Sirri, Kimiyya, da Ƙasar da ake kira Tsaron Tsaro

By Cliff Conner, Kimiyya ga Jama'a, Afrilu 12, 2023

Kalmar "ƙasar tsaron ƙasa" ta zama sananne a matsayin hanyar da za ta nuna gaskiyar siyasar Amurka a yau. Yana nuna cewa buƙatar kiyayewa m Sirrin ilimi ya zama muhimmin aiki na ikon mulki. Kalmomin da kansu na iya zama kamar ƙulle-ƙulle, amma tsarin hukuma, akida, da tsarin shari'a da suke nuni da tasiri sosai kan rayuwar kowane mutum a duniya. A halin da ake ciki dai kokarin boye sirrin gwamnati daga hannun jama'a ya tafi kafada da kafada da yin katsalandan a kan wasu mutane domin hana 'yan kasa rufawa jihar asiri.

Ba za mu iya fahimtar yanayin siyasarmu na yanzu ba tare da sanin asali da ci gaban na'urorin sirrin gwamnatin Amurka ba. Ya kasance - a mafi yawan bangare - ya kasance babi da aka sake gyara a cikin littattafan tarihin Amurka, rashi da masanin tarihi Alex Wellerstein ya yi da gaba gaɗi da iya ƙoƙarinsa don magance shi. Ƙuntataccen Bayanai: Tarihin Sirrin Nukiliya a Amurka.

Kwarewar ilimi ta Wellerstein shine tarihin kimiyya. Hakan ya dace saboda ilimin haɗari da masana kimiyyar nukiliya suka samar a aikin Manhattan lokacin yakin duniya na biyu dole ne a bi da su a asirce fiye da kowane ilimin da ya gabata.¹

Ta yaya jama'ar Amurka suka ƙyale haɓakar sirrin hukuma zuwa irin wannan girman girman? Mataki daya a lokaci guda, kuma matakin farko ya kasance mai ma'ana kamar yadda ya cancanta don hana Nazi Jamus kera makamin nukiliya. Shi ne "cikakken sirrin kimiyya wanda bam ɗin atomic ya bayyana yana buƙata" wanda ya sa tarihin farkon tsarin tsaron ƙasa na zamani ya zama ainihin tarihin sirrin kimiyyar nukiliya (shafi na 3).

Kalmar "Ƙuntataccen Bayanai" ita ce ainihin kalmar kama sirrin nukiliya. Ya kamata a adana su gaba ɗaya cikin lulluɓe ta yadda hatta wanzuwarsu bai kamata a yarda da su ba, wanda ke nufin cewa furucin kamar "Ƙuntataccen Bayanai" ya zama dole don ɓoye abubuwan da suke ciki.

Dangantaka tsakanin kimiyya da al'umma da wannan tarihi ya bayyana abu ne mai ma'ana da karfafa juna. Baya ga nuna yadda kimiyyar sirri ta yi tasiri ga tsarin zamantakewa, yana kuma nuna yadda tsarin tsaro na kasa ya tsara ci gaban kimiyya a Amurka a cikin shekaru tamanin da suka gabata. Wannan bai kasance ingantaccen ci gaba ba; ya haifar da biyayyar kimiyar Amurka ga wani yunƙuri maras isa ga mamayar sojoji a duniya.

Ta Yaya Zai Yiwu Don Rubuta Tarihin Sirri na Sirri?

Idan akwai sirrin da za a kiyaye, wa aka yarda ya kasance a cikin su? Alex Wellerstein tabbas ba haka bane. Wannan na iya zama kamar rugujewar magana da zai nutsar da bincikensa tun daga farko. Malamin tarihi da aka hana shi ganin sirrin da ke kan bincikensu zai iya cewa?

Wellerstein ya yarda da "iyakan da ke tattare da ƙoƙarin rubuta tarihi tare da rikodin tarihin da aka gyara sau da yawa." Duk da haka, bai taɓa neman ko neman izinin tsaro a hukumance ba. Samun izini, in ji shi, yana da mafi ƙarancin ƙima, kuma yana ba gwamnati haƙƙin tantance abin da aka buga. "Idan ba zan iya gaya wa kowa abin da na sani ba, menene amfanin saninsa?" (shafi na 9). A haƙiƙa, tare da ɗimbin bayanan da ba a fayyace su ba, kamar yadda babban bayanin tushe a cikin littafinsa ya tabbatar, Wellerstein ya yi nasara wajen samar da cikakken bayani mai cike da sha'awa game da tushen sirrin nukiliya.

