekpe gaa ụdị ngosi dị egwu na otu n'ime nsogbu kachasị ukwuu anyị nwetụrụla. Ugbu a, karịa mgbe ọ bụla, anyị ga-ahapụ ịtụ ụjọ na ajọ mbunobi anyị gbara anyị gburugburu nke gbasara ngwaagha nuklia ma jụọ ajụjụ ndị siri ike na-achọ azịza doro anya. Oge eruola ka ịlaghachi ma chee echiche banyere onye na-emegbu ndị ọzọ na Peninsula Korea, bụ onye na-etinye udo dị egwu na udo mba ụwa na ọbụna nlanarị nke ụdị mmadụ. Ọ bụ n’oge gara aga ka anyị nwere arụmụka na-akpali akpali banyere nsogbu Washington na North Korea na ngwa agha ya. Nke a bụ ụfọdụ nri maka echere n'okwu ndị a na-eme n'okpuru kapeeti site na mmeghachi omume ikpere ikpere — mmeghachi omume bụ ihe ebumpụta ụwa maka ndị America na-enweghị ihe ọjọọ banyere eziokwu akụkọ ihe mere eme. Ndi oru nta akuko ma oburu na otutu ndi ozo di na isi mmalite na akuko nke ogha, na eweghagharia aghugho Washington, na -aghari North Korea, ma gosiputa onodu anyi di ugbua bu agha ebe ndi nile n’otu n’otu.
Nke mbu, anyi aghaghi ihu na ezighi ezi ekwesighi anyi bu ndi America, ya na ndi ochichi anyi karie ihe bu isi nsogbu. Dị ka ọtụtụ ndị si West, amataghị m ihe ọ bụla gbasara North Koreans, ya mere enweghị m ike ikwu ntakịrị banyere ha. Ihe niile anyị nwere ike iji obi ike kwuo banyere ya bụ ọchịchị Kim Jong-un. Na igbochi mkparịta ụka ahụ na nke ahụ, anyị nwere ike ikwu na ekwesighi iyi egwu ya. N'ihi gịnị? Otu ihe kpatara ya:
N'ihi ọdịiche nke ike n'etiti ike ndị agha US, gụnyere ndị agha ọgbara ọhụrụ ya ugbu a, na North Korea. Ihe dị iche bụ nke buru oke ibu na ọ ga-esiri ike ikwurita okwu, mana ebe a bụ isi ihe:
US ntọala: Washington nwere opekata mpe ndị agha 15 agbasara na South Korea, ọtụtụ n'ime ha dị nso na North Korea. Enwekwara ntọala na agbasasị na Japan niile, site na Okinawa nke dị na ndịda ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ ruo Misawa Air Force Base.[2] Ntọala ndị dị na South Korea nwere ngwa agha nwere ike ibibi karịa nke karịa ngwa agha nuklia nke Washington debere na South Korea maka afọ 30 site na 1958 ruo 1991.[3] Bases dị na Japan nwere ụgbọ elu Osprey nke nwere ike iburu ụgbọ ala nke obodo abụọ jupụtara na ndị agha na akụrụngwa gafere Korea na njem ọ bụla.
Ndị na-anya ụgbọ elu: Ihe na-erughị ndị na-ebu ụgbọ elu atọ na mmiri gburugburu Korea Peninsula na ndị agha ha na-ebuso agha agha.[4] Ọtụtụ mba enweghị otu ụgbọelu ụgbọelu.
THAAD: N'April nke afọ a Washington weghachite usoro THAAD (“ọdụ ụgbọ elu dị elu”) n'agbanyeghị mmegide siri ike site n'aka ụmụ amaala South Korea.[5] Okwesiri igbochi ihe agha ogbakpo North Korea na-abata na mgbada ha, mana ndị ọrụ China nọ na Beijing na-echegbu onwe ya na ebumnuche ezigbo nke THAAD bụ "iji agbapụ ngwa ọgụ ndị China sitere na China" ebe ọ bụ na THAAD nwere ikike nke onyunyo.[6] Yabụ, THAAD na-eyi North Korea egwu na-apụtaghị, site na iyi egwu mmekorita ya.
Ndị agha South Korea: Nke a bụ otu n'ime ndị agha kachasị ike n'ụwa, zuru oke na ike ikuku na ngwa ọgụ zuru oke iji zute iyi egwu nke mwakpo si North Korea.[7] A zụrụ ndị agha South Korea ọzụzụ nke ọma ma soro ndị agha US jikọọ aka ebe ọ bụ na ha na-eme mmega ahụ oge niile dị ka "oke oke osimiri, ala na mmega ikuku" a na-akpọ "Ulchi Freedom Guardian" nke gụnyere ọtụtụ puku ndị agha.[8] N'agwaghị ohere iji tụọ Pyongyang ụjọ, a rụrụ ndị a na njedebe nke August 2017 n'agbanyeghị ọgba aghara ahụ na-ebili.
Ndị agha Japan: Otu ngwa agha a kpọrọ '' Defence Forces '' nke Japan nwere ngwa agha kachasị elu, ụwa, dịka AWACS ụgbọ elu na Ospreys.[9] Site na usoro iwu udo nke Japan, ngwa agha ndị a “na-emebi” ihe karịrị otu echiche nke okwu ahụ.
Okirikiri ndị nwere ngwá agha nuklia: US nwere ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri dị nso na Korea Peninsula nke nwere ngwa agha nuklia nwere “ebumnuche siri ike igbu ikike” maka ngwaọrụ “super-fuze” ọhụrụ a na-eji emeziwanye ụdị mgbaze ochie. Nke a nwere ike ịdọrọ ugbu a na ọdụ ụgbọ agha agha US nke bọlbụ ọ bụla.[10] “Ikike igbu-mmadụ siri ike” na-ezo aka n'ikike ha nwere ibibi ebumnuche siri ike dị ka Russian ICBM silos (ya bụ, akụ ụta ala n'okpuru ala) Ndị a siri ike ibibi na mbụ. Nke a na-eyi egwu North Korea ebe Russia bụ otu n'ime mba ndị nwere ike ịgbatara ha ọsọ enyemaka ma ọ bụrụ na ogbugbu US nke mbụ.
Dị ka onye odeakwụkwọ mgbasa ozi United States James Mattis kwuru, agha a na North Korea ga-abụ "oke mbibi."[11] Nke ahụ bụ eziokwu-ọ kpatara oke ihe maka ndị Korea, ugwu na ndịda, na ikekwe maka mba ndị ọzọ dị na mpaghara a, mana ọ bụghị maka USA Ma ọ bụkwa eziokwu na “kwadoro na mgbidi,” ndị ọchịagha North Korea “ga-alụ ọgụ,” dị ka Prọfesọ Bruce Cumings, onye ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme kachasị na Korea na Mahadum Chicago, na-ekwusi ike.[12] US ga - emebi “ọchịchị” kpamkpam na Pyongyang isi obodo North Korea, yana ikekwe, ndị North Korea niile, dịka Onye isi ala US Trump yiri egwu.[13] North Korea, n'aka nke ya, ga-emebi Seoul, otu n'ime obodo kachasị dịrị n'ụwa, kpatara ọtụtụ nde mmadụ na South Korea na ọtụtụ iri puku na Japan. Dị ka ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Paul Atwood na-ede, ebe anyị maara na “usoro ugwu ugwu nwere ngwa agha nuklia nke a ga-ebido na ntọala America [na South Korea] na Japan, anyị kwesịrị ịdị na-esi n’elu ụlọ na-ekwu na mwakpo America ga-ewepu ngwa agha ndị ahụ. nke nwere ike ịdị n'akụkụ niile, mbibi nke na-akpata mbibi ga-agbanwe ngwa ngwa gaa n'ụbochị ụbọchị ịtụ anya maka ụdị mmadụ niile. ”[14]
O nweghi mba n’uwa nwere ike ibuso US agha. Oge. David Stockman, onye bụbu onye omekorita nke abụọ oge gara aga na Michigan dere, "N'agbanyeghị etu i siri bibie ya, enweghị mba ndị nwere nnukwu ụlọ ọrụ zuru oke n'ụwa nwere ike itinye obodo America egwu ma ọ bụ nwee obere ntakịrị ime ya. . ”[15] Ọ na-ajụ m ajụjụ ọnụ, "Ì chere na [Putin] ga-enwe ọgba aghara ma ọ bụ igbu onwe ya iji yie US agha na ngwa agha nuklia?" Onye ahụ bụ onye 1,500 "na-ebuso agha nuklia agha."
"Siegfried Hecker, onye ntụzi nke Los Alamos National Laboratory na onye ọrụ US ama ama ikpeazụ ga-eleba anya na ụlọ ọrụ nuklia North Korea, agbakọwo ogo nke ngwa agha North Korea na-erughị bọmbụ 20 na 25."[16] Ọ bụrụ na ọ ga-egbu onwe ya ka Putin ịmalite agha na US, mgbe ahụ nke ahụ ga-abụrịrị eziokwu maka Kim Jong-un nke North Korea, mba nke nwere otu ụzọ n'ụzọ iri nke US na obere akụ na ụba.
Oke US nke agha jikere agha na-agabiga ihe dị mkpa iji chebe South Korea. Ọ na-eyi North Korea, China na Russia egwu ozugbo. Dị ka Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. kwuru n'otu oge, US bụ “onye kachasị eme ihe ike n'ụwa.” Nke ahụ bụ eziokwu n'oge ya, ọ dịkwa otú ahụ ugbu a.
N'ihe banyere North Korea, a na-akwanyere mkpa nke gọọmenti gọọmentị lekwasịrị anya na ime ihe ike anya mgbe a na-akpọ ya “steeti nche,”[17]otú Cumings si kpoo ya. Okwu a ghotara eziokwu a na-enweghị mgbagha bụ na ndị North Korea na-etinye oge buru ibu na-akwado agha. Onweghi onye na-akpọ North Korea "onye kachasị nwee ihe ike".
Onye nwere mkpịsị aka ha na bọtịnụ?
Onye ndu ọkaibe n’Amerika, Robert Jay Lifton kwusiri ike na nso nso a “ike ịkọwa Donald Trump.”[18] Ọ kọwara na Trump “na-ahụ ụwa site n'echiche nke onwe ya, ihe ọ chọrọ na mmetụta ya. Ọ gaghị enwe ike ịbụ onye na-akpachapụ anya ma ọ bụ gbasasịa ma ọ bụ dị ize ndụ. ”
N'oge mgbasa ozi nhọpụta ya Trump ọ bụghị naanị na-arụ ụka maka njikọta nke Japan na South Korea, mana gosipụtara mmasị dị egwu na iji ngwa agha ndị dị otú ahụ. Na Donald Trump, nwoke e chere na ọ bụ nke na-anaghị akwụwa ike, nwere ikike o nwere iji kpochapụ mbara ala ọtụtụ oge karịa na-anọchite anya ihe iyi egwu dị egwu, ya bụ, iyi egwu kwesiri ekwenye.
Site n'echiche a, ihe a na-akpọ "iyi egwu" nke North Korea na-abịa dị ka mbipụta ilu dị na nkuzi.
Ọ bụrụ n’ị na-atụ egwu Kim Jong-un, chee n’echiche etu ụjọ ga-esi ndị North Korea. Ọ ga-ekwe omume Trump ịhapụ ịhapụ ngwa ngwa nuklia a na-enweghị ike ịbanye na karama ahụ kwesịrị ịbụ mkpọlite ịkpọ oku maka mmadụ niile nọ na mpaghara ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị ịkpọte ma mee ihe tupu oge agafee.
Ọ bụrụ na egwu anyị na Kim Jong-un na-atụ anyị na mbụ enweghị isi, ma ọ bụrụ na echiche nke ịnọ na "ozi igbu onwe ya" ugbu a enweghị isi - ebe ọ bụ na ya, ndị ọchịagha ya, na ndị ọrụ gọọmentị ya bụ ndị na-erite uru nke usoro ndị eze na-enye ha ike na ikike dị ịrịba ama-mgbe ahụ kedu ihe kpatara enweghị isi anyị, ya bụ, enweghị isi nke ndị mmadụ na US? Kedu ihe bụ hype niile? Ọ ga-amasị m ịrụ ụka na otu isi iyi nke ụdị echiche a, ụdị echiche anyị na-ahụ oge niile na ọkwa ụlọ, bụ n'ezie ịkpa oke agbụrụ. Juddị ajọ mbunobi a, dị ka ụdị mkpọsa ndị ọzọ, na-akwado gọọmentị nke na-akwado amụma mba ọzọ nke anyaukwu nke 1% na-eduzi kama mkpa nke 99%.