Zamani Uku na Tarihin Sirrin Nukiliya

Don bayyana yadda muka samu daga Amurka inda babu kayan aikin sirri kwata-kwata-babu “Asiri,” “Sirrin,” ko “Babban Sirrin” nau'ikan ilimin da doka ta tanada—zuwa yanayin tsaron ƙasa gabaɗaya na yau, Wellerstein ya bayyana lokuta uku. Na farko daga aikin Manhattan a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu zuwa tashin yakin cacar baka; na biyun ya tsawaita ta babban yakin cacar baki har zuwa tsakiyar shekarun 1960; kuma na uku ya kasance daga yakin Vietnam zuwa yanzu.

Lokacin farko ya kasance da rashin tabbas, jayayya, da gwaji. Duk da cewa muhawarar da ake yi a wancan lokacin tana da wayo kuma tana da sarkakiya, amma fafutukar neman sirri tun daga lokacin ana iya daukarta a matsayin bipolar, tare da bayyana mahanga guda biyu masu gaba da juna.

ra'ayi na "mafi dacewa" ("masoyi ga masana kimiyya") cewa aikin kimiyya ya buƙaci nazarin haƙiƙa na yanayi da yada bayanai ba tare da ƙuntatawa ba, da kuma ra'ayi na "soja ko na kasa", wanda ya ɗauka cewa yaƙe-yaƙe na gaba sun kasance makawa kuma ya kasance. aikin Amurka na kula da mafi girman matsayi na soja (shafi na 85).

Faɗakarwar ɓarna: Manufofin "soja ko na ƙasa" sun yi nasara a ƙarshe, kuma wannan shine tarihin tsaron ƙasa a taƙaice.

Kafin yakin duniya na biyu, ra'ayin sirrin kimiyya da gwamnati ta sanya ya kasance mai matukar wahala, ga masana kimiyya da jama'a. Masana kimiyya sun ji tsoron cewa baya ga hana ci gaban binciken da suke yi, sanya makantar gwamnati a kan kimiyya zai haifar da jahilci a kimiyance da kuma maganganun jama'a wanda ya mamaye hasashe, damuwa, da firgita. Ka'idoji na al'ada na buɗewa da haɗin kai na kimiyya, duk da haka, sun mamaye matsanancin tsoron bam ɗin nukiliya na Nazi.

Cin kashi na Axis a 1945 ya haifar da juyin juya halin siyasa game da abokin gaba na farko wanda ya kamata a adana asirin nukiliya. Maimakon Jamus, abokan gaba za su kasance tsohuwar ƙawance, Tarayyar Soviet. Wannan ya haifar da rikice-rikicen yaƙi da kwaminisanci na Yaƙin Cold, kuma abin da ya haifar da shi shine shigar da babban tsarin sirri na hukuma akan aikin kimiyya a Amurka.

A yau, Wellerstein ya lura cewa, “fiye da shekaru saba’in bayan ƙarshen Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, da kuma wasu shekaru talatin tun bayan rugujewar Tarayyar Soviet,” mun gano cewa “makamin nukiliya, sirrin nukiliya, da tsoron makaman nukiliya suna nuna kowane irin kamanni na dindindin. wani ɓangare na duniyarmu ta yanzu, gwargwadon cewa ga mafi yawan ba shi yiwuwa a yi tunaninsa in ba haka ba.” (shafi na 3). Amma yaya wannan ya faru? Lokuta uku da aka ambata sun ba da tsarin labarin.

Babban manufar na'urar sirrin yau shine don ɓoye girman da girman "yaƙe-yaƙe na har abada" na Amurka da laifuffukan cin zarafin ɗan adam da suke tattare da su.