The "imeghe uzo”Echiche
Enwere ike ichikota isi nke atumatu mba ofesi site na nwute nke ndu okwu nduhie nke amara dika "Open Door Policy," dika Atwood kowara na nso nso a.[19] I nwere ike icheta ahịrịokwu ochie a site na klas akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ụlọ akwụkwọ sekọndrị. Nnyocha nyocha nke Atwood na akụkọ ihe mere eme nke Open Door Policy na-egosi anyị ihe kpatara ọ ga - eji bụrụ ezigbo mmeghe anya, na-enye isi ihe iji ghọta ihe na-eme n'oge na-adịbeghị anya na mmekọrịta North Korea-Washington. Atwood dere na "US na Japan nọ na nsogbu ọgụ kemgbe ndị 1920 na site na 1940, n'etiti oke ụwa dara ada, nọ n'ọgụ mmadụ na-alụ maka ga-emesịa rite uru kachasị na ahịa na akụrụngwa nke Greater China na Ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ Eshia. ”Ọ bụrụ na mmadụ kwesịrị ịkọwa ihe kpatara agha Pacific, otu ahịrịokwu ahụ ga-anọ ogologo oge. Atwood gara n'ihu ikwu, "A naghị ekwu maka ihe kpatara US na-emegide ndị Japan nọ na Asia na ọ bụ isiokwu a machibidoro iwu na usoro mgbasa ozi dịka ebumnuche ebumnuche nke ndị si mba ofesi America dere nnukwu."
A na-arụ ụka mgbe ụfọdụ na US gbochiri ịnweta Japan na akụrụngwa na East Asia, mana a gosipụtara nsogbu ahụ n'otu ụzọ, dịka otu anyaukwu ndị Japan ma nwee ike ịchịkwa esemokwu ahụ karịa nke Washington.
Atwood kọwara n'ụzọ dabara adaba, "Nnukwu Ulo Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia Japan ji nwayọọ nwayọọ na-emechi 'Imepe ụzọ' iji banye na ọnụnọ ndị America ma nweta akụnụba Eshia n'oge dị mkpa. Ka Japan weghaara Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia US kpaliri Fleet Pacific na Hawaii n'ụzọ dịpụrụ adịpụ nke Japan, nye iwu mmanye akụ na ụba, ntinye nke ígwè na mmanụ na August 1941 nyere iwu ka ọ kwụsị China na Vietnam 'ma ọ bụ ọzọ.' Japanhụ nke ikpeazụ dị ka ihe egwu dị na ya, Japan mere ihe Tokyo bụ ọgụ mbụ a na-eme na Hawaii. ”Ihe ọtụtụ n'ime anyị ekwerela ka anyị kwenye, na Japan gara n'ihu n'ihi na gọọmentị na-enweghị atụ na ndị agha na-achịkwa ya. n'ezie akụkọ ochie banyere ime ihe ike banyere onye nwere akụ na ụba ụwa.
N'ezie, echiche nke Cumings, onye nọrọla ogologo oge na-eme nchọpụta akụkọ ihe mere eme Korea, ọkachasị ka o si metụta mmekọrịta US-Korea, dabara nke ọma na Atwood: “Kemgbe mbipụta nke akwụkwọ mmeghe 'emepe emepe' na 1900 n'etiti ihe ọgbaghara a. Chineselọ ala ndị China, ebumnuche kasịnụ Washington nwere mgbe a na-enwebeghị nsogbu ịnweta mpaghara East Asia; ọ chọrọ ka ndị obodo ala siri ike nwee ike inwere onwe ha mana ọ bụghị nke siri ike iji kpochapụ mmetụta ndị ọdịda anyanwụ. ”[20] Akwụkwọ edemede Atwood dị nkenke ma dị ike na-enye mmadụ nnukwu foto nke Open Door Policy, mgbe ọ na-arụ ọrụ Cumings, mmadụ nwere ike ịmụ banyere nkọwapụta nke otu esi etinye ya na Korea n'oge agha America na obodo ahụ mgbe Agha Pacific gasịrị, site na ntuli aka na-agaghị abụ nzizi nke onye ọchịchị South Korea mbụ Syngman Rhee (1875 – 1965), na agha obodo na Korea sochiri. “Accessnweghi ohere ọ bụla na mpaghara East Asia” pụtara ịnweta ahịa maka ndị ahịa America a ma ama, yana ịchịkwa ahịa ndị ahụ na-aga n'ihu na mgbakwunye.
Nsogbu a bụ na gọọmentị ndị na-emegide ndị ọzọ bidoro ịchịkwa Korea, Vietnam, na China. Gọọmentị ndị a chọrọ iji akụ na ụba ha maka mmepe onwe ha maka ọdịmma ndị obodo ha, mana nke ahụ bụ, ma ọ ka bụ, ọkọlọtọ maka “ehi” nke bụ ụlọ ọrụ ndị agha America. N'ihi ngagharị ndị ahụ maka nnwere onwe, Washington gara nke ọma maka “nke abụọ.” “Ndị na-eme atụmatụ atụmatụ America mebere ụwa kachasị mma nke kewara Eshia maka otu ọgbọ.”[21] Otu onye ọrụ mmekọrịta Pak Hung-sik kwuru na “ndị nnupụisi na ndị mba dị iche iche” bụ nsogbu ahụ, ya bụ, ndị kwenyere na uto akụ na ụba Korea kwesịrị irite ndị Koreans kachasị uru, na ndị chere na Korea kwesịrị ịlaghachi na ịbụ ụdị nkejikọtara ọnụ dum (dịka ọ dịbu ọ dịkarịa ala 1,000 afọ).
Ismkpa ókè agbụrụ
Ebe ọ bụ na echiche dị egwu dị ka "ịhụ mba n'anya" nweburu onwe ya ka a kpochapụ ya na ego ọ bụla, itinye ego na agha dị oke mkpa ga-adị mkpa. (Ndị ọha na eze bụ ndị na-etinye ego na ụlọ ọrụ na ndị na-ere ahịa ahịa!) Ntinye ego a ga-achọ nkwado nke ọtụtụ nde ndị America. Nke ahụ bụ ebe echiche “Ọnwụ Na-edo Anya” bara uru. Yellow Peril bụ echiche mgbasa echiche mutant na-arụ ọrụ na aka na Open Open Door, n'ụdị ọ bụla ọ na-egosipụta ugbu a dị ka.[22] E gosiputara njikọ ndị a n'ụzọ dị oke okike dị elu nke mkpọsa Yellow Peril site na gburugburu oge mbụ nke ndị Sino-Japanese (1894 – 95) dere site na prọfesọ nke akụkọ ihe mere eme Peter C. Perdue na Onye Okike Onye Okike nke Anya Ellen Sebring na Mahadum Nkà na ụzụ Massachusetts.[23] Dị ka edemede ha na-akọwa, “ihe kpatara ike mba ofesi ịgbasawanye ji mee ka China nwee mmetụta bụ, ka emechara, ha chere na uru dị ukwuu ga-erite site na nke a. Otu akpa ọla edo a na-egbuke egbuke bụ n'ezie akụkụ nke ọzọ nke 'ihe isi ike na-acha odo odo'. ”Otu ihe atụ na-agbasa echiche bụ ihe osise nke onye China, onye ọ na-anọdụ n'ezie na akpa ọla edo n'akụkụ nke ọzọ nke oké osimiri.
E gosipụtara ịkpa ókè agbụrụ n’ebe ọdịda anyanwụ n’ebe ndị ọwụwa anyanwụ jiri okwu ịkpa ókè agbụrụ “jọgburu onwe ya” mee ihe. Ndị Korea enweghị ekele maka iji mkpagbu agbụrụ dịka ndị a,[24] ọ dịghị ihe karịrị Filipinos ma ọ bụ Vietnamese.[25] (Na Vietnam enwere usoro iwu mgbere, mana nke akpọrọ na Vietnamese bụ anụmanụ nke enwere ike igbu ma ọ bụ mebie ya). Ejiri okwu a rụtụ aka na Koreans, kwa na ugwu na ndịda. Cumings na-agwa anyị na 'onye editọ ndị agha a na-akwanyere ùgwù' Hanson Baldwin n'oge Agha Korea jiri Korean tụnyere igurube, ndị isi na ndị otu Genghis Khan, na o jikwa okwu kọwaa ha dị ka "nke oge ochie."[26]Mmekorita Washington na Japan na-enyekwa ohere ịkpa ókè megide ndị Korea ka ha nwee ihe ịga nke ọma ma naanị mezuo iwu mbụ ya megide okwu ịkpọasị na 2016.[27]Na nwute, ọ bụ iwu enweghị ezé, ọ bụ naanị nzọụkwụ mbụ.
Egwu na-enweghị isi nke nkwenkwe ime mmụọ na-abụghị nke Ndị Kraịst, ihe nkiri gbasara di Manical Fu Manchu,[28] na ụzọ mgbasa ozi nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ banyere narị afọ nke 20th niile keere òkè na ịmepụta ọdịbendị nke George W. Bush nwere ike, na ihu ihu, kọwapụta North Korea otu n'ime mba atọ nke "Axis nke Ọjọọ" mgbe 9 / 11 gasịrị.[29] Ọ bụghị naanị ndị nta akụkọ na-enweghị isi na ndị nwere mmetụta na Fox News kamakwa netwọ akụkọ na akwụkwọ akụkọ ndị ọzọ na mpempe akwụkwọ na-ekwugharị akara ngosi a n'ezie, na-eji ya dị ka “obere uwe” maka otu iwu US.[30] Ọ fọrọ obere ka ọ bụrụ na “okwu abụọ nke ịkpọasị” pụtara ihe e bu ụzọ kwuo tupu e dee ya na okwu mbụ. Mana eziokwu a were okwu ndị a kpọrọ ihe bụ akara nke enweghị nsọpụrụ n'akụkụ “anyị”, akara nke ajọ ihe na ịkpọasị na ọha mmadụ.
Omume ịkpa oke agwa Trump na ndị mmadụ nwere agba doro anya o siri ike ide ede.
Mmekọahụ mgbe Koreas na Japan jikọtara
Na ajọ mbunobi a dị n'azụ-ajọ mbunobi a ndị mmadụ nọ na ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri US maka ndị Korea - ọ bụghị ihe ijuanya na ọ bụ mmadụ ole na ole na America zọnyere ụkwụ ha ma tie mkpu, "o zuru ezu" gbasara mmekpa ahụ nke Washington mesoro ha. Otu n'ime ụzọ ndị kachasị njọ na Washington mejọrọ ndị Korea mgbe agha Pacific gasịrị bụ n'oge International Tribunal International maka Far East nke gbakọtara na 1946: usoro ịgba ohu mmekọahụ nke ndị agha Japan (nke akpọrọ "usoro nkasi obi ụmụ nwanyị" n'ụzọ euphemistically) enweghị akwụkwọ ikpe, na-eme ka azụmaahịa ndị agha mechara mee ka ịzụ ahịa mmekọahụ nke mba ọ bụla, gụnyere US, yikarịrị ka ọ ga-amaliteghachi. Dị ka Gay J. McDougall nke UN dere na 1998, “… ndụ ụmụ nwanyị na-aga n'ihu na-elelị. N'ụzọ dị mwute, ọpụpụ a maka ilebara mpụ nke omume mmekọahụ anya nke e mere n'ọtụtụ buru ibu n'oge Agha Secondwa nke Abụọ atụnyela ogo nke ntaramahụhụ nke a na-eme mpụ ndị yiri ya taa.[31] Ejikọtara arụrụala nke ndị agha US n'oge gara aga na taa jikọtara ya na ndị agha Japan n'oge gara aga.[32] Eleghari ndụ ụmụ nwanyị n'ozuzu ha, mana ndụ nke Korean E ledara ụmụ nwanyị anya dị ka ndị nke “oke” —na-akpagbu ya na ịkpa ókè agbụrụ.
Egosipụta omume obi ike nke ndị agha US banyere ime ihe ike na Japan bụ n'ụzọ Washington si nye ndị agha America ohere ịgba akwụna ndị inyom Japan, ndị ohi ahia gọọmentị Japan nyere nkwado, akpọrọ “Ntụrụndụ na Mkpakọrịta,” nke emere ka ọha na eze nwee ohere. obi ụtọ nke ndị agha niile.[33] N'ihe banyere Korea, achọpụtara ya site na ntinye ederede nke nzuko omeiwu South Korea na "n'otu mgbanwe na 1960, ndị omebe iwu abụọ gbara gọọmentị ume ka ha zụọ ndị akwụna iji zute ihe otu kpọrọ 'mkpa ebumnuche' nke ndị agha jikọrọ aka na gbochie ha imefu dollar ha na Japan karịa South Korea. Onye na-esote minista na-ahụ maka ụlọ n'oge ahụ, Lee Sung-woo, zaghachiri na gọọmentị enwewo ụfọdụ ndozi na 'inye ndị akwụna' na 'usoro ntụrụndụ' maka ndị agha America. "[34]
Echefula na ndị agha US dinara ndị inyom Korea n'ike nke ndị akwụna. Womenmụ nwanyị ndị Japan, dị ka ụmụ nwanyị Korea, bụ ndị ebumnobi nke ihe ike mmekọahụ n'oge US na ebe ahụ na nso ọdụ ndị agha US — ụmụ nwanyị na-ere ahịa na ụmụ nwanyị na-agbada n'okporo ámá.[35] Ndị mmerụ ahụ nọ na mba abụọ ahụ ka na-arịa ọnya anụ ahụ na PTSD — nke abụọ bụ n'ihi ọrụ na ntọala ndị agha. Ọ bụ mmebi iwu nke ọha mmadụ anyị na “ụmụ nwoke ga-abụ ụmụ nwoke” omume nke ọdịnala ndị agha US na-aga n'ihu. Ọ ga-abụrịrị itinye ya na nnabata na International Military Tribunal maka Far East.