A lokaci na farko, “masana kimiyya ne suka fara yaɗa bukatar sirrin nukiliyar da suka yi la’akari da abin da suke so a ɓoye.” Ƙoƙarin sa ido na farko "ya rikiɗe, abin mamaki cikin sauri, cikin tsarin kulawar gwamnati akan wallafe-wallafen kimiyya, kuma daga nan zuwa ikon gwamnati akan kusan. dukan bayanan da suka danganci binciken atomic." Wani lamari ne na yau da kullun na butulci na siyasa da sakamakon da ba a zata ba. "Lokacin da masana kimiyyar nukiliya suka fara kiran su na sirri, sun yi tunanin zai zama na wucin gadi, kuma su ne ke sarrafa shi. Sun yi kuskure” (shafi na 15).

Tunanin soja na troglodyte ya ɗauka cewa za a iya samun tsaro ta hanyar sanya duk bayanan da aka rubuta na nukiliya a ƙarƙashin kulle da maɓalli da kuma barazanar azabtarwa mai tsanani ga duk wanda ya yi yunƙurin bayyana shi, amma rashin dacewa na wannan hanya ya bayyana cikin sauri. Mafi mahimmanci, "asirin" na yadda ake yin bam ɗin atomic batu ne na ainihin ƙa'idodin ilimin kimiyyar lissafi waɗanda ko dai an riga an san su a duniya ko kuma a sauƙaƙe gano su.

akwai ya wani muhimmin yanki na bayanan da ba a sani ba - "asiri" na gaske - kafin 1945: ko ko a'a za a iya sanya fashewar fashewar makamashi ta hanyar fashewar makamashin nukiliya a zahiri don yin aiki a aikace. Gwajin atomic na Triniti na Yuli 16, 1945 a Los Alamos, New Mexico, ya ba da wannan sirri ga duniya, kuma duk wani shakku da ke daɗe yana shafe makonni uku bayan shafe Hiroshima da Nagasaki. Da zarar an warware wannan tambayar, sai labari mai ban tsoro ya faru: Duk wata al'umma a duniya za ta iya gina wani bam na nukiliya wanda zai iya lalata kowane birni a duniya a bugu ɗaya.

Amma bisa ka'ida ba daidai ba ne da na gaskiya. Samun sirrin yadda ake kera bama-bamai bai wadatar ba. Don a zahiri gina bam na zahiri yana buƙatar ɗanyen uranium da masana'antu na nufin tsarkake tan da yawa daga cikinsa zuwa kayan da ba za a iya jurewa ba. Saboda haka, wani layi na tunani ya yi nuni da cewa mabuɗin tsaron nukiliya ba shine ɓoye ilimi ba, amma samun da kuma kiyaye ikon jiki akan albarkatun uranium na duniya. Ba wannan dabarar abin duniya ko ƙoƙarin rashin jin daɗi na murkushe yaduwar ilimin kimiyya ba ya taimaka wajen kiyaye ikon mallakar makaman nukiliya na Amurka na dogon lokaci.

Tsawon mulkin mallaka ya kai shekaru hudu kawai, har zuwa watan Agustan 1949, lokacin da Tarayyar Soviet ta fashe bam din nukiliya na farko. 'Yan bindiga da abokansu na Majalisa sun zargi 'yan leƙen asiri-mafi ban tausayi da kuma sananne, Julius da Ethel Rosenberg - don sace asirin da ba da shi ga USSR. Duk da cewa wannan labarin karya ne, amma abin takaici ya sami rinjaye a cikin tattaunawar kasa da kuma share fagen ci gaban da ba za a iya mantawa da shi ba na tsaron kasa.²

A cikin lokaci na biyu, labarin ya koma gaba ɗaya zuwa gefen Cold Warriors, yayin da jama'ar Amurka suka shiga cikin Reds-Under-the-Bed obsessions na McCarthyism. An tayar da hatsaniya sau da yawa yayin da muhawarar ta juya daga fission zuwa fusion. Da Tarayyar Soviet ta iya kera bama-bamai na nukiliya, batun ya zama ko Amurka za ta ci gaba da neman kimiyya don "bam-bam" - ma'ana thermonuclear, ko bam na hydrogen. Yawancin masana kimiyyar nukiliyar, tare da J. Robert Oppenheimer a kan gaba, sun nuna adawa da ra'ayin, suna jayayya cewa bam din thermonuclear ba zai da amfani a matsayin makamin yaki kuma zai iya yin amfani da dalilai na kisan kare dangi kawai.

Bugu da ƙari, duk da haka, gardama na masu ba da shawara na kimiyya masu ban sha'awa, ciki har da Edward Teller da Ernest O. Lawrence, sun yi nasara, kuma Shugaba Truman ya ba da umarnin binciken superbomb ya ci gaba. Abin takaici, an yi nasara a kimiyyance. A cikin Nuwamba 1952, Amurka ta haifar da fashewar fusion sau ɗari bakwai mai ƙarfi kamar wanda ya halaka Hiroshima, kuma a cikin Nuwamba 1955 Tarayyar Soviet ta nuna cewa ita ma, za ta iya mayar da martani. An kunna gasar makamin nukiliya.

Lokaci na uku na wannan tarihin ya fara ne a cikin 1960s, musamman saboda faɗuwar farkawa ta jama'a game da cin zarafi da rashin amfani da ilimin ƙididdiga a lokacin yakin Amurka a kudu maso gabashin Asiya. Wannan zamani ne na koma baya ga jama'a game da kafa sirrin. Ya haifar da wasu nasarori masu ban sha'awa, gami da buga The Takardun Pentagon da kuma zartar da Dokar 'Yancin Bayanai.

Wadannan rangwamen, duk da haka, sun kasa gamsar da masu sukar sirrin jihar kuma sun haifar da "sabon nau'i na aikin kare sirri," wanda masu sukar suka buga da gangan bayanai masu mahimmanci a matsayin "nau'i na aikin siyasa," kuma sun yi la'akari da garantin Gyaran Farko. akan 'yancin 'yan jarida "a matsayin makami mai karfi a kan cibiyoyin sirrin doka" (shafi na 336-337).

Jajirtattun masu fafutukar kare sirrin sirri sun samu wasu nasarori na bangaranci, amma a cikin dogon lokaci, tsaron kasa ya zama ruwan dare gama-gari da rashin kishin kasa fiye da kowane lokaci. Kamar yadda Wellerstein ke kuka, "akwai tambayoyi masu zurfi game da halaccin ikirarin gwamnati na sarrafa bayanai da sunan tsaron kasa. . . . amma duk da haka, sirrin ya dawwama” (shafi na 399).

Bayan Wellerstein

Kodayake tarihin Wellerstein na haifuwar jihar tsaron ƙasa cikakke ne, cikakke kuma mai hankali, abin baƙin ciki ya zo a takaice a cikin bayanin yadda muka isa ga halin da muke ciki a yanzu. Bayan lura da cewa gwamnatin Obama, "abin takaicin da yawa daga cikin magoya bayanta," ya kasance "daya daga cikin mafi girman shari'a lokacin da ake tuhumar masu leken asiri da masu fallasa," Wellerstein ya rubuta, "Na yi shakkar kokarin fadada wannan labari fiye da haka. wannan batu” (shafi na 394).

Komawa bayan wannan batu zai kai shi ga wuce gona da iri na abin da ake yarda da shi a halin yanzu a cikin maganganun jama'a. Binciken na yanzu ya riga ya shiga wannan yanki na ketare ta hanyar yin Allah wadai da yunkurin da Amurka ke yi na mamayar soji a duniya. Don ci gaba da ingiza binciken yana buƙatar zurfafa bincike na ɓangarori na sirrin hukuma waɗanda Wellerstein ya ambata kawai yayin wucewa, wato ayoyin Edward Snowden game da Hukumar Tsaro ta Ƙasa (NSA), da sama da duka, WikiLeaks da shari'ar Julian Assange.

Kalmomi da Ayyuka

Babban matakin da ya wuce Wellerstein a cikin tarihin sirrin hukuma yana buƙatar sanin babban bambanci tsakanin "sirrin kalmar" da "sirrin aikin." Ta hanyar mai da hankali kan takaddun keɓaɓɓu, Wellerstein yana ba da damar rubutacciyar kalma kuma ya yi watsi da yawancin gaskiyar gaskiyar ƙasar tsaro ta ƙasa wacce ta kunno kai a bayan labulen sirrin gwamnati.