Macharthur ji obi mmadu agwa ka aghaghachitere agha site na mgbe Japan gbasasiri gunyere mmeghari ochichi onye kwuo uche ya dika ndozi ala, ikike ndi oru, na ikwe ka nkwekorita ndi otu ndi oru; nhichapu nke ndi isi ochichi nke ndi ala anyi; na ịchị achị nke Zaibatsu (ya bụ, nzukọ ọgbakọ azụmaahịa oge oge Pacific, ndị ritere uru n'agha) wee hazie ndị omekome iwu na mpụ; N’ikpeazu mana opempe, usoro iwu udo pụrụ iche n’ụwa nke eji edemede ya 9 “Ndị Japan ebighi ebi na-akpọ agha dịka ikike nke mba na iyi egwu ma ọ bụ iji ike dị ka ụzọ isi dozie esemokwu mba ụwa.” O doro anya na ọtụtụ ihe a ga-eme na-anabata gị maka ndị Koreans, ọkachasị ndị na - enweghị ike ịchebe ikike na usoro iwu udo.
Ọ bụ ihe nwute, agaghị anabata ụlọ ọrụ dị otú a ma ọ bụ ụlọ ọrụ ndị agha na-ahụ maka ụlọ ọrụ, yabụ na mbido 1947, e kpebiri na ụlọ ọrụ Japan ga-aghọ “ụlọ ọrụ ọwụwa anyanwụ na Ndịda Ebe Ọwụwa Anyanwụ Eshia,” na Japan na South Korea ga-enweta nkwado site n'aka Washington maka mgbake akụ na ụba dabere n'usoro Marshall Marshall na Europe.[36] Otu ahịrịokwu na ndetu nke Onye Isi Oche George Marshall ka Dean Acheson na Jenụwarị 1947 chịkọtara ụkpụrụ US na Korea ga-adị na-arụ ọrụ malite na afọ ahụ ruo 1965: “hazie gọọmentị South Korea na-ejikọ ọnụ ma jikọta ya [sic] akụ na ụba na nke Japan. ”Acheson nọchiri Marshall dịka onye isi ọdee akwụkwọ nke 1949 rue 1953. Ọ "ghọrọ onye isi na-akwado ime ka ndịda Korea nọrọ na mpaghara mmetụta nke America na Japanese, wee jiri aka wee nara ntinye aka nke ndị America na Agha Korea," n'okwu Cumings.
N’ihi nke a, ndị ọrụ Japan tụfuru ikike dị iche iche ma nwechaghị ikike ịbanye na ya, e guzobere ikike akpọrọ “Nchebe Onwe-Gị”, ndị kwere ekwe dịka Prime Minister Abe nna Kishi Nobusuke (1896 – 1987) kwere ka ha laghachi ọchịchị . Mwepu nke Japan na-aga n'ihu taa, na-eyi ma Koreas yana China na Russia egwu.
Ọkọ akụkọ ihe mere eme Pulitzer onye mmeri John Dower kwuru otu ihe ọjọọ na-esite na nkwekọrịta udo abụọ maka Japan nke malitere na ụbọchị Japan wee nwetaghachi ọbụbụeze ya 28 Eprel 1952: “E gbochiri Japan ịgagharị nke ọma na nkwekọrịta na ịlaghachi na ya ndị agbata obi Asia kacha nso. Ime udo agaghị egbu oge. ”[37] Washington gbochiri ime udo n’etiti Japan na ndị agbata obi abụọ kacha njọ na o kpochapụrụ, Korea na China, site na ịmalite “udo dị iche” nke gbochiri ma Koreas yana Ndị Republic of China (PRC) na usoro ahụ dum. Washington gbagọrọ ogwe aka Japan iji nweta nkwado ha site na iyi egwu gaa n'ihu ọrụ ahụ malitere na General Douglas MacArthur (Douglas MacArthur (1880 – 1964)) Ebe Japan na South Korea emeghị mmekọrịta dị mma ruo na June 1965, yana nkwekọrịta udo dị n'etiti Japan na Edebanyela PRC ruo 1978, enwere ogologo oge, nke dị ka Dower kwuru, "A na-ahapụ ọnya na nkwụsi ike nke ọchịchị aka ike, mwakpo, na nrigbu na-aga n'ihu na - emekpa ahụ na Japan na-enweghị nsogbu. gbasasịrị n'ọnọdụ nke ilere ọwụwa anyanwụ gafee Pacific gaa America maka nchekwa na, n'ezie, maka njirimara ya dị ka otu mba. ”Washington si otú a chụrịta n'etiti ndị Japan n'otu na Koreans na China n'akụkụ nke ọzọ, na-agọnarị ndị Japan ohere. ịtụgharị uche n'ọrụ agha ha, ịrịọ mgbaghara, ma wulitekwa mmekọrịta enyi na mba ama ama nkewa ndị Japan megide Koreans na ndị China, mana naanị ole na ole Ndị maara nke ọma ghọtara na Washington bụkwa ụta.
Ekwela ka uzo mechie East Asia
Returnlaghachi n'okwu Atwood banyere Open Door Policy, ọ kọwara n'ụzọ doro anya ma kọwaa nke a echiche: “Ego na ụlọ ọrụ America kwesịrị inwe ikike nke ịbanye n'ọma ahịa nke mba na ókèala niile ma nweta ikike ha na ike ọrụ dị ọnụ ala Okwu ndị America, mgbe ụfọdụ ọ na-abụ nke a na-ekwu, na-abụkarị site na ime ihe ike. ”[38] Ọ na-akọwa otú ozizi a siri nwee ọdịdị. Mgbe agha obodo anyị (1861-65), ndị agha mmiri US na-anọrọ ọnụnọ ya "na Oke Osimiri Pasifik ọ kachasị na Japan, China, Korea na Vietnam ebe ọ rụrụ ọtụtụ ngwa agha." Ebumnuche ndị Navy bụ “iji hụ na iwu na usoro ma kwado uru akụ na ụba… na-egbochi ikike Europe… ịnweta ikike ndị ga-ewepu ndị America. ”
Na-amalite ụda nke ị maara?