Yunkurin da jama'a suka yi game da sirrin hukuma Wellerstein ya bayyana yaƙin kalmomi ne na gefe ɗaya. Duk lokacin da aka samu tonon sililin cin zarafi na jama'a - daga shirin COINTELPRO na FBI zuwa fallasa Snowden na NSA - hukumomin da suka yi laifi sun kai ga jama'a. mea culpa nan take kuma suka koma ga mugunyar kasuwancinsu na boye-kamar yadda suka saba.

A halin da ake ciki, “sirrin aikin” na hukumar tsaron ƙasa ya ci gaba ba tare da wani hukunci ba. Yaƙin sama na Amurka a kan Laos daga 1964 zuwa 1973 - wanda aka jefa ton miliyan biyu da rabi na bama-bamai a kan ƙaramar ƙasa, matalauta - ana kiranta "yakin sirri" da "aiki mafi girma na ɓoye a tarihin Amurka," saboda shi. Ba rundunar sojin saman Amurka ce ta gudanar da ita ba, amma hukumar leken asiri ta tsakiya (CIA).³ Wannan babban matakin farko ne militarizing hankali, wanda a halin yanzu yana gudanar da ayyukan sirri na sirri da kuma hare-haren jiragen sama a wurare da dama na duniya.

Amurka ta kai harin bama-bamai kan fararen hula; an kai farmaki inda aka daure yara da hannu aka harbe su a kai, sannan aka kira kai farmaki ta sama domin boye wannan aiki; an kashe fararen hula da 'yan jarida; ya tura rukunin dakaru na musamman “bakar fata” domin aiwatar da kame da kashe-kashe ba tare da shari’a ba.

Gabaɗaya, babbar manufar na'urar sirrin yau ita ce ɓoye girma da fa'idar "yaƙe-yaƙe na har abada" na Amurka da laifuffukan cin zarafin ɗan adam da suke tattare da su. A cewar hukumar New York Times a watan Oktoban 2017, sama da sojojin Amurka 240,000 ne aka jibge a kasashe da yankuna akalla 172 a fadin duniya. Yawancin ayyukansu, gami da yaƙi, sirri ne a hukumance. Sojojin Amurka sun kasance "ayyukan aiki" ba kawai a Afghanistan, Iraki, Yemen, da Siriya ba, har ma a Nijar, Somaliya, Jordan, Thailand, da sauran wurare. “Ƙarin dakaru 37,813 suna aiki a asirce a wuraren da ba a sani ba. Pentagon ba ta ba da ƙarin bayani ba. "⁴

Idan cibiyoyin sirri na gwamnati sun kasance a cikin tsaro a farkon karni na ashirin da ɗaya, harin 9/11 ya ba su dukkan kayan aikin da suke bukata don mayar da masu sukar su da kuma mayar da tsaro na kasa ya zama mai sirri kuma ba ta da lissafi. Tsarin kotunan sa ido a asirce da aka fi sani da FISA (Dokar Kula da Leken Asiri na Waje) kotunan sun kasance kuma suna aiki bisa tsarin doka tun 1978. Bayan 9/11, duk da haka, iko da isa ga kotunan FISA ya karu. da yawa. Wani dan jarida mai bincike ya bayyana su a matsayin "sun zama kusan Kotun Koli a layi daya."⁵

Ko da yake NSA, CIA, da sauran jama'ar leken asiri suna samun hanyoyin da za su ci gaba da munanan ayyukansu duk da bayyanar da kalmomin da suke ƙoƙarin ɓoyewa akai-akai, wannan ba yana nufin abubuwan da suka faru ba - ko ta hanyar leken asiri, ta hanyar bayyanawa, ko kuma ta hanyar rarrabuwa. ba tare da wani sakamako ba. Suna da tasirin siyasa mai tarin yawa wanda kafa masu tsara manufofin ke matukar son murkushe su. Ci gaba da gwagwarmaya yana da mahimmanci.

WikiLeaks da Julian Assange

Wellerstein ya rubuta game da “sabon jinsin masu fafutuka . . . wanda ya ga sirrin gwamnati mugun abu ne da za a kalubalanci shi kuma a tumbuke shi,” amma da kyar ya ambaci mafi inganci da ingantaccen bayyanar wannan lamari: WikiLeaks. An kafa WikiLeaks a shekara ta 2006 kuma a shekara ta 2010 ya wallafa fiye da 75 na bayanan soja da diflomasiyya na sirri game da yakin Amurka a Afghanistan, da kuma kusan dubu dari hudu game da yakin Amurka a Iraki.

Bayyanar da WikiLeaks ya yi na laifuffukan cin zarafin bil adama a cikin waɗannan yaƙe-yaƙe sun kasance masu ban mamaki da ban tsoro. Tashoshin diflomasiyyar da aka fallasa sun ƙunshi kalmomi biliyan biyu waɗanda a cikin sigar buga za su kai kimanin juzu'i dubu 30.⁶ Daga cikinsu mun fahimci cewa “Amurka ta kai hare-hare kan fararen hula; an kai farmaki inda aka daure yara da hannu aka harbe su a kai, sannan aka kira kai farmaki ta sama domin boye wannan aiki; an kashe fararen hula da 'yan jarida; ya tura rukunin 'baƙar fata' na sojoji na musamman don aiwatar da kama da kashe-kashe ba tare da shari'a ba," da kuma, abin takaici, da ƙari.⁷

Pentagon, CIA, NSA, da ma'aikatar harkokin wajen Amurka sun yi matukar kaduwa da kaduwa saboda tasirin WikiLeaks na fallasa laifuffukan yaki da duniya ta gani. Ba abin mamaki bane cewa suna so su gicciye wanda ya kafa WikiLeaks, Julian Assange, a matsayin misali mai ban tsoro don tsoratar da duk wanda zai so ya yi koyi da shi. Gwamnatin Obama ba ta shigar da tuhumar da ake yi wa Assange ba saboda tsoron kafa wani misali mai hadari, amma gwamnatin Trump ta tuhume shi a karkashin dokar leken asiri da laifukan da ke dauke da hukuncin daurin shekaru 175 a gidan yari.

Lokacin da Biden ya hau kan karagar mulki a watan Janairun 2021, yawancin masu kare hakkin Farko sun zaci zai bi misalin Obama kuma ya yi watsi da tuhumar da ake yi wa Assange, amma bai yi hakan ba. A cikin Oktoba 2021, gamayyar 'yancin 'yan jarida ashirin da biyar, 'yancin jama'a, da kungiyoyin kare hakkin bil'adama sun aika da wata wasika zuwa ga Atoni-Janar Merrick Garland suna kira ga Ma'aikatar Shari'a da ta daina kokarinta na gurfanar da Assange. Laifin da aka yi masa, in ji su, "yana yin babbar barazana ga 'yancin 'yan jarida a Amurka da kuma kasashen waje."⁸

Muhimmin ƙa'idar da ke kan gungumen azaba ita ce aikata laifin buga bayanan sirrin gwamnati bai dace da wanzuwar ‘yan jarida ba. Abin da ake tuhumar Assange da shi ba shi da bambanci a doka da ayyukan da New York Times, da Washington Post, da sauran masu buga labaran kafa da yawa sun yi aiki akai-akai.⁹ Batun ba shine a sanya 'yancin 'yan jarida a matsayin kafaffen fasalin Amurka mai 'yanci na musamman ba, amma a gane ta a matsayin muhimmiyar manufa ta zamantakewa wacce dole ne a ci gaba da yaki don ta.

Ya kamata dukkan masu kare hakkin bil adama da 'yancin 'yan jarida su bukaci a yi watsi da tuhumar da ake yi wa Assange, kuma a sake shi daga gidan yari ba tare da bata lokaci ba. Idan za a iya gurfanar da Assange tare da daure shi don buga bayanan gaskiya - "asiri" ko a'a - za a kashe wutar 'yan jaridu ta ƙarshe kuma jihar tsaron ƙasa za ta yi mulki ba tare da wata matsala ba.