Iwu emepe emepe emepe mere ka ụfọdụ agha etinye aka, mana US amaliteghị ịgbalịsi ike igbochi mmegharị ahụ na East Asia, dịka Cumings siri kwuo, ruo mgbe 1950 National Security Council kọọrọ 48 / 2, nke bụ afọ abụọ na na-eme. Isiokwu ya bụ “Ọnọdụ United States na Nkwanye Eshia isi” ma guzobe atụmatụ ọhụrụ nke “akọwaghị nnọọ ngwụsị nke Agha IIwa nke Abụọ: ọ ga-akwado ịlụso ndị agha ọgụ megide mbuso agha ndị na-emegide ọchịchị na East Asia — Korea na mbụ, na Vietnam, ya na mgbanwe nke China dị ka nnukwu mmiri kwụsịrị ike. ”[39] NSC 48 / 2 nke a gosipụtara mmegide na "ụlọ ọrụ mmepụta ihe n'ozuzu ya." N'ikwu ya, ọ ga-adị mma ka mba ndị dị na East Asia nwee nnukwu ahịa, mana anyị achọghị ka ha ịmalite mmepe zuru oke dị ka US mere, n'ihi na mgbe ahụ Ha ga-enwe ike iso anyị rụọ ọrụ ebe anyị nwere “uru dị iche”.[40] Nke ahụ bụ ihe NSC 48 / 2 kpọrọ "nganga nke mba na ebumnuche," nke "ga - egbochi ogo dị mkpa nke imekọ ihe ọnụ mba."
Mwepu nke Korea
Tupu nzaghachị Japan na Korea na 1910, ọnụ ọgụgụ ka ukwuu nke ndị Korea abụwo “ndị nkịtị, ihe ka ọtụtụ n'ime ha bụ ndị bi na ngalaba na-arụ ọrụ nke otu n'ime ihe ndị kasị sie ike n'ụwa,” ya bụ, ndị yangbanomumu edemede.[41] E dere mkpụrụedemede abụọ nke China, yang nke pụtara “abụọ” na machibido nke putara “otu.” Obu ndi ochichi chiri ndi agha abuo — ndi oru obodo na ndi isi agha. Akwụsịghịkwa ịgba ohu na Korea ruo mgbe 1894.[42] Ọrụ US na ọchịchị South Korea ọhụụ nke Syngman Rhee na-enweghị mmasị, nke e guzobere na August 1948 na-agbaso ụkpụrụ nke nkewa ma merie na, mgbe afọ 1,000 nke ịdị n'otu gasịrị, na-akwalite Korea Peninsula zuru oke, agha obodo na nkewa na klas. ahịrị.
Keduzi mmebi iwu nke ọtụtụ ndị Korea bụ ndị a na-aga taa ahụhụ inye ha? Ihe mbu ha mere bu na amuru ha n’ime usoro aku na uba emegbu-emegbu n’otu mba nke di n’etiti mba ndi bara ọgaranya ma di ike, ya bu, China na Japan. Mgbe ha nwesịrị ahụhụ dị ukwuu n'okpuru ọchịchị ndị Japan ruo ihe karịrị afọ 30, ha nwere mmetụta dị mkpirikpi mmetụta nnwere onwe nke malitere n'oge ọkọchị nke 1945, mana n'oge na-adịghị anya US weghaara ebe Alaeze Ukwu Japan hapụrụ. Mpụ nke abụọ ha nọ na-emegide ohu a nke abụọ n'okpuru nkwado Washington, Syngman Rhee, na-ebute Agha Korea. Na nke ato, otutu n'ime ha nwere olile anya inweta ezi ihe onyinye obodo ha. Twodị nnupụisi abụọ a ikpeazụ mere ka ha nwee nsogbu na Bully Number nke mbụ, onye dịka ekwuputara n’elu, kpebiri na nzuzo ka ọ ghara ikwe ka "ụlọ ọrụ izugbe" na NSC 48 / 2, na-adaba na usoro izugbe ya na-ata ahụhụ, na-ata ahụhụ mba ndị na-achọ Onwe mmepe akụ na ụba.
Ikekwe n'ihi akụkụ nke izi ezi na ihe ọhụrụ, adịghị ike, na US nke gọọmentị Syngman Rhee nyere, ndị ọgụgụ isi ole na ole na West lebara anya na arụrụala ndị US mere n'oge arụ ọrụ Korea, ma ọ bụ ọbụna na akọwapụtara nke ọma. arụrụala ndị sochiri nguzobe gọọmentị Rhee. N'agbata 100,000 na 200,000 Kore ndị gọọmenti South Korea na ndị agha na-ejide US gbagburu tupu June 1950, mgbe "agha mbuso agha" malitere, dị ka nyocha nke Cumings si kwuo, na "Ejidere ndị 300,000 ma gbuo ma ọ bụ kwụsịrị kpamkpam site na South Korea gọọmentị na ọnwa ole na ole gasịrị ot agha malitere. ”[43] (My italics). Yabụ idebe nguzogide ndị Korea n'oge mbido ya bụ igbu mmadụ ihe ruru nde ọkara. Nke a bụ naanị akaebe na ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke ndị Korea dị na ndịda, ọ bụghị naanị ọtụtụ ndị Korea nọ n'ebe ugwu (ọtụtụ nde ndị e gburu n'oge Agha Korea), ejighị aka ike nabata ndị ọchịchị aka ike ọhụrụ US.
Mmalite "agha a na-alụkarị ọgụ," n'agbanyeghị, a na-edenyekarị akara dị ka 25 June 1950, mgbe ndị Korea nọ na Ugwu 'wakporo' obodo nke ha, mana agha na Korea amalitelarị n'oge mbido 1949, yabụ n'agbanyeghị na enwere echiche zuru ebe nile na agha bidoro na 1950, Cumings jụrụ echiche ahụ.[44] Iji maa atụ, enwere agha kpụ ọkụ n'ọnụ na Cheju Island na 1948-49 ebe gbagburu n'etiti ndị bi na 30,000 na 80,000, n'etiti ndị 300,000, ụfọdụ n'ime ha gburu ndị America ozugbo na ọtụtụ n’ime ha na ndị America na-akpaghị aka uche Washington nyere aka na steeti nke Syngman Rhee.[45] N'ikwu ya n'ụzọ ọzọ, ọ ga-esiri ike ịta ụta Agha Korea na Democratic Ndị mmadụ Republic of Korea (DPRK), mana ọ dị mfe ịta ya ụta na Washington na Syngman Rhee.
Ka ahụhụ niile US kpatara ndị Korea, ma north na ndịda, o kwesịghị iju m anya na gọọmentị ndị North Korea bụ ndị jụrụ ajụ na ndị America, na ụfọdụ ndị Korea na North na-akwado ọchịchị Kim Jong-un. n'inyere ndị North aka ịkwadebe maka ịlụ agha na US, ọbụlagodi mgbe gọọmentị anaghị akwụ ụgwọ. (Opekata mpe, a na-egosi anyi ihe onyonyo na TV, nke ndị agha na-azọ ije na-egosi ụfọdụ ọkwa). N'okwu Cumings, "DPRK abụghị ọmarịcha ebe, mana ọ bụ ebe kwere nghọta, ọnọdụ anticolonial na mgbochi nke na-etolite na ọkara narị afọ nke ọchịchị aka ike nke Japan na ọkara narị afọ ọzọ nke ọgụ na-aga n'ihu na hegemonic. United States na South Korea dị ike karị, na ụdị nrụrụ amamịghe niile (steeti na-eche nche, oke ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, na-ekwugide ndị mbịarambịa) ma jiri oke nlebara anya mebie ikike ya dịka mba. ”[46]
Gịnị ugbu a?
Mgbe Kim Jong-un kwuru okwu iyi egwu, ekwenyeghị na ha kwenyesiri ike. Mgbe Onye isi ala US Trump na-eyi North Korea egwu, ọ na-eyi egwu. A agha nuklia malitere na Peninsula Korea nwere ike 'tụpụ sọlfọ zuru ezu na irighiri ihe ga-eyi ọha mmadụ ọnụ, "[47] ya mere, ọ na-eyi ihe mere ihe a kpọrọ mmadụ egwu n'ezie.
Otu onye choro ichota ihe anakpo “Doomsday Clock” iji hu ka o di nkpa ma anyi mee ihe ugbu a.[48] Ọtụtụ ndị maara nke ọma etinyela aka na akụkọ nke na-eme mmụọ onye ọ bụla nọ na North Korea. N'agbanyeghị nkwenye ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, anyị ga-echegharị ma weghachite arụmụka ugbu a banyere nke a US nsogbu — Mgbapụta Washington na esemokwu ahụ. Nke a ga - achọ ka ihe na - akụda mmụọ bụrụ ihe a na - agaghị echezọ "ọ bụghị dị ka ihe omume dịpụrụ adịpụ kama ọ bụ ihe a na - apụghị izere ezere nke mgbasa nke ihe ike akụkọ ihe mere eme nke alaeze ukwu na ikekete okirikiri oge - ọ bụghị" ịhụ ", kama ime ihe nkasi obi iji gbanwee ụdị anyị kpamkpam. propensity maka ime ihe ike.
Ihe edeturu.
[1] Bertrand Russell, Eserese Na-enweghị Mmasị (Simon na Schuster, 1950)
[2] "Ogwe ndị US na Japan Maka Ọdụ Ndị agha"
[3] Ndị Nkeji, Ebe Korea dị na Anyanwụ: Akụkọ mgbe ochie (WW Norton, 1988) p. 477.
Alex Ward, “South Korea chọrọ ka US dobe ngwa agha nuklia na mba ahụ. Nke ahụ bụ echiche ọjọọ. " Vox (5 Septemba 2017).
[4] Alex Lockie, “US zigara ndị na-ebu ụgbọ elu nke atọ na Pacific ka nnukwu ụgbọ mmiri Armada dịdewere North Korea, " Business Insider (5 June 2017)
[5] Bridget Martin, "Ọnwa Jae-In's THAAD Conundrum: Onye isi oche 'Candlelight President South Korea' na-eche Mmegide siri ike nke ụmụ amaala na Defence Defense, " Akwụkwọ akụkọ Asia Pacific: Japan Lekwasịrị Anya 15: 18: 1 (15 September 2017).
[6] Jane Perlez, “Maka China, Sistemula Mgbapu Gọọmenti Na South Korea Na-eme ka Courtbụ Onye A Gaghị Ekwe" New York Times (8 July 2016)
[7] Bruce Klingner, “South Korea: akingzọ Nzọụkwụ Dị Mma Maka Ndozigharị Agbachitere, "Ihe Nketa Ntọala (19 October 2011)
[8] Oliver Holmes, “US na South Korea ga-eme agha dị ukwuu n'agbanyeghị ọgba aghara North Korea, " The Guardian (11 August 2017)
[9] "Ingdọ aka na Japan Mịnịsta ịdọ aka na ntị nke ikuku (AWACS) Computing Upgrade (MCU),Lọ Ọrụ Nchebe Nchebe Nchebe (26 September 2013)
[10] Hans M. Kristensen, Matthew McKinzie, na Theodore A. Postol,Otu esi eme ka ikike nrụpụta ikike nuklia nke US na-emebi arụmọrụ: Ihe mgbawa na-akwụ ụgwọ Super-Fuze, " Akwụkwọ akụkọ nke Atomic Scientists (March 2017)
A kwagara otu submarine na mpaghara na Eprel 2017. Lee Barbara Starr, Zachary Cohen na Brad Lendon,US Navy eduzi ngwa ogu ana-atu atu South Korea, ”CNN (25 Eprel 2017).
A ga-enwerịrị opekata mpe abụọ na mpaghara. Hụ “Trump na-agwa Duterte nke ọnụọgụ nuklia abụọ nke US na mmiri Korea: NYT, ”Reuters (24 Mee 2017)
[11] Dakshayani Shankar, “Mattis: Ọgụ North Korea ga-abụ 'ihe ojoo',Akụkọ ABC (10 Aug 2017)
[12] Bruce Cumings, “Alaeze Hermit na-efekwasị anyị, " LA Times (17 July 1997)
[13] David Nakamura na Anne Gearan, “N'okwu UN, Trump tiri 'mbibi North Korea kpamkpam' ma kpọọ Kim Jong Un 'Rocket Man', " Washington Post (19 Septemba 2017)
[14] Paul Atwood, “Korea? Ọ na-eme n'ezie banyere China !, ” CounterPunch (22 Septemba 2017)
[15] David Stockman, “Ọnọdụ ọjọọ nke Iran steepụ 'Iran na-eyi Egwu', " Antiwar.com (14 October 2017)
[16] Joby Warrick, Ellen Nakashima, na Anna Fifield “North Korea ugbu a na-eme ngwa agha nuklia dị njikere, ndị nyocha US kwuru, " Washington Post (8 August 2017)
[17] Bruce Cumings, North Korea: Obodo ọzọ (The New Press, 2003) p. 1.