'Yantar da Assange, duk da haka, shine kawai mafi girman yaƙi a cikin gwagwarmayar Sisyphean don kare ikon jama'a daga zaluncin da ake yi wa gwamnatin tsaron ƙasa. Kuma kamar yadda yake da mahimmanci kamar fallasa laifukan yaƙi na Amurka, ya kamata mu yi niyya mafi girma: zuwa hana su ta hanyar sake gina ƙaƙƙarfan motsi na antiwar kamar wanda ya tilasta kawo ƙarshen harin da aka yi wa Vietnam.

Tarihin Wellerstein na tushen kafa sirrin Amurka muhimmiyar gudummawa ce ga yaƙin akidar da ake yi da ita, amma nasara ta ƙarshe tana buƙatar — don fayyace shi kansa Wellerstein, kamar yadda aka ambata a sama—“ƙara labarin fiye da wannan batu,” don haɗawa da gwagwarmayar neman sabon salo na al'umma da aka keɓe don biyan bukatun ɗan adam.

Ƙuntataccen Bayanai: Tarihin Sirrin Nukiliya a Amurka
Alex Wellerstein
Jami'ar Chicago Press
2021
528 shafukan

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Cliff Conner masanin tarihin kimiyya ne. Shi ne marubucin Bala'i na Kimiyyar Amurka (Littattafan Haymarket, 2020) da Tarihin Kimiyyar Jama'a (Littattafai Nau'in Ƙarfafa, 2005).

Notes

1. An yi ƙoƙari a baya don kare sirrin soja (duba Dokar Sirrin Tsaro na 1911 da Dokar Lantarki ta 1917), amma kamar yadda Wellerstein ya bayyana, "ba a taɓa yin amfani da su ga wani abu mai girma kamar yadda ƙoƙarin bam ɗin nukiliya na Amurka zai zama" (shafi na 33).
2. Akwai 'yan leƙen asirin Soviet a cikin aikin Manhattan da kuma bayan haka, amma leƙen asirinsu bai nuna ci gaban jadawalin shirin makaman nukiliya na Soviet ba.
3. Joshua Kurlantzick, Babban Wuri don Yin Yaƙi: Amurka a Laos da Haihuwar CIA na Soja (Simon & Schuster, 2017).
4. New York Times Editorial Board, "Yaƙe-yaƙe na Har abada Amurka," New York Times, Oktoba 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/22/opinion/americas-forever-wars.html.
5. Eric Lichtblau, "A Sirri, Kotu Ta Fadada Ikon NSA," New York Times, Yuli 6, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/07/us/in-secret-court-vastly-broadens-powers-of-nsa.html.
6. Ana samun kowace ko duk waɗannan kalmomi biliyan biyu akan gidan yanar gizon WikiLeaks. Anan ga hanyar haɗin yanar gizo zuwa WikiLeaks' PlusD, wanda shine gajarta ga "Laburaren Jama'a na Diflomasiyyar Amurka": https://wikileaks.org/plusd.
7. Julian Assange et al., Fayilolin WikiLeaks: Duniya bisa ga Daular Amurka (London & New York: Verso, 2015), 74–75.
8. "Wasiƙar ACLU zuwa Ma'aikatar Shari'a ta Amurka," Ƙungiyar 'Yancin Jama'a ta Amirka (ACLU), Oktoba 15, 2021. https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/field_document/assange_letter_on_letterhead.pdf; Hakanan duba wasiƙar buɗaɗɗen haɗin gwiwa daga The New York Times, The Guardian, Le Monde, Der Spiegel, Da kuma El País (Nuwamba 8, 2022) yana kira ga gwamnatin Amurka da ta janye tuhumar da take yi wa Assange: https://www.nytco.com/press/an-open-letter-from-editors-and-publishers-publishing-is-not-a-crime/.
9. Kamar yadda masanin shari'a Marjorie Cohn ya bayyana, "Babu wata kafar yada labarai ko 'yar jarida da aka taba gurfanar da ita a karkashin dokar leken asiri don buga bayanan gaskiya, wadanda ke da kariya daga ayyukan gyara na farko." Wannan dama, ta kara da cewa, "muhimmin kayan aikin jarida ne." Dubi Marjorie Cohn, "Assange Yana Fuskantar Extradition don Bayyana Laifukan Yakin Amurka," Truthout, Oktoba 11, 2020, https://truthout.org/articles/assange-faces-extradition-for-exposing-us-war-crimes/.