[18] Transcript nke Ajụjụ ọnụ, “Psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton nke Ọrụ dọrọ aka na ntị: 'Nkwupụta nke Trump' bụ ihe dị ize ndụ nye anyị niile, ”DemocracyNow! (13 October 2017)
[19] Atwood, “Korea? Ọ na-eme n'ezie banyere China! ” CounterPunch.
[20] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 8, ngalaba isiokwu ya bụ “A soja-Industrial Complex,” paragraf nke 7.
[21] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 8, ngalaba isiokwu ya bụ “A soja-Industrial Complex,” paragraf nke 7.
[22] Aaron David Miller na Richard Sokolsky, “TỌ 'axụ ihe ọjọọ' alaghachila, ”CNN (26 Eprel 2017) l
[23] "Nrụgide Odekịtị — Nke Mụ: Oké Ifufe na-achịkọ na North China (1860-1900), ”MIT Visualizing Cultures, Creative Commons websaịtị weebụ:
[24] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 4, paragraf nke 3.
[25] Nick Turse na-akọ akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ịkpa ókè agbụrụ jikọtara ya na okwu a Gbuo ihe obula nke na eweghari: agha di ezigbo agha na Vietnam (Picador, 2013), Isi nke 2.
[26] Maka ederede ihe atụ mbụ nke ihe ike, lee Hanson W. Baldwin, “Ihe Mmụta nke Korea: Nkà ndị Reds, Ike Ike maka Mkpọghachi Mkpa nke Mkpa Ọchịchọ Na-emegide Mwakpo mberede,” New York Times (14 July 1950)
[27] Tomohiro Osaki, “Nri na-agabiga iwu mbu nke Japan iji kwụsị ikwu okwu ịkpọasị, " Japan Times (24 Mee 2016)
[28] Julia Lovell, “Ọnwụ Yellow: Dr Fu Manchu & Rise of Chinaphobia site n'aka Christopher Frayling - nyocha, " The Guardian (30 October 2014)
[29] Christine Hong, “Agha site na Ihe Ndị Ọzọ: Ime ihe ike nke North Korea Human Rights, " Akwụkwọ akụkọ Asia Pacific: Japan Lekwasịrị Anya 12: 13: 2 (30 March 2014)
[30] Lucas Tomlinson na Associated Press, ''Axis nke Ọjọọ 'ka dị ndụ ka North Korea, Iran na-ewepụta mgbọ ogbunigwe, nnukwu mmachi, ”Fox News (29 July 2017)
Jaime Fuller, “Ekwekọrịta nke 4 nke kacha mma kwuru na 'Axis nke ihe ọjọọ, ' Washington Post (25 Jenụwarị 2014)
[31] Caroline Norma, Ndị Japan Na-akasi Obi Ndị Nwanyi na Ịgba Ohu Mmekọahụ n'oge Agha China na Pacific (Bloomsbury, 2016), Mmechi, paragraf nke 4.
[32] Tessa Morris-Suzuki, “Don'tnu Achọghị Knowmata Banyere Girlsmụnwanyị? 'Ndị inyom nkasi obi', ndị agha Japan na ndị agha jikọrọ aka na Agha Asia-Pacific, " Akwụkwọ akụkọ Asia Pacific: Japan Lekwasịrị Anya 13: 31: 1 (3 August 2015).
[33] John W. Dower, Ranabata Ndị Inye Ife: Japan na Agha nke Agha Worldwa nke Abụọ. (Norton, 1999)
[34] Katharine HS Moon, “Militarygba akwụna ndị agha na ndị agha US na Eshia,” Akwụkwọ akụkọ Asia Pacific: Japan Lekwasịrị Anya Olu nke 7: 3: 6 (12 Jenụwarị 2009)
[35] Norma, Ndị Japan Na-akasi Obi Ndị Nwanyi na Ịgba Ohu Mmekọahụ n'oge Agha China na Pacific, Isi nke 6, paragraf ikpeazụ nke ngalaba isiokwu ya bụ "Ndị a gbara akwụna metụtara ruo na njedebe ha."
[36] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 5, paragraf nke abụọ nke ikpeazụ nke ngalaba nke mbụ tupu "Southwest nke Korea n'oge ọchịchị ndị agha."
[37] John W. Dower, “Usoro San Francisco: Oge gara aga, ugbu a, ọdịnihu na Mmekọrịta US-Japan-China, " Akwụkwọ akụkọ Asia Pacific: Japan Lekwasịrị Anya 12: 8: 2 (23 February 2014)
[38] Atwood, “Korea? Ọ na-abụkarị ihe gbasara China!" Ntinye.
[39] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 8, ngalaba isiokwu ya bụ “A soja-Industrial Complex,” paragraf nke 6.
[40] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 8, ngalaba isiokwu ya bụ “A soja-Industrial Complex,” paragraf nke 9.
[41] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 1, paragraf nke 3.
[42] Cumings, North Korea: Mba Ọzọ, Isi nke 4, paragraf nke 2nd.
[43] Ntinye, “Akụkọ Ibe Azụ nke Korea,” London Review of Books 39: 10 (18 May 2017).
[44] Cumings, Ebe Korea nọ na Sun: Akụkọ nke Oge, p. 238.
[45] Cumings, Agha Korea, Isi nke 5, "Ndị Cheju Insurgency."
[46] Cumings, North Korea: Obodo ọzọ, Isi nke 2, “American Nuclear eyi Egwu” ngalaba, paragraf ikpeazụ.
[47] Bruce Cumings, “Akụkọ Banyere Ọnọdụ Korea,” London Review of Books (18 Mee 2017). Nke a bụ edemede nke nkenke akụkọ nkenke, nkenke, akụkọ nkenke banyere akụkọ ihe mere eme nke Korea ka ọ na-emetụta ọgba aghara ugbu a.
[48] Akwụkwọ akụkọ nke Atomic Scientists
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Joseph Essertier bụ prọfesọ na-akpakọrịta na Nagoya Institute of Technology na Japan.
